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OF  THE  \ 

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U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRI 

BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY 


SPECIAL  REPORT 


OH 


DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE. 

PREPARED   UNDER  THE   DIRECTIOK  OF 

DR.    D.    E.    SALMON, 
CHEBP  OF  THE  BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY. 

•     BY 


Dks.  Michener,  Law,  Harbaugh,  Trumbower,  Liautard, 
holcombe,  huidekoper,  and  dickson. 


PCELISHED  BY  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


•^t »  t^ 


WASHINGTON; 

GOVERNMENT    PRINTING    OFFICE. 

1890. 


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Vi 


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TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Pago. 

Letter  of  transmittal, 

By  Dr.  D.  E.  Salmon,  Chief  of  Bureau 7 

Mttkods  of  administering  medicines, 

By  Ch.  B.  Michexer,  V.  S ^ 

Diseases  of  the  digestive  organs, 

By  Ch.  B.  Micuenek,  V.  S 15 

Diseases  of  the  urinary  organs, 

By  James  Law,  F.  li.  C.  V.  S -. ^9 

Diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs, 

By  W.  H.  Harbaugii,  V.  S 87 

Diseases  of  the  generative  organs, 

By  James  Law,  F.  E.  C.  V.  S 135 

Diseases  of  the  nervous  system, 

By  M.  R.  TuuMBOWER,  V.  S ISl 

Diseases  of  the  heart  and  blood  vessels, 

By  M.  R.  Trumboweu,  V.  S ~19 

Diseases  of  the  eye. 

By  James  Law,  F.  R.  C.  V.  S 247 

Lameness, 

By  A.  LiAUTARD,  M.  D.,  V.  S 269 

Diseases  of  the  fetlock,  ankle,  and  foot, 

By  A.  AHoLCOMBE,  D.  V.  S 357 

Diseases  of  the  skin. 

By  James  Law,  F.  R.  C.  V.  S 419 

Wounds  and  their  treatment. 

By  Ch.  B.  Michener,  V.  S 447 

General  diseases. 

By  Rush  Shippen  Huidekoper,  M.  D.,  Vet 4G1 

Shoeing, 

By  William  Dicicson,  V.  S 5-9 

'> 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Fago. 

Plate    I.  Digestive  apparatus ^ 

II.  Bots ^^ 

III.  Intestinal  worms - "" 

IV.  Longitudinal  section  througli  kidney 86 

V.  Microscopic  anatomy  of  kidney °o 

VI.  Microscopic  anatomy  of  kidney 86 

VII.  Calculi  and  instrument  for  removal 83 

VIII.  Instruments  used  in  difficult  labor 180 

IX.  Normal  presentations 180 

X.  Abnormal  presentations 180 

XI.  Abnormal  presentations 180 

XII.  Abnormal  presentations 180 

XIII.  Abnormal  presentations 180 

XIV.  Anterior  presentations 180 

XV.  Position  of  the  left  lung 134 

XVI.  The  nervous  system '-^18 

XVII.  Interiorof  cheat,  showing  position  of  heart  and  diaphragm 246 

XVIII.  Circulatory  apparatus 246 

XIX.  Theoretical  section  of  the  horse's  eye 268 

XX.  Skeleton  of  the  horse 356 

XXI.  Superticial  layer  of  muscles •- 356 

XXII.  Splint 356 

XXIII.  Ring-bone 356 

XXIV.  Various  types  of  8pa%nn 356 

XXV.  Bone-spavin 356 

XXVI.  Bone-spavin 356 

XXVII.  Dislocation  of  shoulder  and  elbow,  Bourgelat's  apparatus 356 

XXVITI.  The  sling  in  use 356 

XXIX.  Anatomy  of  foot 418 

XXX.  Anatomy  of  foot 418 

XXXI.  Foundered  feet 418 

XXXII.  Ring-bone  and  navicular  disease 418 

XXXIII.  Quarter  crack  and  remedies 418 

XXXIV.  Sound  and  contracted  feet -. 418 

XXXV.  Diseases  of  the  skin 446 

XXXVI.  Mites  that  infest  the  horse 446 

XXXVII.  General  diseases.     Inflammation 528 

XXXVIII.  General  diseases.     Inflammation , 528 

XXXIX.  Glanders,  nasal  septum  of  horse,  right  side,  showing  acute  lesions.  528 
XXXX.  Glanders,  middle  region  of  nasal  septum,  left  side,  showing  ulcers..  528 
XXXXI.  Glanders,  posterior  half  of  nasal  septum,  right  side,  showing  cica- 
trices    528 

XXXXII.  Shoeing 542 

XXXXIII.  Shoeing 542 

XXXXIV.  Shoeing 542 

5 


LETTER   OF   TRANSMITTAL 


Sir.:  I  have  the  honor  to  submit  herewith  a  report  upon  diseases  of 
the  horse,  which  has  been  prepared  with  great  care  by  a  number  of  the 
most  eminent  members  of  the  veterinary  profession  in  the  United  States. 
The  production  of  a  work  of  this  character  is  a  task  of  such  magnitude 
that  it  could  not  be  undertaken  by  any  one  man  with  a  prospect  of  its 
early  completion.  It  was  deemed  best,  therefore,  to  divide  the  subject 
into  sections  and  to  place  the  preparation  of  each  section  in  the  hands 
of  a  veterinarian  whose  practical  experience  and  reputation  would  in- 
sure a  valuable  contribution.  By  adopting  this  plan  the  contents  of 
the  volume  have  been  made  ready  for  the  printer  within  a  year  from 
the  time  the  work  was  begun.  While,  on  account  of  this  method  of 
preparation,  there  may  not  be  quite  the  same  uniformity  of  style  and 
treatment  which  would  be  expected  in  a  volume  written  by  a  single 
author,  it  is  hoped  that  this  will  not  be  found  objectionable,  and  the 
speedy  completion  and  the  co-operation  of  authors  who  have  given 
special  attention  to  their  subjects  will  prove  of  great  advantage. 

The  need  of  a  work  on  the  diseases  of  the  horse,  which  could  be  dis- 
tributed to  farmers  as  a  safe  and  scientific  guide  in  the  treatment  of 
this  species  of  our  domesticated  animals,  either  when  affected  with 
slight  disorders  or  serious  illness,  has  long  been  felt.  This  obvious 
want  has  led  to  the  preparation  of  the  present  volume,  which  is  designed 
as  the  first  of  a  series  to  cover  the  diseases  of  all  varieties  of  farm  ani- 
mals. The  writer  would  not  advise  the  farmer  in  ordinary  circumstances 
to  dispense  with  his  veterinarian,  any  more  than  he  would  advise  him 
to  treat  the  diseases  of  his  own  family,  to  manufiicture  his  own  furni- 
ture, or  to  bo  his  own  blacksmith.  There  are,  however,  only  too  many 
cases  in  which  the  veterinarian  can  not  be  procured  in  time  for  success, 
if  at  all;  and,  consequently,  the  farmer  who  knows  or  has  the  means  of 
learning  the  nature  of  the  disease  and  the  proper  treatment  will  be  able 
to  save  an  animal  when  otherwise  he  would  lose  one.  It  is  common  for 
intelligent  people  to  laugh  at  the  idea  of  attempting  to  make  every  man 
his  own  doctor,  his  own  veterinarian,  or  his  own  carpenter,  and  in  an 
ideal  condition  of  society  no  doubt  this  would  be  absurd.  But  under 
the  conditions  which  actually  obtain  on  our  farms,  the  farmer  who  can 
use  tools,  if  but  awkwardly,  often  finds  it  extremely  convenient  to 
temporarilly  usurp  the  functions  of  the  carpenter;  and  he  also  finds 
that  in  many  cases  he  must  treat  his  ailing  animals  or  allow  them  to 

7 


8  LETTER    OF    TRANSMITTAL. 

suffer  without  treatment.  Knowing  this  to  be  the  case,  is  it  not  fa* 
better  for  the  stock-owner  to  have  at  his  command  the  advice  of  veteri- 
narians eminent  in  their  profession  than  for  him  to  follow  the  absurd, 
often  barbarous  methods  of  treatment  which  have  been  handed  down 
by  tradition  from  the  empiricism  and  ignorance  of  long-past  ages? 

It  is  an  extremely  difficult  matter  to  divest  medical  literature  of  tech- 
nical terms  and  expressions  more  or  less  incomprehensible  to  the  gen- 
eral reader.  This  has  made  scientific  medicine  a  sealed  book  to  the 
masses  of  our  people,  and  there  is  no  subject  of  which  they  are  more 
ignorant.  An  attempt  has  been  made  in  this  work  to  present  the  mat- 
ter in  as  simple  language  as  possible,  and  while  some  of  the  authors 
have  been  more  happy  than  others  in  this  respect,  it  is  believed  that 
no  great  difficulty  will  be  met  with  in  any  of  the  articles. 

While  the  subject  has  been  treated  in  language  of  a  more  or  less 
popular  style  and  the  book  is  intended  as  a  guide  to  the  farmer,  its  in- 
trinsic scientific  value  should  not  be  entirely  lost  sight  of  In  many 
respects  it  is  a  notable  contribution  to  existing  knowledge,  and  it  will 
be  prized  by  the  veterinarian  not  less  than  by  the  farmer.  No  doubt 
there  are  some  defects  in  this  first  edition  which  the  experience  of  the 
future  will  enable  us  to  remedy,  but  as  a  whole  the  book  is  one  which 
can  not  fail  to  be  of  immense  service  in  educating  horse-owners  and  in 
hastening  the  adoption  of  humane  and  scientific  treatment  in  the  dis- 
orders which  afflict  man's  most  patient  and  faithful  servant. 

The  illustrations  have  been  very  carefully  drawn  by  Mr.  Ilaines,  the 
greater  part  of  the  subjects  being  selected  by  Dr.  Cooper  Curtice.  In 
cases  where  they  have  been  copied  due  credit  has  been  given  on  the 
plates,  but  it  should  be  stated  here  that  we  are  indebted  to  Dr.  John  S. 
Billings,  of  the  Army  Medical  Museum,  for  the  use  of  the  Auzoux  models 
and  a  number  of  specimens  of  diseased  feet  from  which  drawings  were 
made. 

Very  respectfully, 

D.  E.  SALMON, 
Chief  of  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

non.  J.  ^l.  EusK, 

Sccrttary  of  Agriculture. 


SPECIAL  REPORT 


ON 


DISEASES    OF    THE    HORSE. 


METHODS  OF  ADMINISTERING  MEDICINES. 


By  CH.  B.  MICHENER,  V.  S., 

Professor  of  Cattle  Pathology  and  Ohstetrics  at  the  New  York  College  of  Vetei-inary  Sur^ 
geons,  Inspector  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  etc. 


Medicine  may  enter  the  body  through  any  of  the  following  designated 
channels :  First,  by  the  mouth ;  second,  by  the  lungs  and  upper  air- 
passages;  third,  by  the  skin;  fourth,  under  the  skin  (hypodermic 
methods) ;  fifth,  by  the  rectum ;  and,  sixth,  by  intra- venous  injections. 

(1)  By  the  mouth. — Medicines  can  be  given  by  the  mouth  in  the 
form  of  powders,  balls,  drenches,  and  electuaries. 

Fotcders.— These  should  be  as  finely  pulverized  as  possible,  in  order 
to  secure  a  rapid  solution  and  absorbtion.  Their  action  is  in  this  way 
facilitated  and  intensified.  Powders  must  be  free  from  any  irritant  or 
caustic  action  upon  the  mouth.  Those  that  are  without  any  disagree- 
able taste  or  smell  are  readily  eaten  on  the  feed  or  taken  in  the  drink- 
ing water.  When  placed  on  the  feed  they  should  first  be  dissolved  or 
suspended  in  water  and  thus  sprinkled  on  the  feed.  If  mixed  dry  the 
horse  will  often  leave  the  medicine  in  the  bottom  of  his  manger. 

Balls.— When  properly  made  these  are  cylindrical  in  shape,  2  inches 
in  length  and  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  should 
be  fresh,  but,  if  necessary  to  keep  them  some  time,  they  should  be  made 
up  with  glycerine,  or  some  such  agent,  to  prevent  them  from  becoming 
too  hard.  Very  old,  hard  balls,  are  sometimes  passed  whole  with  the 
manure,  without  being  acted  upon  at  all.  Paper  is  to  be  wrapped 
around  balls  when  given ;  it  should  be  thin  but  firm  ;  toilet  paper  is  the 
best.  Balls  are  preferred  to  drenches  when  the  medicine  is  extremely 
disagreeable  or  nauseating ;  when  the  dose  is  not  too  large ;  when  the 


10 

horse  is  ugly  to  drench;  when  tbe  medicine  is  intended  to  act  slowly. 
Certain  medicines  can  not,  or  shonld  not,  be  made  into  balls — medicines 
requiring  to  be  given  in  large  doses,  oils,  caustic  substances,  unless 
diluted  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  vehicle,  deliquescent  or  efflores- 
cent salts.  Substances  suitable  for  balls  can  be  made  uj)  by  the 
addition  of  honey,  sirup,  soap,  etc.,  when  required  for  immediate  use. 
Gelatine  capsules  of  different  sizes  are  now  obtainable  and  are  a  con- 
venient means  of  giving  medicines  in  ball  form. 

Drenches  are  to  be  given  when  the  medicine  is  liquid,  when  the  dose 
is  large,  and  when  we  desire  speedy  action. 

Electuaries  are  medicines  mixed  mostly  with  licorice-root  powder, 
molasses,  or  sirup  to  the  consistency  of  honey,  or  a  "soft-solid."  They 
are  intended,  chiefly,  to  act  locally  npon  the  mouth  and  throat.  They 
are  given  with  a  wooden  paddle  or  strong  long-handled  spoon. 

When  balls  are  to  be  given  we  should  observe  the  following  direc- 
tions: In  shape  they  should  be  cylindrical,  of  the  size  above  mentioned, 
and  soft  enough  to  be  easily  compressed  by  the  fingers.  If  made  round 
or  egg-shaped,  if  too  long  or  too  hard,  they  are  liable  to  become  fixed 
in  the  gullet  and  cause  choking.  Balls  may  be  given  with  the  "balling- 
gun"  (obtainable  at  any  veterinary  instrument  maker's)  or  by  the  hand. 
If  given  by  the  hand  a  mouth  speculum  or  gag  should  be  used  to  prevent 
the  animal  from  biting  the  hand  or  crushing  the  ball.  Always  loosen 
the  horse  before  attempting  to  give  a  ball;  if  tied  he  may  break  his 
halter  and  injure  himself  or  the  one  giving  the  ball.  With  a  little 
practice  it  is  much  easier  to  give  a  ball  without  the  mouth-gag,  as  the 
horse  always  fights  more  or  less  against  having  his  mouth  forced  open. 
The  tongue  must  be  firmly  grasped  with  the  left  hand  and  gently  i)ul]ed 
forward;  the  ball,  slightly  moistened,  is  then  to  be  placed  with  the  tips 
of  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  as  far  back  into  the  mouth  as  possible; 
as  the  tongue  is  loosened  it  is  drawn  back  into  the  mouth  and  carries 
the  ball  backward  with  it.  Tiie  mouth  should  be  kept  closed  for  a 
minute  or  two.  We  should  always  have  a  pail  of  water  at  hand  to 
offer  the  horse  after  balling.  This  i^recaution  will  often  prevent  him 
from  coughing  out  the  ball  or  its  becoming  lodged  in  the  gullet. 

It  is,  very  often,  impossible  to  get  balls  i>roperly  made,  or  to  induce 
owners  or  attendants  to  attempt  to  give  them,  and  for  these  reasons  med- 
icines by  tbe  mouth  are  mostly  given  in  the  form  of  drenches.  When 
medicine  is  to  be  given  as  a  drench  we  must  be  careful  to  use  enough 
water  or  oiltothoroughly  dissolve  or  dilute  it;  more  than  this  makes  the 
drench  bulky  and  is  unnecessary.  Insoluble  medicines,  if  not  irritant  or 
corrosive,  may  be  given  simply  suspended  in  water ;  the  bottle  to  be 
well  shaken  immediately  before  giving  the  drench.  The  bottle  used  for 
drenching  purposes  should  be  clean,  strong,  and  smooth  about  its 
neck ;  it  should  be  without  shoulders,  tapering,  and  of  a  size  to  suit 
the  amount  to  be  given.  A  horn  or  tin  bottle  may  be  better,  in  that 
they  are  not  so  easily  broken  by  the  teeth.     If  the  dose  is  a  small  one 


11 

the  horse's  head  may  be  held  up  by  the  left  hand,  while  the  mediciue  is 
poured  iuto  the  mouth  by  the  right.     The  left  thumb  is  to  be  placed  in 
the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  the  fingers  spread  out  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  support  the  lower  lip.     Should  the  dose  be  large,  the  horse  ugly, 
or  the  attendant  unable  to  support  the  head  as  directed  above,  the 
head  is  then  to  be  held  up  by  running  the  tines   of  a  long  handled 
wooden  fork  under  the  nose-band  of  the  halter ;  the  halter-strap  or  a 
rope  may  be  fastened  to  the  nose-band  and  thrown  over  a  limb,  beam, 
or  through  a  pulley  suspended  from  the  ceiling.     Another  way  of  sup- 
porting the  head  is  to  place  a  loop  in  the  end  of  a  rope,  and  introduce 
this  loop  into  the  mouth  just  behind  the  upper  front  teeth  or  tusks,  the 
free  end  to  be  run  through  a  pulley,  as  before  described,  and  held  by 
an  assistant.     It  is  never  to  be  fastened,  as  the  horse  might  do  himself 
serious  injury  if  made  fast.     The  head  is  to  be  elevated  just  enough  to 
prevent  the  horse  from  throwing  the  liquid  out  of  his  mouth.    The  line 
of  the  face  should  be  horizontal,  or  only  the  least  particle  higher.    If 
the  head  is  drawn  too  high  the  animal  can  not  swallow  with  ease,  or 
even  with  safety.     (If  this  is  doubtful,  just  fill  your  mouth  with  water, 
throw  back  the  head  as  far  as  possible,  and  then  try  to  swallow).    The 
person  giving  the  drench  should  stand  on  some  object  in  order  to  reach 
the  horse's  mouth,  on  a  level,  or  a  little  above  it.     The  bottle  or  horn  is 
then  to  be  introduced  afc  the  side  of  the  mouth,  in  front  of  the  molar 
teeth,  in  an  upward  direction.    This  will  cause  the  horse  to  open  his 
mouth,  when  the  base  of  the  bottle  is  to  be  suddenly  elevated,  and 
about  4  ounces  of  the  liquid  allowed  to  escape  on  the  tongue  as  far  back 
as  possible,  care  being  used  not  to  get  the  neck  of  the  bottle  between 
the  back  teeth.     The  bottle  is  to  be  immediately  removed,  and  if  the 
horse  does  not  swallow  this  can  be  encouraged  by  rubbing  the  fingers 
or  neck  of  the  bottle  against  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  occasionally  remov- 
ing them.     As  soon  as.  this  is  swallowed  repeat  the  operation  until  he 
has  taken  all  the  drench.    If  coughing  occurs,  or  if,  by  any  mishap,  the 
bottle  should  be  crushed  in  the  mouth,  lower  the  head  immediately. 

Do  not  rub,  pinch,  or  pound  the  throat,  nor  draw  out  the  tongue 
when  giving  a  drench.  These  in  no  way  aid  the  horse  to  swallow  and 
oftener  do  harm. 

BrencJies  must  never  be  given  throngh  the  nose;  they  are  liable  to 
strangle  the  animal,  or,  if  the  medicine  is  irritating,  it  sets  up  an  in- 
flammation of  the  nose,  fauces,  windpipe,  and  sometimes  the  lungs. 
Cattle  are  easily  drenched  by  simply  holding  them  by  the  nose  with  the 
left  hand,  while  the  medicine  is  poured  into  the  mouth  with  the  right. 
Balls  are  not  to  be  given  to  cattle ;  they  often  become  imbedded  in  the 
great  mass  of  food  in  the  stomach  and  act  tardily  or  not  at  all. 

(2)  Medicines  are  administered  to  the  lungs  and  upper  air  passages 
by  insufflation,  inhalation,  and  nasal  douche.  Insufflation  consists  of 
blowing  an  impalpable  powder  directly  into  the  nose.  It  is  but  rarely 
resorted  to.    Gaseous  and  volatile  medicines  are  given  by  inliakitiony 


12 

as  is  also  medicated  steam  or  vapor.  Of  the  gases  used  we  may  men- 
tion, as  the  chief  ones,  sulphurous  acid  gas,  and  occasionally  chlorine. 
The  animal  or  animals  are  to  be  placed  in  a  tight  building,  where  these 
gases  are  generated,  until  the  atmosphere  is  sufficiently  impregnated 
with  them.  Volatile  medicines,  as  the  anaesthetics,  (ether,  chloroform, 
etc.),  are  only  to  be  given  by  the  attending  surgeon.  Medicated  vapors 
are  to  be  inhaled  by  placing  a  bucket  containing  hot  water,  vinegar  and 
water,  scalded  hay  or  bran,  to  which  carbolic  acid,  iodine,  or  other 
medicines  have  been  added,  in  the  bottom  of  a  long  grain  bag.  The 
horse's  nose  is  to  be  inserted  into  the  toi)  of  the  bag,  and  he  thus  in- 
hales the  "  medicated  steam."  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  have  this 
hot  enough  to  scald  the  animal.  Scalding  bran  or  hay  is  often  thus 
inhaled  to  favor  discharges  in  sore  throat  or  "  distemper." 

The  nasal  douche  is  employed  by  the  veterinarian  in  treating  some 
local  diseases  of  the  nasal  chambers.  Special  appliances  and  profes- 
sional  knowledge  are  necessary  when  using  liquid  medicines  by  this 
method.  It  is  not  often  resorted  to,  even  by  veterinary  surgeons,  since 
the  horse,  as  a  rule,  objects  very  strongly  to  this  mode  of  medication. 

(3)  By  the  Skin. — Medicines  are  often  administered  to  our  hair- 
covered  animals  by  the  skin,  yet  care  must  be  taken  in  applying  some 
medicines,  as  tobacco- water,  carbolic  acid  solutions,  etc.,  over  the  entire 
body,  as  poisoning  and  death  follow  in  some  instances  from  absorption 
through  the  skin.  We  must  also  exercise  care,  and  not  apply  poisonous 
medicines  over  very  large  raw  or  abraded  surfaces,  for  the  same  rea- 
sons. For  domestic  animals  medicines  are  only  to  be  applied  by  the 
skin  for  local  purposes  or  diseases,  as  laudanum,  chloroform  liniment, 
etc.,  for  neuralgia. 

(4)  Under  the  Skin — Hypodermic  Method. — Medicines  are  fre- 
quently given  by  the  hypodermic  syringe,  under  the  skin.  It  will  not 
be  safe  for  any  but  medical  or  veterinary  practitioners  to  use  this  form 
of  medication,  since  the  medicines  thus  given  are  powerful  poisons. 
There  are  many  precautions  to  be  observed;  a  knowledge  of  anatomy 
is  indispensible. 

(5)  By  the  Rectum. — Medicines  may  be  given  by  the  rectum  when 
we  can  not  give  or  retain  them  by  the  mouth ;  when  we  want  a  local 
action  on  tlie  last  gut;  to  destroy  the  small  worms  infesting  the  large 
bowels;  to  stimulate  the  peristaltic  motion  of  the  intestines  and  cause 
evacuation ;  and  to  nourish  the  body.  Medicines  are  here  given  in  the 
form  of  suppositories,  or  as  liquid  injections — enemas. 

Suppositories  are  conical  bodies  made  up  of  oil  of  theobroma  and 
opium  (or  whatever  medicine  is  indicated  in  special  cases),  and  are  in- 
troduced into  the  rectum  or  vagina  to  allay  irritation  and  pain  of  these 
parts.    They  are  not  much  used  in  veterinary  practice. 

Enemas^  when  given  for  absorption,  should  be  small  in  quantity, 
neutral  or  slightly  acid  in  reaction,  and  of  a  temperature  of  from  90° 
to  lOOo  F.    These,  like  foods  given  by  the  rectum,  should  only  be  in- 


13 

troduced  after  the  last  bowel  has  been  emptied  by  the  hand,  or  by- 
copious  enemas  of  tepid  water.  Enemas  or  clysters  are  mostly  given 
to  aid  the  action  of  physics,  and  should  then  be  in  quantities  sufficient 
to  distend  the  bowel  and  cause  the  animal  to  eject  them.  Simple  water, 
salt  and  water,  or  soap  and  water,  in  quantities  of  a  gallon  or  more, 
may  be  given  every  half  hour.  It  is  best  that  the  horse  retain  them  for 
some  little  time,  as  the  liquid  serves  to  moisten  the  dung  and  favor 
a  passage.  Stimulating  enemas  (turpentine  2  ounces,  in  linseed  oil  6 
ounces),  should  be  administered  after  those  already  mentioned  have 
emptied  the  last  bowel,  with  the  purpose  of  still  further  increasing  the 
natural  worm-like  movement  of  the  intestines  and  aiding  the  purging 
medicine. 

Liquids  may  be  thrown  into  the  rectum  by  the  means  of  a  large 
syringe,  or  difterent  kinds  of  complicated  pumps.  A  very  good  "in- 
jection pip6"  can  be  made  by  any  tinsmith  at  a  trifling  cost,  and  should 
be  constantly  on  hand  at  every  stock-farm.  It  consists  of  a  funnel, 
about  6  inches  deep  and  7  inches  in  diameter,  which  is  to  be  furnished 
with  a  pipe-like  prolongation,  placed  at  right  angles  to  It,  from  14.  to  16 
inches  in  length,  and  carefully-  rounded  and  soldered  at  the  ends.  This 
pipe  must  he  perfectly  smooth,  in  order  to  prevent  injury  to  the  rectum. 
Introduce  this  pipe  to  its  full  extent,  after  thoroughly  oiling  it,  and  pour 
the  liquid  into  the  funnel  rapidly.  The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  will 
force  the  liquid  into  the  bowels.  For  all  ordinary  purposes  this  instru- 
ment is  quite  as  good  as  the  more  complicated  and  expensive  ones. 

Ordinary  cold  water,  or  even  ice-cold  water,  is  highly  recommended 
by  many  as  a  rectal  injection  for  horses  overcome  by  the  excessive  heat 
of  summer,  and  may  be  given  by  this  simple  pipe. 

(6)  Intra- Venous  Injections. — Injections  directly  into  veins  are 
to  bo  practiced  by  medical  or  veterinary  practitioners  only,  as  are  prob- 
ably some  other  means  of  giving  medicines— intra- trachael  injections, 
etc. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS. 


By  CH.  B.  MICHENER,  V.  S., 

Professor  of  Cattle  Fathologij  and  Obstetrics  at  the  Xew  York  College  -of  Veterinary  Sur- 
geons, Inspector  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  etc. 


It  will  not  prove  an  easy  task  to  write  "  a  plain  account  of  the  com- 
mon diseases,  with  directions  for  preventive  measures,  hygienic  care, 
and  the  simpler  forms  of  medical  treatment"  of  the  digestive  organs  of 
the  horse.  This  study  includes  a  careful  consideration  of  the  food  and 
drink  of  our  animals,  their  quality,  quantiiy,  analyses,  etc.  Tbis,  of. 
itself,  is  material  for  a  book.  Being  limited  as  to  space,  one  must  en- 
deavor to  give  simply  an  outline  •,  to  state  the  most  important  facts, 
leaving  many  gaps,  and  continually  checking  the  disposition  to  write 
anything  like  a  full  description  as  to  cause,  prevention,  and  modes  of 
treatment  of  disease. 

These  articles  are  addressed  entirely  to  farmers  and  stoek-owners, 
and  I  must  ask  my  professional  brethren  to  bear  this  in  mind,  when 
disposed  to  complain  of  a  want  of  scientilic  treatment  of  the  subjects. 

Water. — It  is  generally  held,  at  least  in  practice,  that  any  water  that 
stock  can  be  induced  to  drink  is  sufficiently  pure  for  their  use.  Tliis 
practice  occasions  losses  that  would  startle  us  if  statistics  were  at  hand. 
Water  that  is  impure  from  the  presence  of  decomposing  organic  mat- 
ter, such  as  is  found  in  wells  and  ponds  in  close  proximity  to  manure 
heaps  and  cess-pools,  is  frequently  the  cause  of  diarrhea,  dysentery, 
and  many  other  diseases  of  stock,  while  water  that  is  inipregnated  with 
different  poisons,  and  contaminated  with  specific  media  of  contagion, 
produces  death  in  very  many  instances. 

Considering  first  the  quantity  of  water  required  by  the  horse,  it  may 
be  stated  that  when  our  animals  have  access  to  water  continually  they 
never  drink  to  excess.  Were  the  horse  subjected  to  ship-voyages,  or 
any  other  circumstances  where  he  must  depend  upon  his  attendant  for 
the  supply  of  water,  it  may  be  roughly  stated  that  each  horse  requires 
a  daily  average  of  about  8  gallons  of  water.  This  will  vary  some- 
what upon  the  character  of  his  food ;  if  upon  green  food,  less  water 
will  be  needed  than  when  fed  upon  dry  hav  and  grain. 

15 


16 

The  time  of  giving  water  should  be  carefully  studied.  At  rest,  the 
horse  should  receive  water  at  least  three  times  a  day  ;  when  at  work, 
more  frequently.  The  rule  here  should  be  to  give  in  small  quantities 
and  often.  There  is  a  popular  fallacy  that  if  a  horse  is  warm  he 
should  not  be  allowed  to  drink,  many  claiming  that  the  first  swallow 
of  water ''founders"  the  animal,  or  produces  colic.  This  is  erroneous. 
No  matter  how  warm  a  horse  may  be,  it  is  always  entirely  safe  to  allow 
him  from  six  to  ten  swallows  of  water.  If  this  is  given  on  going  into 
the  stable,  he  should  be  given  at  once  a  pound  or  two  of  hay  and 
allowed  to  rest  about  an  hour  before  feeding.  If  water  be  now  offered 
him  it  will  in  many  cases  be  refused,  or  at  least  he  will  drink  but  spar- 
ingly. The  danger,  then,  is  not  in  the  "  first  swallow  "  of  water,  but  is 
due  to  the  excessive  quantity  that  the  animal  will  take  when  warm  if 
not  restrained. 

Water  should  never  be  given  to  horses  when  it  is  ice-cold.  It  may 
not  be  necessary  to  add  hot  water,  but  we  should  be  careful  in  jilacing 
water-troughs  about  our  barns  to  have  them  in  such  position  that  the 
sun  may  shine  upon  the  water  during"  the  winter  mornings.  Water, 
even  though  it  be  thus  cold,  seldom  produces  serious  trouble  if  the 
horse  has  not  been  deprived  for  a  too  great  length  of  time. 

In  reference  to  the  purity  of  water  Smith,  in  his  "Veterinary  Hy- 
giene," classes  spring,  deep-well  water,  and  upland  surface-water  as 
wholesome  ;  stored  rain-water  and  surface-water  from  cultivated  land 
as  suspicious ;  river  water  to  which  sewage  gains  access  and  shallow- 
well  water  as  dangerous.  The  water  that  is  used  for  drinking  purposes 
for  stock  so  largely  throughout  some  States  can  not  but  be  impure.  I 
refer  to  those  sections  where  there  is  an  impervious  clay  subsoil.  It 
is  the  custom  to  scoop  or  hollow  out  a  large  basin  in  the  different  pas- 
tures. During  rains  these  basins  become  filled  with  water.  The  clay 
subsoil  being  almost  impervious  acts  as  a  jug,  and  there  is  no  escape 
for  the  water  except  by  evaporation.  Such  water  is  stagnant,  but 
would  be  kept  comparatively  fresh  by  subsequent  rains  were  it  not  for 
the  fact  that  much  organic  matter  is  carried  into  these  ponds  by  sur- 
face drainage  during  each  succeeding  storm.  This  organic  matter  soon 
undergoes  decomposition,  and  as  the  result  we  find  diseases  of  differ- 
ent kinds  much  more  prevalent  where  this  water  is  drunk  than  where 
the  water-supply  is  wholesome.  Again,  it  must  not  be  lost  sight  of 
that  stagnant  surface-water  is  much  more  certainly  contaminated  than 
is  running  water  by  one  diseased  animal  of  the  herd,  thus  endangering 
the  remainder. 

The  chief  impurities  of  water  may  be  classed  as  organic  and  inorganic. 
The  organic  impurities  are  either  animal  or  vegetable  substances. 
The  salts  of  the  metals  are  the  inorganic  impurities.  Lime  causes 
hardness  of  water,  and  occasion  will  be  taken  to  speak  of  this  when 
describing  intestinal  concretions.  Salts  of  lead,  iron,  and  copper  are 
also  frequently  found  in  water,  and  will  be  referred  to  hereafter. 


17 

About  the  only  examination  of  water  that  can  be  made  by  the  aver- 
age stock-raiser  is  to  observe  its  taste,  color,  smell,  and  clearness. 
Pure  water  is  clear  and  is  without  taste  or  smell.  It  should  possess  a 
slight  bluish  tint. 

Chemical  and  microscopic  examination  will  frequently  be  necessary 
in  order  to  detect  the  presence  of  certain  poisons,  bacteria,  etc.,  and  caii 
of  course  only  be  conducted  by  experts. 

Foods  and  feeding. — In  this  place  one  can  not  attemi)t  anything  like  a 
comprehensive  discussion  of  the  subject,  and  I  must  content  myself 
with  merely  giving  a  few  facts  as  to  the  different  kinds  of  food,  prepa- 
ration, digestibility,  proper  time  of  feeding,  quality,  and  quantity.  Im- 
proper feeding  and  watering  will  doubtless  account  for  over  one-half  of 
the  digestive  disorders  met  with  in  the  horse,  and  hence  the  reader  can 
not  fail  to  see  how  very  imijortant  it  is  to  have  some  proper  ideas  con- 
cerning these  subjects. 

Kinds  of  food. — In  this  country  horses  are  fed  chiefly  upon  hay,  grass, 
roots,  oats,  corn,  wheat,  and  rj'e.  Many  think  that  they  could  be  fed  on 
nothing  else.  Stewart,  in  "The  Stable  Book,"  gives  the  following  ex- 
tract from  Loudon's  Encycloj)edia  of  Agriculture,  which  is  of  interest 
at  this  point: 

In  some  sterile  countries  they  (horses)  are  forced  to  subsist  on  dried  fish,  and  even 
on  vegetable  mold;  iu  Arabia,  on  milk,  flesh-balls,  eggs,  broth.  In  India  horses  are 
variously  fed.  The  native  grasses  are  judged  very  nutritious.  Few,  perhaps  no  oata 
are  grown ;  barley  is  rare,  and  not  commonly  given  to  horses.  In  Bengal  a  vetch, 
something  like  the  tare,  is  used.  Ou  the  western  side  of  India  a  sort  of  pigeon-pea, 
called  gram  {Cicer  arietinum)  forma  the  ordinary  food,  with  grass  while  in  season,  and 
hay  all  the  year  round,  Indian  corn  or  rice  la  seldom  given.  In  the  West  Indies 
maize,  guinea  corn,  sugar  corn  tops,  and  sometimes  molasses,  are  given.  In  the 
Mahratta  country  salt,  pepper,  and  other  epices  are  made  into  balls,  with  flour  and 
butter,  and  these  are  su^iposed  to  produce  animation  and  to  fine  the  coat.  Broth 
made  from  sheep's  head  is  sometimes  given.  In  France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  besides  the 
grasses,  the  leaves  of  limes,  vines,  the  tops  of  acacia,  and  the  seeds  of  the  carob-tree 
are  given  to  horses. 

For  information  as  to  the  nutritive  value,  chemistry,  and  classifica- 
tion of  the  different  kinds  of  food,  I  will  refer  the  reader  again  to 
Smith's  Veterinary  Hygiene. 

We  can  not,  however,  leave  aside  entirely  here  a  consideration  of  the 
digestibility  of  foods ;  and  by  this  we  mean  the  readiness  with  which 
foods  undergo  those  changes  in  the  digestive  canal  that  fit  them  for 
absorption  and  deposition  as  integral  parts  of  the  animal  economy. 

The  age  and  health  of  the  animal  will,  of  course,  modify  the  digesti- 
bility of  foods,  as  will  also  the  manner  and  time  of  harvesting,  preserv- 
ing, and  preparing  the  foods. 

In  the  horse  digestion  takes  place  principally  in  the  intestines,  and 
here,  as  in  all  other  animals  and  with  all  foods,  we  find  that  a  certain 
part  only  of  the  i:»rovender  is  digested  ;  another  portion  is  indigested. 
This  proportion  of  digested  and  indigested  food  must  claim  passing 
notice  at  least,  for  if  the  horse  receives  too  much  food  a  large  portion 
11035 2 


18 

of  digestible  food  must  pass  out  unacted  upon,  entailing  not  only  the 
loss  of  this  unused  food,  but  also  calling  for  an  unnecessary  expendi- 
ture of  vital  force  on  the  part  of  the  digestive  organs  of  the  horse.  It 
is  thus  that,  in  fact,  too  much  food  may  make  an  animal  poor. 

In  selecting  food  for  the  horse  we  should  remember  the  anatomical 
arrangement  of  the  digestive  organs,  as  well  as  the  physiological  func- 
tions performed  by  each  organ.  Foods  must  be  wholesome,  clean,. and 
sweet;  the  hours  of  feeding  regular;  the  mode  of  preparation  found 
by  practical  experience  to  be  the  best  must  be  adhered  to,  and  cleanli- 
ness in  preparation  and  administration  must  be  observed. 

The  length  of  time  occupied  by  stomach  digestion  in  the  horse  varies 
with  the  different  foods.  Hay  and  straw  pass  out  of  the  stomach  more 
rapidly  than  oats.  It  would  seem  to  follow,  then,  that  oats  should  be 
given  after  hay,  for  if  reversed  the  hay  would  cause  the  oats  to  be  sent 
onward  into  the  intestines  before  being  fully  acted  upon  by  the  stomach, 
and  as  a  result  produce  indigestion.  Experience  confirms  this.  There 
is  another  good  reason  why  hay  should  be  given  first,  particularly  if 
the  horse  is  very  hungry  or  if  exhausted  from  overwork,  namely,  it 
requires  more  time  in  mastication  (insuring  proper  admixture  of  saliva) 
and  can  not  be  bolted  as  are  the  grains.  In  either  instance  water  must 
not  be  given  soon  after  feeding,  as  it  washes  or  sluices  the  food  from 
the  stomach  before  it  is  fitted  for  intestinal  digestion. 

The  stomach  begins  to  empty  itself  very  soon  after  the  commence- 
ment of  feeding,  and  continues  rapidly  while  eating.  Afterwards  the 
passage  is  slower,  and  several  hours  are  required  before  the  stomach  is 
entirely  empty.  The  nature  of  the  work  required  of  the  horse  must 
guide  us  in  the  selection  of  his  food.  Eapid  or  severe  labor  can  not  be 
performed  on  a  full  stomach.  For  such  horses  food  must  be  given  in 
small  quantity  and  fed  to  them  about  two  hours  before  going  to  their 
work.  Even  horses  intended  for  slow  work  must  never  be  engorged 
with  bulky,  innutritions  food  immediately  before  going  to  labor.  The 
small  stomach  of  the  horse  would  seem  to  lead  us  to  the  conclusion 
that  this  animal  should  be  fed  in  small  quantities  and  often,  which,  in 
reality,  should  be  done.  The  disproportion  between  the  size  of  the 
stomach  and  the  amount  of  water  drank  tells  us  plainly  that  the  horse 
should  always  be  watered  before  feeding.  One  of  the  common  errors 
of  feeding,  and  the  one  that  produces  more  digestive  disorders  than 
any  other,  is  to  feed  too  soon  after  a  hard  dafs  tcorJc.  This  must  never 
be  done.  If  a  horse  is  completely  jaded  it  will  be  found  beneficial  to 
give  him  an  alcoholic  stimulant  on  going  into  the  stable.  A  small 
quantity  of  hay  may  then  be  given,  but  his  grain  should  be  withheld 
for  one  or  two  hours.  These  same  remarks  v>nll  apply  with  equal  force 
to  the  horse  that  for  any  reason  has  been  fasting  for  a  long  time.  After 
a  fast  feed  less  than  the  horse  would  eat;  for  if  allowed  too  much  the 
stomach  becomes  engorged,  its  walls  paralyzed,  and  "colic"  is  almost 
sure  to  follow.     The  horse  should  be  fed  three  or  four  times  a  day;  nor 


19 

will  it  answer  to  feed  liirn  entirely  upon  concentrated  food.  Bulky  food 
must  be  given  to  detain  the  grains  in  their  iiassage  through  the  intes- 
tinal tract;  bulk  also  favors  distention,  and  thus  mechanically  aids 
absorption.  To  horses  that  do  slow  work  for  the  greater  i^art  of  the 
time,  chopped  or  cut  hay  fed  with  crushed  oats,  ground  corn,  etc.,  is 
the  best  manner  of  feeding,  as  it  gives  the  required  bulk,  saves  time, 
and  half  the  labor  of  feeding. 

tSuddcn  changes  of  diet  are  ahcays  dangerous.— Vlhcn  desirous  of  chang- 
ing the  food,  do  so  very  gradually.  If  a  horse  is  accustomed  to  oats  a 
sudden  change  to  a  full  meal  of  corn  will  almost  always  sicken  him.  If 
we  merely  intend  to  increase  the  quantity  of  the  tisual  feed,,  this  again 
must  be  done  gradually.  The  quantity  of  food  given  must  always  be 
in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  labor  to  be  i^erformed.  If  a  horse  is  to 
do  less  work,  or  rest  entirely  from  work  for  a  few  days,  see  that  he  re- 
ceives less  feed.  If  this  was  observed  even  on  Saturday  night  and 
Sunday  there  would  befewer  cases  of  "Monday  morning  sickness,  "such 
as  colics  and  lymphangitis.  Foods  should  also  be  of  a  more  laxative 
nature  when  the  horse  is  to  stand  for  some  days.  Above  all  things  we 
should  avoid  feeding  musty  or  moldy  foods.  These  are  very  frequent 
causes  of  disease  of  different  kinds.  Lung  trouble,  as  bronchitis  and 
"heaves,"  often  follows  the  use  of  such  food.  The  digestive  organs 
always  suffer  from  moldy  or  musty  foods.  Musty  hay  is  generally  con- 
sidered to  produce  disorder  of  the  kidneys;  and  all  know  of  the  danger 
to  pregnant  animals  from  feeding  upon  ergotized  grasses  or  grains. 

Leaving  these  somewhat  general  considerations,  I  will  refer  briefly  to 
the  different  kinds  of  foods : 

Eay. — The  best  hay  for  horses  is  timothy.  It  should  be  about  one 
year  old,  of  a  greenish  color,  crisp,  clean,  fresh,  and  possessing  a  sweet, 
pleasant  aroma.  Even  this  good  hay,  if  kept  for  too  great  a  length  of 
time,  loses  part  of  its  nourishment,  and  while  it  may  not  be  positively 
injurious,  it  is  hard,  dry,  and  indigestible.  Yiew  hay  is  difficult  to  di- 
gest, produces  much  salivation  (slobbering)  and  occasionally  purging 
and  irritation  of  the  skin.     If  fed  at  all  it  should  be  mixed  with  old  hay. 

Second  crop  or  aftermath. — This  is  not  considered  good  hay  for  horses, 
but  it  is  prized  by  some  farmers  as  a  good  food  for  milch  cows,  they 
claiming  that  it  increases  the  flow  of  milk.  The  value  of  hay  depends 
upon  the  time  of  cutting,  as  well  as  care  in  curing.  Hay  should  be 
cut  when  in  full  flower,  but  before  the  seeds  fixU;  if  left  longer,  it  be- 
comes dry  and  woody  and  lacks  in  nutrition.  An  essential  point  in 
making  hay  is  that  when  the  crop  is  cut  it  should  remain  as  short  a 
time  as  i)0ssible  in  the  field.  If  left  too  long  in  the  sun  it  loses  color, 
flavor,  and  dries  or  wastes.  Smith  asserts  that  one  hour  more  than  is 
necessary  in  the  sun  causes  a  loss  of  15  to  •20  per  cent,  in  the  feeding 
value  of  hay.  It  is  impossible  to  state  any  fixed  time  that  hay  must 
have  to  cure,  this  depeudingj  of  course,  upon  the  weather,  thickness  of 


20 

the  crop,  and  many  other  circumstances ;  but  it  is  well  known  that  in 
order  to  preserve  the  color  and  aroma  of  hay  it  should  be  turned  or 
tedded  frequently  and  cured  as  quicMy  as  possible.  On  the  other  hand, 
hay  spoils  in  the  mow  if  harvested  too  green  or  when  not  sufficiently 
dried.  Mow-burnt  hay  produces  disorder  of  the  kidneys  and  bowels 
and  causes  the  horse  to  fall  off  in  condition.  Musty  or  moldy  hay  has 
often  been  said  to  produce  that  j>eculiar  disease  known  variously  as 
cerebro-spinal  meningitis,  putrid  sore  throat,  or  choking  distemper. 

The  average  horse,  getting  grain,  should  be  allowed  from  10  to  12 
pounds  of  good  hay  a  day.  It  is  a  mistake  of  many  to  think  that  horses 
at  light  work  can  be  kept  entirely  on  hay.  Such  horses  soon  become 
pot-bellied,  fall  off  in  flesh,  and  do  not  thrive.  The  same  is  true  of 
colts;  unless  the  latter  are  fed  with  some  grain  they  grow  up  to  be 
long,  lean,  gawky  creatures,  and  never  make  as  good  horses  as  those 
accustomed  to  grain,  with  or  in  addition  to  their  hay. 

Stratc. — The  straws  are  not  extensively  fed  in  this  country,  and  when 
used  at  all  they  should  be  cut  and  mixed  with  hay  and  ground  or 
crushed  grains.  Wheat,  rye,  and  oats  straw  are  the  ones  most  used, 
and  of  these  oats  straw  is  most  easily  digested  and  contains  the  most 
nourishment.  Pea  and  bean  straw  are  occasionally  fed  to  horses,  the 
pea  being  preferable  according  to  most  writers. 

Chaff. — Wheat  and  rye  chaif  should  never  be  used  as  a  food  for 
horses.  The  beards  frequently  become  lodged  in  the  mouth  or  throat 
and  are  productive  of  more  or  less  serious  trouble.  In  the  stomach  and 
intestines  they  often  serve  as  the  nucleus  of  the  "soft  concretions" 
which  are  to  be  described  when  treating  of  obstructions  of  the  digestive 
tract. 

Oat  chaff",  if  fed  in  small  quantities  and  mixed  with  cut  hay  or  corn- 
fodder,  is  very  much  relished  by  horses.  It  is  not  to  be  given  in  large 
quantities,  as  I  have  repeatedly  witnessed  a  troublesome  and  sometimes 
fatal  diarrhea  to  follow  the  practice  of  allowing  horses  or  cattle  free  ac- 
cess to  a  pile  of  oat  chaff". 

Grains. — Oats  take  jjrecedence  of  all  grains  as  a  food  for  horses,  as 
the  ingredients  necessary  for  the  complete  nutrition  of  the  body  exist 
in  them  in  the  best  proportions.  Oats  are  besides  more  easily  digested 
and  a  larger  proportion  absorbed  and  converted  into  the  various  tissues 
of  the  body.  Care  must  be  taken  in  selecting  oats.  According  to  Stew- 
art the  best  oats  are  one  year  old,  plump,  short,  hard,  clean,  bright,  and 
sweet.  New  oats  are  indigestible.  Kiln-dried  oats  are  to  be  refused 
as  a  rule,  for  even  though  originally  good  this  drying  process  injures 
them.  Oats  that  have  sprouted  or  fermented  are  injurious  and  should 
never  be  fed.  Oats  are  to  be  given  either  whole  or  crushed  5  whole  in 
the  majority  of  instances,  Crushed  to  old  horses  and  those  having  de- 
fective teeth.  Horses,  also,  that  bolt  their  feed  are  best  fed  upon 
crushed  oats  and  out  of  a  manger  large  enough  to  permit  of  spreading 
the  grain  in  a  thin  layer. 


21 

The  average  liorse  requires,  ia  addition  to  the  allowance  of  hay  above 
spoken  of,  about  12  quarts  of  good  oats  daily.  The  best  oats  are  those 
cut  about  one  week  before  being  fully  ripe.  Not  only  is  the  grain  richer 
at  this  time  in  nutritive  materials,  but  there  is  also  less  waste  from 
"scattering"  than  if  left  to  become  dead  ripe.  Moldy  oats,  like  hay 
and  straw,  not  only  produce  serious  digestive  disorders,  but  have  been 
the  undoubted  cause  of  outbreaks  of  that  dread  disease  in  horses,  al- 
ready referred  to,  characterized  by  inability  to  eat  or  drink,  sudden 
paralysis,  and  death. 

Wheat  and  rye. — These  grains  are  not  to  be  used  as  food  for  horses 
except  in  small  quantities,  bruised  or  crushed,  and  fed  mixed  with  other 
grains  or  hay.  If  fed  alone,  in  any  considerable  quantities,  they  are 
almost  certain  to  produce  digestive  disorders,  laminitis  (founder),  and 
similar  troubles.  They  should  never  constitute  more  than  one-fourth 
of  the  grain  allowance,  and  should  always  be  ground  or  crushed. 

Bran. — The  bran  of  wheat  is  the  one  most  used,  and  its  value  as  a 
feeding  stuff  is  variously  estimated.  It  is  not  to  be  depended  upon  if 
given  alone,  but  may  be  fed  with  other  grains.  It  serves  to  keep  the 
bowels  open.  Sour  bran  is  not  to  be  given.  It  disorders  the  stomach 
and  intestines  and  may  even  produce  serious  results. 

Maize—Corn. — This  grain  is  not  suitable  as  an  exclusive  food  for 
young  horses,  as  it  is  deficient  in  salts.  It  is  fed  whole  or  ground. 
Corn  on  the  cob  is  commonly  used  as  the  food  for  horses  affected  with 
"  lampas."  If  the  corn  is  old  and  is  to  be  fed  in  this  manner  it  should 
be  soaked  in  pure,  clean  water  for  ten  or  twelve  hours.  Corn  is  better 
given  ground,  and  fed  in  quantities  of  from  1  to  2  quarts  at  a  meal 
mixed  with  crushed  oats  or  wheat  bran.  We  must  be  very  particular 
in  giving  corn  to  a  horse  that  is  not  accustomed  to  its  use.  It  must 
be  commenced  in  small  quantities  and  very  gradually  increased.  I 
know  of  no  grain  more  likely  to  produce  what  is  called  acute  indiges- 
tion than  corn  if  these  directions  are  not  observed. 

Linseed. — Ground  linseed  is  occasionally  fed  with  other  foods  to  keep 
the  bowels  open  and  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  skin.  It  is  of  par- 
ticular service  duriug  convalescence,  wheu  the  bowels  are  sluggish  in 
their  action.  Linseed  tea  is  very  often  given  in  irritable  or  inflamed 
conditions  of  the  digestive  organs. 

Roots — Potatoes. — These  are  used  as  an  article  of  food  for  the  horse 
in  many  sections.  If  fed  raw  and  in  large  quantities  they  often  produce 
indigestion.  Their  digestibility  is  favored  by  steaming  or  boiling. 
They  possess,  in  common  with  other  roots,  slight  laxative  properties. 

Beets. — These  are  not  much  used  as  food  for  horses. 

Carrots. — These  make  a  most  excellent  food,  particularly  during  sick- 
ness. They  improve  the  appetite  and  slightly  increase  the  action  of  the 
bowels  and  kidneys.  They  possess  also  certain  alterative  properties. 
The  coat  becomes  smooth  and  glossy  when  carrots  are  fed.  Some  vet- 
erinary writers  claim  that  chronic  cough  is  cured  by  giving  carrots  for 


22 

sometime.    The  roots  may  be  considered  tlien  as  an  adjunct  to  the  reg- 
ular regime,  and  if  fed  in  small  quantities  are  highly  beneficial. 

Grasses. — Grass  is  the  natural  food  of  horses.  It  is  composed  of  a 
great  variety  of  plants,  differing  widely  as  to  the  amount  of  nourish- 
ment contained,  some  being  almost  entirely  without  value  as  foods  and 
only  eaten  when  there  is  nothing  else  obtainable,  others  are  positively 
injurious  or  even  poisonous.  K  one  of  the  grasses  a  re  sufficient  to  keep  the 
horse  in  condition  for  work.  Horses  thus  fed  are  "soft,"  sweat  easily, 
purge,  and  soon  tire  on  the  road  or  when  at  hard  work.  To  growing 
stock  grass  is  ind:spensible,  and  there  is  little  or  no  doubt  but  that  it  acts 
as  an  alterative  when  given  to  horses  accustomed  to  grain  and  hay.  It 
must  be  given  to  such  subjects  in  small  quantities  at  first.  The  stomach 
and  intestines  undergo  rest,  and  recuperate  if  the  horse  is  turned  to 
grass  for  a  time  each  year.  It  is  also  certain  that  during  febrile  diseases 
grass  acts  almost  as  a  medicine,  lessening  the  fever  and  favoring  re- 
covery; wounds  heal  more  rapidly  than  when  the  horse  is  on  grain,  and 
some  chronic  disorders  (chronic  cough  for  instance)  disappear  entirely 
when  at  grass.  In  my  experience  grass  does  more  good  when  the  horse 
crops  it  himself.  This  may  be  due  to  the  sense  of  freedom  he  enjoys 
at  pasture,  to  the  rest  to  his  feet  and  limbs,  and  for  many  similar 
reasons.  When  cut  for  him  it  should  be  fed  fresh  or  when  but  slightly 
wilted. 

PREPAEATION  OF  FOODS. 

Foods  are  prepared  for  feeding  for  any  of  the  following  reasons :  To 
render  the  food  more  easily  eaten;  to  make  it  more  digestible;  to 
economize  in  amount;  to  give  it  some  new  property,  and  to  preserve 
it.  We  have  already  spoken  of  the  preparation  of  drying,  and  need 
not  revert  to  this  again,  as  it  only  serves  to  preserve  the  different  foods. 
Drying  does,  however,  change  some  of  the  properties  of  food,  i.  e.,  re- 
moves the  laxative  tendency  of  most  of  them. 

The  different  grains  are  more  easily  eaten  when  ground,  crushed,  or 
even  boiled.  Eye  or  wheat  should  never  be  given  whole,  and  even  of 
corn  it  is  found  that  there  is  less  waste  when  ground,  and,  in  common 
with  all  grains,  it  is  more  easily  digested  than  when  fed  whole. 

Hay  and  fodder  are  economized  when  cut  in  short  pieces.  Kot  only 
will  the  horse  eat  the  necessary  amount  in  a  shorter  time,  but  it  will  be 
found  that  there  is  less  waste,  and  the  mastication  of  the  grains  (whole 
or  crushed)  fed  with  them  is  insured. 

Eeference  has  already  been  made  to  those  horses  that  bolt  their  food, 
and  we  need  only  remark  here  that  the  consequences  of  such  ravenous 
eating  may  be  prevented  if  the  grains  are  fed  with  cut  hay,  straw,  or 
fodder.  Long  or  uncut  hay  should  also  be  fed,  even  though  a  certain 
amount  of  hay  or  straw  is  cut  and  fed  mixed  with  grain. 

One  objection  to  feeding  cut  hay  mixed  with  ground  or  crushed  grains, 
and  wetted,  must  not  be  overlooked  during  the  hot  months.     Such  food 


23 

is  apt  to  undergo  fermentation  if  not  fed  directly  after  it  is  mixed,  and 
tbe  mixing-trongb  even,  unless  frequently  scalded  and  cleaned,  becomes 
sour  and  enough  of  its  scrapings  are  given  with  the  food  to  produce 
flatulent  (wind)  colic.  A  small  amount  of  salt  should  always  be  mixed 
with  such  food. 

Bad  hay  should  never  be  cut  simply  because  it  insures  a  greater  con- 
sumption of  it;  bad  foods  are  dear  at  any  price  and  should  never  be  fed. 
We  have  before  spoken  of  the  advantage,  of  boiling  roots.  Kot  only 
does  this  render  them  less  liable  to  produce  digestive  disorders,  but  it 
also  makes  them  clean.  Boiling  or  steaming  grains  is  to  be  recom- 
mended when  the  teeth  are  poor,  or  when  the  digestive  organs  are  weak. 
Of  ensilage  as  a  food  for  horses  I  have  no  experience,  but  am  inclined 
to  think  that  (and  this  opinion  is  based  upon  the  imperfect  manner  iu 
which  the  crop  is  often  stored)  disordered  digestion  would  be  more  fre- 
quent were  it  extensively  fed. 

DISEASES   OF   THE   TEETH. 

Dentition. — This  covers  the  period  during  which  the  young  horse  is 

cutting  his  teeth,  from  birth  to  the  age  of  five  years.     With  the  horso 

more  difiQculty  is  experienced  in  cutting  the  secon<l  or  permanent  teeth 

than  with  the  first  or  milk  teeth.     There  is  a  tendency  among  farmers 

and  many  veterinarians  to  pay  too  little  attention  to  the  teeth  of  young 

horses.    Percivall  relates  an  instance  illustrative  of  this,  that  is  best 

told  in  his  own  words : 

I  was  requested  to  give  my  opinion  concornin.q;  a  horse,  then  in  his  fifth  year,  -^-ho 
had  fed  so  sparingly  for  the  last  fortnight,  and  so  rapidly  declined  in  condition  in 
consequence,  that  his  owner,  a  veterinary  surgeon,  was  under  no  light  apprehensions 
ahout  his  life.  He  had  himself  examined  his  mouth,  without  having  discovered  any 
defect  or  disease  ;  though  another  veterinary  surgeon  was  of  opinion  that  the  diffi- 
culty or  inability  manifested  in  mastication,  and  the  consequent  cuddiug,  arose  from 
preternatural  bluntness  of  the  surfaces  of  the  molar  teeth,  which  were,  in  couse- 
quenco  filed,  hut  without  beneficial  result.  It  was  after  this  that  I  saw  the  horse; 
and  I  confess  I  was,  at  my  first  examination,  quite  as  much  at  a  loss  to  offer  any  sat- 
isfactory interpretation  .as  others  had  been.  While  meditating,  however,  after  my 
inspection,  on  the  apparently  extraordinary  nature  of  the  case,  it  struck  mo  that  I 
had  not  seen  the  tnslis.  I  went  bade  into  the  stable  and  discovered  two  little  tu- 
mors, red  and  hard,  in  the  situation  of  the  inferior  tiists,  which,  when  pressed,  gave 
the  animal  insufferable  pain.  I  instantly  took  out  my  pocket-knife  and  made  cru- 
cial incisions  through  them  both,  down  to  the  coming  teeih,  from  which  momeut  tbe 
horse  recovered  his  appetite  and  by  degrees  his  wonted  condition. 

The  mouths  of  young  horses  should  also  be  frequently  examined  to 
see  if  one  or  more  of  tbe  milk  teeth  are  not  remaining  too  long,  caus- 
ing the  second  teeth  to  grow  in  crooked,  in  which  case  the  first  teeth 
should  be  removed  by  the  forceps. 

Irregularities  of  teeth. — There  is  quite  a  fashion  of  late  years,  espe- 
cially in  large  cities,  to  have  horses'  teeth  regularly  "floated"  or  "rasped" 
by  "  veterinary  dentists."  In  some  instances  this  is  ver^^  beneficial, 
while  in  most  cases  it  is  entirely  unnecessary.    From  the  character  of 


24 

the  food,  tlie  rubbing  or  j?riudiug  surface  of  the  horse's  teeth  should  be 
rough.  Still  we  must  remember  that  the  upper  jaw  is  somewhat  wider 
than  the  lower,  and  that  from  the  fact  of  the  teeth  not  being  perfectly 
apposed,  a  sharp  ridge  is  left  unworn  on  the  inside  of  the  lower  molars 
and  on  the  outside  of  the  upper,  which  may  excoriate  the  tongue  or 
lips  to  a  considerable  extent.  This  condition  can  readily  be  felt  by  the 
hand,  and  these  sharp  ridges  when  found  should  be  rasped  down  by  a 
guarded  rasp.  Any  one  can  do  this  without  the  aid  of  the  veterina- 
rian. In  some  instances  the  first  or  last  molar  tooth  is  unnaturally 
long,  owing  to  the  absence  of  its  fellow  on  the  opposite  jaw.  Should 
it  be  the  last  molar  that  is  thus  elongated  it  will  require  the  aid  of  the 
veterinary  surgeon,  who  has  the  necessary  forceps  or  chisel  for  cutting 
it.  The  front  molar  may  be  rasped  down,  if  much  patience  is  taken. 
In  decay  of  the  teeth  it  is  quite  common  to  find  the  tooth  correspond- 
ing to  the  decayed  one  on  the  opposite  jaw  very  much  elongated, 
sometimes  to  that  extent  that  the  mouth  can  not  be  perfectly  closed. 
Such  teeth  must  also  be  shortened  by  the  bone  forceps,  chisel,  bone- 
saw,  or  rasp.  In  all  instances  where  horses  "quid"  their  food,  where 
they  are  slobbering,  or  where  they  evince  pain  in  mastication,  shown 
by  holding  their  head  to  one  side  while  chewing,  the  teeth  should  be 
carefully  examined.  If,  as  is  mostly  the  case,  all  these  symptoms  are 
referable  to  sharp  corners  or  projections  of  the  teeth,  these  must  be  re- 
moved by  the  rasp.  If  decayed  teeth  are  found,  or  other  serious  difii- 
culty  detected,  an  expert  should  be  called. 

Toothache.— TM^  is  rare  in  the  horse  and  is  mostly  witnessed  where 
there  is  decay  of  a  tooth.  I  have  observed  it  only  in  the  molar  teeth. 
Toothache  is  to  be  discovered  in  the  horse  by  the  pain  expressed  by 
him  while  feeding  or  drinking  cold  water.  I  have  seen  horses  affected 
with  toothache  that  would  suddenly  stop  chewing,  throw  the  head  to  one 
side,  and  slightly  open  the  mouth.  They  behave  as  though  some  sharp 
body  had  punctured  the  mouth.  If  upon  examination  there  is  no  for- 
eign body  found  we  must  then  carefully  examine  each  tooth.  If  this 
can  not  be  done  with  the  hand  in  the  mouth  we  can,  in  most  instances, 
discover  the  aching  tooth  by  pressing  each  tooth  from  without.  The 
horse  will  flinch  when  the  sore  tooth  is  pressed  upon.  In  most  cases 
there  is  nothing  to  be  done  but  the  extraction  of  the  decayed  tooth,  and 
this,  of  course,  is  only  to  be  attempted  by  the  veterinarian. 

There  is  a  deformity^  known  as  parrot-mouth,  that  interferes  with  pre- 
hension, mastication,  and,  indirectly,  with  digestion.  The  upper  incis- 
ors project  in  front  of  and  beyond  the  lower  ones.  The  teeth  of  both 
jaws  become  unusually  long,  as  they  are  not  worn  down  by  friction. 
Such  horses  experience  much  difficulty  in  grazing.  Little  can  be  done 
except  to  occasionally  examine  the  teeth,  and  if  those  of  the  lower  jaw 
become  so  long  that  they  bruise  the  "  bars"  of  the  upper  jaw,  they  must 
be  shortened  by  the  rasp  or  saw.  Horses  with  this  deformity  should 
never  be  left  entirely  at  pasture. 


25 


DISEASES  OF   THE   MOUTH. 

Lampas  is  the  name  given  to  a  swelling  of  the  mucous  membrane 
covering  the  hard  palate  and  projecting  in  a  more  or  less  prominent 
ridge  immediately  behind  the  upper  iucisors.  There  is  no  doubt  but 
that  in  some  rare  instances,  and  particularly  while  teething,  there  is  a 
congestion  and  swelling  of  this  part  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth  which 
may  interfere  with  feeding.  In  one  instance  in  my  practice  I  found  the 
swelling  so  extensive  that  the  mucous  membrane  was  caught  between 
the  front  teeth  when  the  horse  attempted  to  eat.  Should  this  exist  the 
swollen  parts  are  to  be  scarified,  being  careful  not  to  cut  deeply  into  the 
structures.  An  astringent  wash  of  alum  water  may  also  be  beneficial. 
Burning  of  the  lampas  is  cruel  and  unnecessary,  and  should  never  be 
permitted,  as  it  often  causes  serious  results  to  follow. 

It  is  quite  a  common  opinion  among  owners  of  horses  and  stablemen 
that  lampas  is  a  disease  that  very  frequently  exists.  In  fact  whenever 
a  horse  fails  to  eat,  and  if  he  does  not  exhibit  very  marked  symptoms 
of  a  severe  illness,  they  say  at  once  "  he  has  the  lampas."  It  is  almost 
impossible  to  convince  them  to  the  contrary,  yet  in  a  practice  extend- 
ing over  fifteen  years  I  have  never  seen  but  two  or  three  cases  of  what 
is  called  lampas  that  gave  rise  to  the  least  trouble  or  that  called  for 
any  treatment  whatever.  It  may  be  put  down,  then,  as  more  a  disease 
of  the  stableman's  imagination  than  of  the  horse's  mouth. 

Stomatitis. — This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining 
the  mouth  and  is  produced  by  irritating  medicines,  foods,  or  other  sub- 
stances. In  cities  it  frequently  follows  from  eating  out  of  ash-barrels. 
The  symptoms  are  swelling  of  the  mouth,  which  is  also  hot  and  pain- 
ful to  the  touch ;  there  is  a  copious  discharge  of  saliva ;  the  mucous 
membrane  is  reddened,  and  in  some  cases  there  are  observed  vesicles 
or  ulcers  in  the  mouth.  The  treatment  is  simple,  soft  feed  alone  often 
being  all  that  is  necessary.  In  some  instances  it  may  be  advisable  to 
use  a  wash  of  chlorate  of  potash,  borax,  or  alum,  about  one-half  ounce 
to  a  pint  of  water.  Hay,  straw,  or  oats  should  not  be  fed  unless 
steamed  or  boiled. 

Glossitis,  or  inflammation  of  the  tongue,  is  very  similar  to  the  above, 
and  mostly  exists  with  it  and  is  due  to  the  same  causes.  Injuries  to 
the  tongue  may  produce  this  simple  inflammation  of  its  covering  mem- 
brane, or,  if  severe,  may  produce  lesions  much  more  extensive,  such 
as  lacerations,  abscesses,  etc.  These  latter  would  require  surgical 
treatment,  but  for  the  simpler  forms  of  inflammation  of  the  tongue  the 
treatment  recommended  for  stomatitis  should  be  followed. 

Ptyalism  or  salivation  consists  in  an  abnormal  and  excessive  secre- 
tion of  saliva.  This  is  often  seen  as  a  symptom  of  irregular  teeth,  in- 
flammation of  the  mouth  or  tongue,  or  of  the  use  of  such  medicines  as 
lobelia,  mercury,  and  many  others.  Some  foods  produce  this,  as  clover, 
and  particularly  second  cropj  foreign  bodies,  as  nails,  wheat  chaft',  and 


26 

corn  cobs  becoming  lodged  iu  the  mouth.  If  the  cause  is  removed,  as  a 
rule  uo  further  attention  is  necessary.  Astringent  washes  may  be 
applied  to  the  mouth  as  a  gargle  or  by  means  of  a  sponge. 

Pharyngitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining  of  the 
pharynx  (back  part  of  the  mouth).  Ic  rarely  exists  unless  accompanied 
by  stomatitis,  glossitis,  or  laryngitis.  In  those  instances  where  the  in- 
flammation is  mostly  confined  to  the  pharynx  we  notice  febrile  symptoms- 
difficulty  of  swallowing  either  liquids  or  solids  ;  there  is  but  little  cough 
except  when  trying  to  swallow ;  there  is  no  soreness  on  pressure  over 
larynx  (large  ring  of  the  windpipe).  Increased  flow  of  saliva,  difficulty 
of  swallowing  liquids  in  particular,  and  cough  only  when  attempting 
to  swallow,  are  the  symptoms  best  marked  in  pharyngitis.  For  treat- 
ment, chlorate  of  potash  iu  half-ounce  doses  three  or  four  times  a  day 
is  the  best.  This  may  be  given  suspended  in  warm  water  as  a  gargle, 
or  may  be  mixed  with  licorice-root  i^owder  and  honey  and  given 
with  a  strong  spoon  or  wooden  paddle.  Borax  or  alum  water  may  be 
substituted  for  chlorate  of  potash  in  the  same-sized  doses.  Soft  food 
should  be  given,  but  I  have  seen  some  cases  where  the  animal  would 
eat  corn  from  the  cob  better  than  anything  else. 

Paralysis  of  the  pharynx,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  "paralysis  of 
the  throat,"  is  one  of  the  most  stubborn  diseases  of  the  horse  that  we  are 
ever  called  to  treat.  A  horse  is  suddenly  noticed  to  be  unable  to  eat, 
and  his  manger  is  found  to  contain  much  saliva  and  frothy  food  that 
has  been  returned  through  his  nose.  The  symptoms  which  enable  us  to 
tell  that  paralysis  of  the  pharynx  exists  are  as  follows :  The  owner  says 
he  has  a  horse  that  "  can't  eat."  That  is  all  he  knows.  We  find  the 
animal  with  a  somewhat  anxious  countenance;  manger,  as  above  de- 
scribed ;  pulse,  respiration,  and  temperature,  at  first,  about  the  same 
as  in  health ;  the  horse  will  constantly  try  to  eat  or  drink,  but  is  un- 
able to  do  so ;  if  water  be  offered  him  from  a  pail  he  will  apparently  drink 
with  avidity,  but,  if  we  notice,  the  quantity  of  water  in  the  pail  remains 
about  the  same ;  he  will  continue  trying  to  drink  by  the  hour;  if  he  can 
succeed  in  getting  any  fluid  in  to  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  it  comes 
out  at  once  through  the  nose.  Foods  also  return  through  the  nose,  or 
are  dropped  from  the  mouth,  quidded.  An  examination  of  the  mouth 
by  inserting  the  hand  fails  to  find  any  obstruction  or  any  abnormal 
condition,  except,  perhaps,  that  the  parts  are  too  flabby  to  the  touch. 
These  cases  go  on  from  bad  to  worse;  the  horse  constantly  and  rapidly 
loses  in  condition,  becomes  very  much  emaciated,  the  eyes  are  hollow 
and  lustreless,  and  death  soon  occurs  from  inanition. 

Treatment  is  very  unsatisfactory.  Severe  blisters  should  be  applied 
behind  and  under  the  jaw;  the  mouth  is  to  be  frequently  swabbed  out 
with  alum  or  chlorate  of  potash,  1  ounce  to  a  pint  of  water,  by  means 
of  a  sponge  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  stick.  Strychnia  is  the  best  agent 
to  be  used  to  overcome  this  paralysis,  and  should  be  given  in  1-grain 
doses  three  or  four  times  a  day.     If  the  services  of  a  veterinarian  can 


27 

be  obtained  he  sboiikl  give  this  medicine  by  means  of  a  hypodermic 
syringe,  injecting  it  deeply  into  the  pharynx.  In  my  experience  the 
blister  externally,  the  frequent  swabbing  of  the  mouth,  as  above  de- 
scribed, and  the  use  of  a  nerve  stimulant  are  all  that  can  be  done.  This 
disease  may  be  mistaken  at  times  for  foreign  bodies  in  the  mouth  or  for 
the  so  called  cerebrospinal  meningitis.  It  is  to  be  distinguished  from 
the  former  by  a  careful  examination  of  the  moutb,  the  absence  of  any 
offending  body,  and  by  the  flabby  feel  of  the  mouth;  from  the  latter  by 
the  animal  appearing  in  perfect  health  in  every  particular  except  this 
inability  to  eat  or  drink. 

Abscesses  sometimes  form  in  the  i^harynx  and  give  rise  to  symptoms 
resembling  those  of  laryngitis  or  distemper.  Interference  with  breath- 
ing, that  is  of  recent  origin,  and  progression,  without  any  observable 
swelling  or  soreness  al)out  the  throat,  will  make  us  suspect  the  forma- 
tion of  an  abscess  in  this  location.  But  little  can  be  done  in  the  way 
of  treatment,  save  to  hurry  the  ripening  of  the  abscess  and  its  dis- 
charge, by  steaming  with  hops,  hay,  or  similar  substances.  If  the  ab- 
scess can  be  felt  through  the  mouth  it  must  be  opened  by  the  attend- 
ing veterinary  surgeon. 

DISEASES   OF   TDE    CESOPHAGUS   OR   GULLET. 

It  is  rare  to  find  disease  of  this  organ,  except  as  a  result  of  the  in- 
troduction of  foreign  bodies  too  large  to  pass,  or  to  the  exhibition  of 
irritating  medicines.  Great  care  should  be  taken  in  the  administration 
of 'irritant  or  caustic  medicines  that  they  be  thoroughly  diluted.  If 
this  is  not  done  erosions  and  ulcerations  of  the  throat  ensue,  and  this 
again  is  prone  to  be  followed  by  constriction — narrowing — of  the  gullet. 
The  mechanical  trouble  of  choking  is  quite  common.  It  frequently 
occurs  when  the  animal  is  suddenly  startled  while  eating  apples  or  roots, 
and  we  should  be  careful  never  to  suddenly  approach  or  put  a  dog 
after  horses  or  cows  that  are  feeding  upon  such  substances.  If  left 
alone  they  very  rarely  attempt  to  swallow  the  object  until  it  is  suffi- 
ciently masticated. 

Choking  also  arises  from  feeding  oats  in  a  deep,  narrow  manger,  to 
such  horses  as  eat  very  greedily,  or  bolt  their  food.  Wheat  chaff  is 
also  a  frequent  source  of  choke.  This  accident  may  result  from  the 
attempts  to  force  eggs  down  without  breaking  or  from  giving  balls  that 
are  too  large  or  not  of  the  proper  shape. 

Whatever  object  causes  the  choking,  it  may  lodge  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  oesophagus,  at  its  middle  portion,  or  close  to  the  stomach,  giving 
rise  to  the  designations  oi  i^haryngeal,  cervical,,  and  thoracic  choke.  In 
some  cases  where  the  original  obstruction  is  low  we  find  all  that  part 
of  the  gullet  above  it  to  be  distended  with  food. 

The  symptoms  will  vary  according  to  the  position  of  the  body  causing 
choke.  In  pharyngeal  choice  the  object  is  lodged  in  the  upper  j)ortion  of 
the  oesophagus.    The  horse  will  j)reseut  symptoms  of  great  distress, 


28 

hurried  breathing,  frequent  cough,  excessive  flow  of  saliva,  sweating, 
treiiibliug,  or  siampiug  with  the  fore-feet.  The  abdomen  rapidly  dis- 
tends with  gas.  The  diagnosis  is  completed  by  manipulating  the  upper 
■part  of  the  throat  from  without  and  by  the  introduction  of  the  hand 
into  the  back  part  of  the  mouth,  finding  the  body  lodged  here.  In 
cervical  choke  (where  the  obstruction  is  situated  at  any  point  between 
the  throat-latch  and  the  shoulder)  the  object  can  both  be  seen  and  felt. 
The  symptoms  here  are  not  so  severe;  the  horse  will  be  seen  to  occa- 
sionally draw  himself  uj),  arch  his  neck,  and  sometimes  utter  a  loud 
shriek;  the  expression  becomes  anxious,  and  attempts  at  vomiting  are 
made.  Tlie  abdomen  is  mostly  full  and  tympanitic.  Should  there  be 
any  question  as  to  the  trouble  a  decided  conclusion  may  mostly  be 
reached  by  pouring  water  into  the  throat  from  a  bottle.  If  the  ob- 
struction is  complete  you  can  see  the  gullet  Ijecome  distended  with 
each  bottle  of  water  by  standing  on  the  left  side  of  the  horse  and  watch- 
ing the  course  of  the  oesophagus,  just  above  the  windpipe.  This  is  not 
always  a  sure  test,  as  the  obstruction  may  be  an  angular  body,  in 
which  case  liquids  would  pass  it.  Solids  taken  would  show  in  these 
cases;  but  solids  should  not,  however,  be  given,  as  they  serve  to  in- 
crease the  trouble  by  rendering  the  removal  of  the  body  more  difficult. 
In  cervical  choke  one  can  always,  with  a  little  care,  feel  the  imprisoned 
object. 

In  thoracic  choice  the  symptoms  are  still  less  severe.  Our  attention  will 
be  directed  to  this  part  of  the  oesophagus  by  food  or  water  being  ejected 
through  the  nose  or  mouth  after  the  animal  has  taken  a  few  swallows. 
There  will  be  some  symptoms  of  distress,  fullness  of  the  abdomen, 
cough,  and  occasionally  the  crying  or  shrieking  as  heard  in  cervical 
choke.  The  diagnosis  is  complete  if,  upon  passing  the  probang  (a  hol- 
low, flexible  tube  made  for  this  purpose),  an  obstruction  is  encountered. 

Treatment. — If  the  choke  is  at  the  beginning  of  the  gullet  (pharyngeal) 
we  must  endeavor  to  remove  the  obstacle  through  the  mouth.  A 
mouth-gag  or  speculum  is  to  be  introduced  into  the  mouth  to  protect 
the  hand  and  arm  of  the  operator.  Then  while  an  assistant,  with  his 
hands  grasped  tightly  behind  the  object,  presses  it  upward  and  forward 
with  all  his  force,  the  operator  must  pass  his  hand  into  the  mouth  until 
he  can  seize  the  obstruction  and  draw  it  outward.  This  mode  of  pro- 
cedure must  not  be  abandoned  with  the  first  failure,  as  we  may  get  the 
obstacle  farther  toward  the  mouth  by  continued  efforts.  If  we  fail 
with  the  hand,  forceps  may  be  introduced  through  the  mouth  and  the 
object  seized  when  it  is  just  beyond  the  reach  of  the  fingers.  Should 
our  efforts  entirely  fail  we  must  then  endeavor  to  force  the  obstruction 
downward  by  means  of  the  probang.  This  instrument,  which  is  of  such 
signal  service  in  removing  choke  in  cattle,  is  decidedly  more  dangerous 
to  use  for  the  horse,  and  I  can  not  pass  this  point  without  a  word  of 
caution  to  those  who  have  been  known  to  introduce  into  the  horse's 
throat  such   objects  as   whip-stalks,  shovel-handles,  etc.     These  are 


29 

always  dangerous,  and  I  have  seen  more  than  one  horse  die  from  this 
barbarous  treatment. 

Cervical  choice. — lu  this,  as  well  as  in  thoracic  choke,  we  must  first  of 
all  endeavor  to  soften  or  lubricate  the  obstruction  by  pouring'  oil  or 
mucilaginous  drinks  down  the  gullet.  After  this  has  been  done  we  are 
to  endeavor  to  move  the  object  by  gentle  manipulations  with  the  hands. 
If  choked  with  oats  or  chaflt'  (and  these  are  the  objects  that  most  fre- 
quently produce  choke  in  the  horse),  we  should  begin  by  gently  squeez- 
ing the  lower  portion  of  the  impacted  mass,  and  endeavoring  to  work  it 
loose  a  little  at  a  time.  This  is  greatly  favored  at  times  if  we  apply  hot 
fomentations  immediately  about  the  obstruction.  We  should  persist  in 
these  efforts  for  at  least  an  hour  before  deciding  to  resort  to  other  and 
more  dangerous  modes  of  treatment.  Should  we  fail,  however,  the  pro- 
bang  may  be  used.  In  the  absence  of  the  regular  instrument,  which 
must  always  be  flexible  and  finished  with  a  smooth  cnp-shaped  ex- 
tremity, we  may  use  a  long  piece  of  inch  hose.  The  mouth  is  to  be 
kept  open  by  a  gag  of  wood  or  iron  and  the  head  slightly  raised  and 
extended.  The  probang  is  then  to  be  carefully  guided  by  the  hand  into 
the  upper  i^art  of  the  gullet  and  gently  forced  downward  until  the  ob- 
struction is  reached.  Pressure  must  then  be  gradual  and  firm.  Do  not, 
at  first,  attempt  too  much  force,  or  the  oesophagus  will  be  ruptured. 
Simply  keep  up  this  firui,  gentle  pressure  until  you  feel  the  object  mov- 
ing, after  which  you  are  to  rapidly  follow  it  to  the  stomach.  If,  again, 
this  mode  of  treatment  is  unsuccessful,  a  veterinarian  or  medical  doctor 
is  to  be  called  in,  who  can  remove  the  object  by  cutting  down  upon  the 
gullet,  opening  it,  and  removing  the  offending  body.  This  should 
scarcely  be  attempted  by  a  novice,  as  a  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  the 
parts  is  essential  to  avoid  cutting  the  large  artery,  vein,  and  nerve  that 
are  closely  related  to  the  oesophagus  in  its  cervical  portion. 

Thoracic  choice  can  only  be  treated  by  means  of  the  introduction  of 
oils  and  mucilaginous  drinks  and'the  careful  use  of  the  probang.  Some 
practitioners  speak  very  highly  of  the  value  of  thick  soap-suds,  gener- 
ously horned  down  the  animal's  throat. 

Stricture  of  the  oesophagus  is  mostly  due  to  corrosive  medicines,  pre- 
vious choking  (accompanied  by  lacerations,  which,  in  healing,  narrow 
the  passage),  and  pressure  on  the  gullet  by  tumors.  In  the  majority  of 
cases  of  stricture  we  soon  have  dilatation  of  the  gullet  in  front  of  the 
constricted  portion.  This  dilatation  is  due  to  the  frequent  accumula- 
tiou  of  .solid  food  above  the  constriction.  Little  can  be  done  in  either 
of  these  instances  except  to  feed  on  sloppy  or  liquid  food. 

Sacular  dilatation  of  the  cesophagus.— This  mostly  follows  choking,  and 
is  due  to  rupture  of  the  muscular  coat  of  the  gullet,  allowing  the  inter- 
nal or  mucous  coat  to  hernia  or  iiouch  through  the  lacerated  muscular 
walls.  This  sac  or  pouch  gradually  enlarges,  from  the  frequent  impris- 
onment of  food,  until  it  presses  upon  the  gullet  and  prevents  swallow- 
ing.    When  liquids  are  taken  the  solid  materials  are  partially  washed 


30 

out  of  the  poncb.  The  symptoms  presenting  themselves  are  as  follows: 
The  horse  is  able  to  swallow  a  few  mouthfuls  of  food  without  ai^pareut 
distress;  then  he  will  suddenly  stop  feeding,  paw,  contract  the  muscles 
of  his  neck,  and  eject  a  portion  of  the  food  through  his  nose  or  mouth. 
As  the  dilatation  thus  empties  itself  the  symptoms  gradually  subside, 
only  to  re-appear  when  he  has  again  taken  solid  food.  Liquids  pass 
without  any,  or  but  little,  inconvenience.  Should  this  dilatation  exist 
in  the  cervical  region,  surgical  interference  may  sometimes  prove  effect- 
ual ;  if  in  the  thoracic  portion,  nothing  can  be  done,  and  the  patient 
rapidly  passes  from  hand  to  hand  by  ''swapping,"  until,  at  no  distant 
date,  the  contents  of  the  sac  become  too  firm  to  be  dislodged  as  here- 
tofore, and  the  animal  succumbs. 

DISEASES   OF   THE    STOMACH. 

Impaction — Stomach  staggers,  or  gorged  stomach. — These  are  terras 
given  to  the  stomach  when  it  is  so  enormously  distended  with  food  that 
it  loses  all  power  of  contracting  upon  its  contents.  It  occurs  most 
frequently  in  those  horses  that  after  a  long  fast  are  given  a  large  feed, 
or  in  those  that  have  gained  access  to  the  grain-bin  and  eaten  rav- 
enously. The  proportionally  small  stomach  of  the  horse,  as  well  as  his 
inability  to  vomit,  will  account  for  the  frequency  of  stomach  staggers. 
I  have  witnessed  this  trouble  most  frequently  in  teamsters'  horses  and 
those  that  are  not  fed  as  often  as  they  should  be.  After  a  long  fast  it 
is  the  custom  to  feed  abundantly.  The  horse  bolts  his  food,  and  the 
stomach  not  having  time  to  empty  itself  becomes  distended  and 
paralyzed.  To  prevent  this  condition  it  is  sufiBcient  to  feed  at  shorter 
intervals,  to  give  small  quantities  at  a  time,  and  to  secure  the  feed-bins 
so  that  if  a  horse  gets  loose  he  can  not  "  stuff  himself  to  bursting." 

Si/mp)toms. — Percivall  says  that  "a  stomach  simply  surcharged  with 
food,  without  any  accomj)anying  tympanitic  distention,  does  not  ap- 
pear to  occasion  local  pain,  but  to  operate  rather  that  kind  of  influence 
upon  the  brain  which  gives  rise  to  symptoms,  not  stomachic,  but  cere- 
bral. Hence  the  analogy  between  this  disease  and  staggers,  and  hence 
the  appellation  for  it  of  '  stomach  staggers.'"  The  horse  soon  after  eat- 
ing becomes  dull  and  heavy,  or  drowsy ;  slight  colicky  symptoms  are 
observed,  and  are  continuous;  he  rarely  lies  down,  but  carries  his  head 
extended  and  low,  nearly  touching  the  ground.  Dullness  rapidly  in- 
creases, the  eyes  are  partially  closed,  vision  is  impaired,  he  presses  or 
thrusts  his  head  against  the  manger  or  sides  of  the  stall,  and  paws  or 
even  climbs  with  his  fore  feet.  Respirations  are  less  frequent  than  in 
health,  the  pulse  slow  and  sluggish.  All  these  symptoms  rapidly  in- 
crease in  severity  ;  he  becomes  delirious ;  cold  sweats  bedew  the  body; 
he  trembles  violently,  slobbers  or  vomits  a  sour,  fermenting  mass, 
staggers  from  side  to  side,  or  plunges  madly  about  until  he  drops  dead. 
Usually  the  bowels  are  constipated,  although  (and  especially  if  the  en- 
gorgement is  due  to  eating  wheat  or  rye)  diarrhea  has  been  observed. 
These  symptoms  resemble  in  some  particulars  those  of  "blind"  or 


31 

"  mad"  staggers,  but  if  we  are  careful  to  get  the  history  of  the  ease,  i.  e., 
ravenous  eating  after  a  long  fast,  or  gaining  access  to  graiu-biiis,  we 
should  not  be  in  much  danger  of  confounding  them.  Post-mortem  ex- 
aminations sometimes  reveal  rupture  of  the  stomach,  owing  to  its  enor- 
mous distension,  and  to  the  violence  with  which  he  throws  himself  in  his 
delirium.     If  not  ruptured  the  stomach  will  be  distended  to  its  utmost. 

Treatment  for  these  cases  is  very  unsatisfactory.  A  j)urgative  of 
Barbadoes  aloes,  1  ounce,  should  be  given  at  once.  We  should  then 
try  to  stimulate  the  walls  of  the  stomach  to  contraction  by  giving  cay- 
enne pepper,  one-half  ounce,  or  half-ounce  doses  of  Jamaica  ginger. 
Injections  into  the  rectum,  last  gut,  of  turijentine  2  ounces,  in  8  ounces 
of  linseed  oil,  may  stimulate  the  bowels  to  act,  and  thus,  in  a  measure, 
relieve  the  stomach.  Cold  applications  applied  to  the  head  may  in 
some  cases  relieve  the  cerebral  symptoms  already*  referred  to,  and  some 
recommend  bleeding  for  the  same  purpose. 

Tympanites  of  the  stomach. — This  is  of  somewhat  frequent  occurrence, 
according  to  my  observation,  but  is  not,  I  believe,  as  a  rule,  separately 
treated  of  by  works  on  veterinary  medicine.  It  is  similar  in  cause  and 
symptoms  to  the  above,  yet  distinct  enough  to  enable  the  careful  ob- 
server to  readily  differentiate  between  them.  In  tymi)anites  of  the 
stomach  we  find  this  organ  to  be  greatly  distended  as  before,  but  in 
this  case  its  contents  are  gaseous,  or  probably  a  mixture  of  food  and 
gases,  like  fermenting  yeast.  This  disease  of  the  horse  corresponds 
exactly  with  "hoven"  or  "blown"  in  cattle,  and  may  be  due  to  over- 
loading the  stomach  with  young,  succulent,  growing  herbage,  clover  in 
particular,  from  whose  subsequent  fermentation  gas  is  liberated  in 
quantities  sufficient  to  enormously  distend  the  stomach.  Growing 
wheat  or  rye  are  also  fertile  causes  of  this  distention  if  eaten  in  any  con- 
siderable amounts.  Another  very  frequent  cause  of  stomach-bloat  is 
overfeeding,  particularlj'  if  given  immediately  before  hard  work.  Many 
l^eople,  if  they  expect  to  make  a  long  journey,  think  to  fit  their  horses 
for  the  fatigue  consequent  thereto  by  giving  an  extra  allowance  of  oats 
or  other  food  just  before  starting.  This  is  most  injudicious.  The  horse 
starts  to  his  work  feeling  full  and  oppressed;  he  soon  grows  dull  and 
listless,  and  fails  to  respond  to  the  whip ;  sweats  profusely;  attempts 
to  lie  down  ;  his  head  is  carried  forward  and  downward,  and  if  checked 
up  is  heavy  on  the  reins,  stumbles  or  blunders  forward  and  often  falls. 
If  looked  at  carefully  you  can  not  fail  to  observe  that  he  is  unusually  full 
over  the  posterior  ribs.  The  flanks  may  also  be  distended  Avith  gas, 
and  sound  like  a  drum  on  being  struck,  though  I  have  seen  cases  where 
the  gases  were  entirely  confined  to  the  stomach.  With  this  condition 
the  pain  and  distress  are  constant ;  the  swelling  referred  to  plainly  ap- 
preciable; head  extended  and  low,  retching  or  even  vomiting  of  fer* 
mented  food.  On  placing  the  ear  to  the  horse's  windpipe  a  distinct  me- 
tallic sound  can  be  heard,,  as  of  air  rushing  through  the  windpipe. 
Such  cases  are  rapid  in  their  course  and  often  fatal. 


32 

Treatment  must  be  prompt  and  energetic.  An  antacid  should  be  given, 
and,  as  these  cases  mostly  occur  on  the  road  away,  probably,  from  all 
drug-stores,  you  should  hasten  to  the  first  house.  Get  common  baking 
soda,  and  administer  2  to  4  ounces  of  it  as  quickly  as  possible.  One- 
half  ounce  of  cayenne  pepper  may  be  added  to  this  with  advantage,  as 
it  serves  to  aid  the  stomach  to  contract  upon  its  contents,  and  expel  the 
gas.  Charcoal,  in  any  amount ;  chloride  of  lime,  one-half  ounce ;  carbon- 
ate of  ammonia,  one-half  ounce ;  or  any  medicine  that  will  check  or  stop 
fermentation,  or  absorb  the  gases,  may  be  given.  A  physic  of  1  ounce 
of  aloes,  or  1  pint  of  linseed  oil  should  be  given  to  unload  the  stomach 
and  bowels.  Cold  water,  dashed  with  force  over  the  stomach,  is  thought 
by  some  to  favor  condensation  of  the  gas.  This  lesson  should  be  learned 
from  one  of  these  attacks — and  doubtless  will  be  if,  as  is  often  the  case, 
the  horse  dies — that  when  a  horse  or  any  other  animal  is  expected  to 
do  an  unusual  amount  of  work  in  a  short  time  he  will  best  do  it  upon 
a  spare  feed.  Curb  your  generosity  and  humanity  (?)  for  the  brute  un- 
til the  journey's  end,  and  even  then  wait  until  the  horse  is  thoroughly 
rested  before  giving  the  usual  feed. 

Rupture  of  the  stomach. — This  mostly  occurs  as  a  result  of  engorged 
or  tympanitic  stomach,  and  from  the  horse  violently  throwing  himself 
when  so  affected.  It  may  result  from  disease  of  the  coats  of  the  stom- 
ach, gastritis,  stones  or  calculi,  tumors,  or  anything  that  closes  the 
opening  of  the  stomach  into  the  intestines,  and  very  violent  pulling  or 
jumping  immediately  after  the  animal  has  eaten  heartily  of  bulky  food. 
These  or  similar  causes  may  lead  to  this  accident. 

The  symptoms  of  rupture  of  the  stomach  are  not  constant,  nor  always 
reliable.  We  should  always  make  inquiry  as  to  what  and  how  much 
the  horse  has  been  fed  at  the  last  meal.  Vomiting  has,  pretty  gen- 
erally, been  declared  to  be  a  symptom  of  rupture  of  this  organ.  I  wish 
to  preface  what  I  may  say  concerning  this  with  the  statement  that  1 
have  observed  vomiting  when  the  post-mortem  examination  revealed 
rupture;  that  I  have  found  rupture  of  the  stomach  where  vomiting 
had  not  occurred;  that  I  have  witnessed  vomiting  where  the  horse  soon 
after  made  a  rapid  recovery,  i.  e.,  when  the  stomach  was  not  ruptured. 
In  spite  of  this  contradictory  evidence,  I  am  of  the  opinion  that,  taken 
in  connection  with  other  symptoms,  this  sign  is  of  value  as  pointing 
toward  rupture  of  the  stomach.  This  accident  has  occurred  in  my 
practice  mostly  in  heavy  draught  horses.  A  prominent  symptom  ob- 
served (though  I  have  also  seen  it  in  diaphragmatic  hernia)  is  where 
the  horse,  if  possible,  gets  the  front  feet  on  higher  ground  than  the 
hind  ones,  or  sits  on  his  haunches,  like  a  dog.  This  position  affords 
relief  to  some  extent,  and  it  will  be  maintained  for  some  minutes  ;  it  is 
also  quickly  regained  when  the  horse  has  changed  it  for  some  other. 
Colicky  symptoms,  of  course,  are  present,  and  these  will  vary  much, 
and  present  no  diagnostic  value.  As  the  case  progresses  "  the  horse 
will  often  stretch  forward  the  fore  legs,  lean  backwards  and  down- 


33 

wards  until  the  belly  nearly  touches  the  ground,  and  then  rise  up  again 
with  a  groan,  after  which  the  fluid  from  his  nostrils  is  issued  in  increased 
quantity."  The  pulse  is  fast  and  weak,  breathing  hurried,  body  bathed 
in  a  clammy  sweat,  limbs  tremble  violently,  the  horse  reels  or  staggers 
from  side  to  side,  and  death  quickly  ends  the  scene. 

In  the  absence  of  any  pathognomonic  symptom  Percivall  says  we 
must  take  into  account  the  history  of  the  case;  the  subject  of  it;  the 
circumstances  attending  it;  the  swollen  condition  of  the  abdomen;  the 
symptoms  of  colic  that  cease  suddenly  and  are  succeeded  by  cold 
sweats  and  tremors;  the  pulse  from  being  quick  and  small  and  thready, 
growing  weak  and  more  frequent,  and,  at  length  running  down  and 
becoming  altogether  imperceptible;  the  countenance  denoting  gloom 
and  despondency  of  the  heaviest  character;  looking  back  at  the  flank 
and  groaning;  sometimes  crouching  with  the  hindquarters;  with,  or 
without  eructation  and  vomiting. 

There  is  no  treatment  that  can  be  of  any  use  whatever.  Could  we  be 
sure  of  our  diagnosis  it  would  be  better  to  destroy  the  animal  at  once. 
Since,  however,  there  is  always  the  possibility  of  a  mistake  in  diagnosis, 
we  may  give  powdered  opium  in  1-drachm  doses  every  two  or  three  hours, 
with  the  object  of  keeping  the  stomach  as  quiet  as  possible. 

Gastritis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the 
stomach.  As  an  idiopathic  disease  it  very  rarely  exists;  but  is  mostly 
seen  to  be  due  to  mechanical  irritation,  or  to  giving  irritant  and  corro- 
sive poisons  in  too  large  doses  or  without  sufficient  dilution.  The 
symptoms  are  not  well  marked;  there  is  a  febrile  condition,  colicky 
pains,  and,  mostly,  intense  thirst.  When  poisons  have  produced  gas- 
tritis there  will  be  other  symptoms  referable  to  the  action  of  the  partic- 
ular poison  swallowed.  If,  for  instance,  the  gastritis  is  due  to  a  salt 
of  lead  we  must  expect  to  find  difficult  or  labored  breathing,  abdominal 
pains,  partial  paralysis  of  extensor  muscles  primarily,  tottering  gait, 
convulsions,  and  death.  Where  the  poisoning  by  lead  is  gradual  the 
symptoms  differ  somewhat.  There  is  a  general  appearance  of  unthrifti- 
ness,  loss  of  appetite,  staring  coat,  constipation,  watery  swellings  under 
the  jaws,  a  gray  or  blue  line  along  the  margin  of  the  gums,  and  a  pro- 
gressive paralysis,  noted  often  at  first  in  the  anterior  extremities. 
Colicky  symptoms  are  also  observed.  Abortion  is  often  noticed  during 
chronic  lead-poisoning.  In  all  cases  of  lead-poisoning  the  stomach,  and 
often  intestines,  show  erosions  of  its  lining  membrane,  which  in  other 
parts  is  darker  in  color,  and  the  mucous  membrane  is  easily  stripped 
oft'.  Chronic  poisoning  by  lead  is  to  be  expected  near  paint  works, 
about  newly-painted  buildings,  where  paint  kegs  are  left  in  the  fields, 
where  horses  take  small  particles  of  lead  with  their  food,  where  soft 
water  runs  through  new  lead  pipes,  and  where  the  drinking  water  is 
drawn  from  wells  or  cisterns  containing  lead.  Lead  can  be  detected  in 
almost  all  parts  of  the  body  at  the  post-mortem,  examination  of  chronic 
poisoning. 

11035 3 


34 

Treatment. — In  acute  gastritis,  due  to  the  careless  or  accidental  ad- 
ministration of  large  quautities  of  this  poison,  M-e  must  give  sulphuric 
acid,  30  to  GO  drops  well  diluted  with  water,  milk,  white  of  eggs,  oils, 
and  demulcent  drinks,  as  linseed  gruel  or  tea.  If  the  gastritis  is 
chronic,  due  to  the  long  ingestion  of  small  i^articles  of  lead,  we  must 
administer  from  one-half  to  1  pound  of  Epsom  salts.  Iodide  of  potas- 
sium in  1-drachm  doses,  twice  or  thrice  daily,  are  here  of  much  service. 
If  much  pain  exists  it  may  be  relieved  by  giving  morphia  in  3  to  5 
grain  doses,  repeated  two  or  three  times  a  day. 

Where  arsenic  is  the  poison  producing  gastritis  or  gastro-enteritis 
(inflammation  of  the  stomach  and  bowels),  we  have  symptoms  of  ab- 
dominal pain,  nausea,  or  vomiting,  purging  that  is  accompanied  by  an 
ofl'ensive  odor,  staggering  gait,  quickened  breathing,  i)aralysis  of  the 
hind  extremities,  and  death.  On  opening  a  horse  that  has  died  of 
arsenical  poisoning  Ave  are  struck  by  the  escape  of  large  quantities  of 
offensive  gas.  There  are  patches  of  inflammation  and  extravasation  of 
blood  in  the  stomach,  and  often  in  the  intestines,  ('hemical  tests 
should  be  resorted  to  before  giving  a  decided  opinion  that  death  is  due 
to  arsenic.  Poisoning  from  this  agent  is  most  common  where  sheep 
have  been  dii^ped  in  arsenical  preparations  for  the  "scab'^  and  then 
allowed  to  run  on  pasture  without  first  drying  their  wool.  Arsenic  is 
thus  deposited  ujion  the  grass  and  is  eaten  by  horses  grazing  thereon, 
producing  the  symtoms  of  gastritis  and  death.  Gastritis  may  also  occur 
from  poisoning  by  copper,  the  mercurials,  and  some  vegetable  drugs. 
Gastritis  produced  by  any  of  the  irritant  poisons  is  to  be  treated  with 
oils  and  demulcent  drinks.  Opium  may  be  given  to  allay  j)ain  and 
inflammation.  Care  should  be  observed  in  fee'ding  for  a  time,  being 
careful  to  give  only  soft  and  easily  digested  foods. 

BOTS — laev^:e  op  the  gadfly. 

There  are  such  erroneous  opinions  extant  concerning  the  bot  and 
the  depredations  it  is  supposed  to  commit  upon  the  horse  that  a  some- 
what careful  study  should  be  made  of  it. 

Of  the  many  insect  parasites  and  tormentors  of  solipeds  the  gad- 
flies (CEstridae)  are  of  the  most  importance.  Cobbold,  who  is  the  best 
authority  on  the  subject,  says  : 

The  common  gad-fly  {GastrojjMlits  equi)  attacks  the  animal  while  grazing  late  in 
the  summer,  its  object  being,  not  to  derive  sustenance,  but  to  deposit  its  eggs.  This 
is  accomplished  by  means  of  a  glutinous  excretion,  causing  the  ova  (eggs)  to  ad- 
here to  the  hairs.  The  parts  selected  are  chiefly  those  of  the  shoulder,  base  of  the 
neck,  and  inner  part  of  the  fore  legs,  especially  about  the  knees,  for  in  these  situations 
the  horse  "will  have  no  difficulty  in  reaching  the  ova  with  its  tongue.  When  the 
animal  licks  those  parts  of  the  coat  where  the  eggs  have  been  idaced  the  moisture  of 
the  tongue,  aided  by  warmth,  hatches  the  ova,  and  in  something  less  than  three 
weeks  from  the  time  of  the  deposition  of  the  eggs  the  larvie  have  made  their  escape. 
As  maggots  they  are  next  transferred  to  the  mouth  and  ultimately  to  the  stomach 
along  with  food  and  drink.  A  great  many  larvre  perish  during  this  passive  mode  of 
immigration,  some  being  dropped  from  the  mouth  and  others  being  crushed  in  the 


35 

fodder  during  mastication.  It  has  Lecii  calculated  tliat  out  of  the  raany  hundreds 
of  eggs  deposited  ou  a  single  horse  scarcely  one  out  of  iifty  of  the  larvse  arrive  within 
the  Stomach.  Notwithstanding  this  waste  the  interior  of  the  stomach  may  become 
completely  covered  (cuticular  portion)  with  bots.  Whether  there  he  few  or  many 
they  are  anchored  in  this  situation  chiefly  hy  means  of  two  large  cephalic  hooks. 
After  the  hots  have  attained  perfect  growth  thej  voluntarily  loosen  their  hold  aud 
allow  themselves  to  he  carried  along  the  alimentary  canal  until  they  escape  with  the 
feces.  In  all  cases  they  sooner  or  later  fall  to  the  ground  and  when  transferred  to 
the  soil  they  hury  themselves  beneath  the  surface  in  order  to  undergo  transformation 
into  the  pupa  condition.  Having  remained  in  the  earth  for  a  period  of  six  or  seven 
weeks  they  finally  emerge  from  their  pupal-cocoons  as  perfect  dipterous  (winged) 
insects— the  gad-fly.  It  thus  appears  that  bots  ordinarily  pass  about  eight  months 
of  their  lifetime  in  the  digestive  organs  of  the  horse. 

The  species  just  described  infest  chiefly  the  stomach  and  duodenum- 
small  gut  leading  from  the  stomach. 

Another  species  of  oestrus  affecting  the  horse  is  the  oestrus  hoemorrhoi- 
Aalis.  These  are  found  fastened  to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  rectum, 
(last  gut)  or  even  outside  upon  the  anus,  and  occasion  much  irritation 
aud  annoyance,  and,  at  times,  require  to  be  removed  by  the  fingers  or 
forceps. 

The  opinion,  almost  uni'rersally  entertained,  that  bots  frequently 
cause  colicky  pains,  is  erroneous.  Itis  very  common  to  hear  by-stauders 
declare  that  almost  every  horse  with  abdominal  pains  "has  the  bots," 
and  their  suggested  treatment  is  always  varied  and  heroic. 

Almost  all  horses  in  the  country,  as  well  as  horses  in  the  cities  during 
their  first  year  there,  have  "  the  bots."  It  is  in  exceptionally  rare  in- 
stances that  they  produce  any  appreciable  symptoms  or  disturbances. 
In  my  own  practice  I  have  never  known  bots  to  be  the  cause  of  any 
serious  ailment  of  the  horse ;  and  only  once  has  my  father,  in  a  practice 
extending  over  fifty  years,  known  bots  to  be  the  cause  of  death.  In 
this  instance  the  bots  seemed  to  have  simultaneously  loosened  their 
hold  upon  the  mucous  lining  of  the  stomach,  and  were  forced  as  an  im- 
permeable wedge  into  the  pyloric  orifice,  or  outlet,  of  the  stomach,  and 
thus,  preventing  the  passage  of  food  or  medicine,  produced  death. 
Were  the  bots  to  attempt  to  fasten  themselves  to  the  sensitive  lining  of 
the  bowels  in  their  outward  passage  they  might  cause  irritation  and 
expressions  of  pain  in  the  form  of  colicky  symptoms,  but  this  they  sel- 
dom or  never  do.  The  opinion  frequently  expressed  ixt  postmortem  ex- 
aminations, when  the  stomach  is  found  to  be  ruptured,  that  "  the  bots 
have  eaten  through  the  stomach,"  is  again  a  mistake.  Bots  never  do 
iMs;  the  rupture  is  due  to  overdistention  of  the  viscus  with  food  or 
gases.  Some  writers  on  veterinary  medicine  have  even  urged  that  bots, 
by  their  presence,  stimulated  the  stomach  secretions,  and  were  thus 
actually  an  aid  to  digestion.  This  opinion  is  as  far  from  the  truth  as 
the  more  general  one  referred  to  above,  concerning  the  harm  they  do. 

Bots  may,  and  probably  do,  when  in  large  enough  numbers  to  be 
fastened  to  the  true  digestive  portion  of  the  stomach,  slightly  interfere 
with  digestion  ;  the  animal  may  not  thrive,  the  coat  stares,  and  emacia- 


36 

tion  may  follow ;  but  beyond  this,  with  the  exception  already  noted, 
they  are  harmless.  Even  were  they  the  cause  of  trouble,  there  are  no 
medicines  that  affect  them ;  neither  acids,  nor  alkalies,  anthelmintics 
(worm  medicines),  nor  anodynes  cause  them  to  become  loose  and  to 
pass  out  of  the  body.  To  prevent  them  it  is  necessary  to  watch  for  their 
eggs  on  the  legs  and  different  parts  of  the  body  in  the  late  summer  and 
autumn.  These  eggs  are  to  be  carefully  scraped  oft"  and  burned.  Horses 
should  not  be  watered  from  stagnant  ponds,  as  they  frequently  swallow 
the  ripening  eggs  with  such  water.  It  is  entirely  useless  to  attempt 
any  treatment  to  rid  the  horse  of  bots ;  the^^  go  at  their  appointed  time, 
and  can  not  be  dislodged  before  this.  We  should  remember  that  in 
following  their  natural  course  or  stages  of  existence  the  bots  loosen 
their  hold  during  May  and  June  mostly.  They  are  then  expelled  in 
great  numbers,  and  horse-owners,  noticing  them  in  the  manure,  hasten 
to  us  saying  "my  horse  has  the  bots."  If  we  are  honest  we  tell  him 
that,  in  the  natural  course  of  events,  nature  is  doing  for  him  that  which 
we  can  not  do.  We  may  say  in  conclusion,  then,  that  bots  seldom  pro- 
duce any  evil  effects  whatever ;  that  not  more  than  once  in  ten  thousand 
times  are  they  the  cause  of  colicky  symptoms,  and  that  they  require  no 
medicine  to  eject  them. 

INDIGESTION. 

Indigestion  is  a  term  applied  to  all  those  conditions  where,  from  any 
cause,  digestion  is  imperfectly  i^erformed.  It  is  not  at  all  uncommon  to 
witness  in  the  horse  symptoms  similar  to  those  of  dyspei)sia  in  man. 
The  disturbances  of  digestion  included  under  this  head  are  not  so  pro- 
nounced as  to  produce  colic,  yet  our  consideration  of  diseases  of  the 
digestive  organs  would  be  incomplete  if  we  failed  to  mentiou  this,  the 
most  frequest  of  all  digestive  disorders.  The  seat  and  causes  of  indi- 
gestion are  found  to  vary  in  different  horses,  or  even  in  the  same  horse 
at  different  times.  Apart  from  the  indigestibilitj"  of  the  food  itself 
there  are  many  causes  productive  of  indigestion.  The  teeth  are  often 
at  fault.  Where  these  are  sharp,  irregular,  or  decayed  the  food  is  im- 
perfectly masticated  and  swallowed  before  there  is  a  prox)er  admixture 
with  the  saliva.  Bolting  of  the  food;  the  bile— secretion  of  the  liver 
— may  be  defective  in  quality  or  quantitj^;  there  may  be  lack  of  secre- 
tion of  the  pancreatic  juice,  or  there  may  be  simply  want  of  peristaltic 
movement  of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  thereby  causing  an  interrup- 
tion of  the  passage  of  the  ingesta.  The  principal  seat  of  indigestion, 
however,  is  in  the  stomach  or  small  intestines.  Whenever,  from  any 
cause,  the  secretions  from  these  parts  are  excessive  or  difiScient,  dys- 
pepsia or  indigestion  must  invariably  follow.  Indigestion  is  often  due 
to  keeping  horses  on  low,  marshy  pastures,  and  particularly  during 
cold  weather;  wintering  on  hard,  dry  hay  or  corn-stalks,  and  other 
bulky  and  inuutritive  food ;  irregular  feeding  or  overferdnig  (though 
this  latter  is  more  likely  to  produce  engorged  stomach,  or  tympanites 


37 

of  the  stomach,  which  have  been  described  by  some  as  "acute  indi- 
gos tiou.") 

■Si/mptoms. — Indigestion  is  characterized  by  irregular  appetite;  re- 
fusing all  food  at  times,  and  at  others  eating  ravenously ;  the  appetite 
is  not  only  irregular,  but  is  often  depraved ;  there  is  a  disposition  on 
the  part  of  the  liorse  to  eat  unusual  substances,  as  wood,  soiled  bed- 
ding, or  even  his  rwn  feces ;  the  bowels  are  irregular,  to-day  loose  and 
bad  smelling,  to-morrow  bound  ;  grain  often  i^assed  whole  in  the  feces 
and  the  hay  passed  in  balls  or  impacted  masses  undergoing  but  little 
change ;  the  horse  frequently  passes  considerable  quantities  of  wind 
that  has  a  sour  odor.  The  animal  loses  flesh,  the  skin  presents  a  hard, 
dry  appearance,  and  seems  very  tight  (hide-bound).  If  these  symp- 
toms occur  in  a  single  horse  in  a  stable  where  others  are  kept  we  must 
look,  not  to  the  feed,  but  to  the  animal  himself  for  the  cause  of  his 
trouble. 

Treatment. — It  is  evident,  from  the  many  causes  of  indigestion  and 
from  its  protean  forms,  that  we  must  be  exceedingly  careful  in  our  ex- 
aminations of  the  subject  of  this  disorder.  We  must  commence  with 
the  food,  its  quality,  quantity,  and  time  of  feeding;  examine  the  water 
supply,  and  see,  besides,  that  it  is  gi%"en  before  feeding;  then  we  must 
carefully  observe  the  condition  of  the  mouth  and  teeth ;  and,  continuing 
our  observations  as  best  we  may,  endeavor  to  locate  the  seat  of  trouble 
— whether  it  is  in  the  stomach,  intestines,  or  annexed  organs  of  diges- 
tion, as  the  liver  and  pancreas.  If  the  teeth  are  sharp  or  irregular 
they  must  be  rasped  down  ;  if  any  are  decayed  they  must  be  extracted; 
if  indigestion  is  due  to  ravenous  eating  or  bolting  the  food,  we  must 
then  feed  from  a  large  manger  where  the  grain  can  be  spread  and  the 
horse  compelled  to  eafc  slowly. 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases  I  have  found  a  cathartic,  aloes  1  ounce, 
or  linseed  oil  1  pint,  to  be  of  much  service  if  given  at  the  outset.  Any 
irritation,  such  as  worms,  undigested  food,  etc.,  that  are  operating  as 
"  causes,"  are  thus  removed,  and  in  many  instances  no  further  treat- 
ment is  required.  There  is  mostly  a  tendency  to  distension  of  the 
stomach  and  bowels  with  gas  during  indigestion,  and  I  have  never 
found  any  treatment  so  effective  as  the  following  alkaline  tonic:  Bak- 
ing soda,  powdered  ginger,  and  powdered  gentian,  equal  parts.  These 
are  to  be  thoroughly  mixed  and  given  in  heaping  tablespoonful  doses, 
twice  a  day,  before  feeding.  This  powder  is  best  given  by  dissolving 
the  above  quantity  in  a  half  pint  of  water,  and  given  as  a  drench. 

INTESTINAL   WORMS. 

Although  there  are  several  species  of  worms  found  in  the  intestines 
of  horses,  it  will  be  sufficient,  in  an  article  like  this,  to  refer  only  to 
three  or  four  of  the  most  common  ones.  Worms  are  most  frequently 
seen  in  young  horses,  and  in  those  that  are  weak  and  debilitated.  They 
commonly  exist  in  horses  that  are  on  low,  wet,  or  marshy  xjastures,  and 
in  those  that  drink  stagnant  water. 


38 

The  intestinal  worm  most  commonlj'^  seen  is  known  as  the  Luinhncoid 
worm.  In  form  it  is  much  like  the  common  earth-worm.  It  is  white  or 
reddish  in  color,  and  measures  from  4  to  12  inches  in  length,  though 
some  have  been  seen  that  were  nearly  30  inches  long.  In  thickness 
they  vary  from  the  size  of  a  rye  straw  to  that  of  a  lady's  little  finger, 
being  thickest  at  the  middle,  and  tapering  at  both  ends.  They  are 
found  singly  or  in  groups  or  masses,  and  infest  chiefly  the  small  intes- 
tines. 

Another  common  variety  of  intestinal  worm  is  called  the  pin  worm, 
and  is  found  mostly  in  the  large  intestines.  These  are  semi  transpa,reut, 
thread  like  worms,  measuring  in  length  from  1  to  2  inches. 

The  tape-worm,  once  seen,  is  easily  recognized.  It  is  white,  flat, 
thin,  broad,  and  jointed.  The  head  is  found  at  the  smaller  end  of  the 
worm.  Tape- worms  of  the  horse  sometimes  measure  from  20  to  30  feet 
in  length. 

Symptoms  of  intestinal  tcorms. — Slight  colicky  i^ains  are  noticed  at 
times,  or  there  may  only  be  switching  of  the  tail,  frequent  passages  of 
manure,  and  some  slight  straining,  itching  of  the  anus,  and  rubbing  of 
the  tail  or  rump  against  the  stall  or  fences  ;  the  horse  is  in  poor  condi- 
tion ;  does  not  shed  his  coatj  is  hide-bound  and  pot- bellied;  the  appe- 
tite is  depraved,  licking  the  walls,  biting  the  wooden  work  of  the  stalls, 
licking  parts  of  his  body,  eating  earth,  and  being  particularly  fond  of 
salt;  the  bowels  are  irregular,  constipation  or  diarrhea  being  noticed. 
Some  place  much  dependence  upon  the  symptom  of  itching  of  the  up- 
j)er  lip,  as  shown  by  the  horse  frequently  turning  it  up  and  rubbing  it 
upon  the  wall  or  stalls.  Others  again  declare  that  whenever  we  see  the 
adherence  of  a  dried  whitish  substance  about  the  anus  worms  are  pres- 
ent. The  owe  symptom,  however,  that  we  should  always  look  for,  and 
certainly  the  only  one  that  may  not  deceive  us,  is  seeing  the  horse  pass 
the  worms  in  his  dung. 

Treatment. — Eemedies  to  destroy  intestinal  worms  are  much  more  ef- 
ficient if  given  after  a  long  fast,  and  then  the  worm  medicine  must  be 
supplemented  by  a  physic  to  carry  out  the  worms.  Among  the  best 
worm  medicines  may  be  mentioned  santonine,  turi)entine,  tartar  emetic, 
infusion  of  tobacco,  and  bitter  tonics.  To  destroy  tapeworms,  areca 
nut,  male-fern,  and  pumpkin  seeds  are  the  best.  If  a  horse  is  pass- 
ing the  long  round  worms,  for  instance,  the  plan  of  treatment  is  to 
give  twice  daily  for  three  or  four  days  a  drench  composed  of  turpen- 
tine, 1  ounce,  and  linseed  oil  2  or  3  ounces,  to  be  followed  on  the  fourth 
day  by  a  physic  of  Barbadoes  aloes,  I  ounce.  If  the  pin- worms  are 
present  (the  ones  that  infest  the  large  bowels),  injections  into  the  rec- 
tum of  infusions  of  tobacco,  infusions  of  quassia  chii)s,  one-half  pound 
to  a  gallon  of  water,  once  or  twice  daily  for  a  few  days,  and  followed  by 
a  physic,  are  most  beneficial.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  intes- 
tinal worms  are  mostly  seen  in  horses  that  are  in  poor  condition  ;  and 
an  essential  part  of  our  treatment  then  is  to  improve  the  appetite  and 


39 

powers  of  digestion.  This  is  best  doue  by  giving  tbe  vegetable  tonics. 
One-hair  ounce  of  Peruvian  bark,  gentian,  ginger,  quassia,  etc.,  is  to 
be  given  twice  a  day  in  the  feed  or  as  a  drench.  Unless  some  such 
medicines  and  good  food  and  pure  water  are  given  to  tone  up  the  di- 
gestive organs  the  worms  will  rapidly  accumulate  again,  even  though 
they  may  have  all  been  expelled  by  the  worm  medicines  proper. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  INTESTINES. 

Spasmodic  or  cramp  colic. — This  is  the  name  given  to  that  form  of  colic 
produced  by  contraction,  or  spasm,  of  a  portion  of  the  small  intestines. 
It  is  produced  by  indigestible  food ;  foreign  bodies,  as  nails  and  stones 
in  the  bowels ;  large  drinks  of  cold  water  when  the  animal  is  warm ; 
driving  a  heated  horse  through  deep  streams,  cold  rains,  draughts  of 
cold  air,  etc.  Unequal  distribution  of  or  interference  with  the  nervous 
supply  here  produces  cramp  of  the  bowels,  the  same  as  external  cramps 
are  produced.  Spasmodic  colic  is  much  more  frequently  met  with  in 
high-bred,  round-barreled  nervous  horses  than  in  coarse,  lymphatic 
ones. 

Symptoms.— These  should  be  carefully  studied  in  order  to  diagnose 
this  from  other  forms  of  colic  requiring  quite  different  treatment.     Spas- 
modic colic  always  begins  suddenly.    If  feeding,  the  horse  is  seen  to 
stop  abruptly,  stamp  impatiently,  and  probably  look  backwards.     He 
soon  evinces  more  acute  pain,  and  this  is  shown  by  pawing,  suddenly 
lying  down,  rolling,  and  getting  up.     There  is  then  an  interval  of  ease; 
he  will  resume  feeding,  and  appear  to  be  entirely  well.    In  a  little  while, 
however,  the  pains  return  and  are  increased  in  severity,  only  to  again 
pass  off  for  a  time.    As  the  attack  progresses  these  intervals  of  ease 
become  shorter  and  shorter,  and  pain  may  be  continuous,  though  even 
now  there  are  exacerbations  of  pain.     Animals  suffering  from  this  form 
of  colic  evince  the  most  intense  pain  ;  they  throw  themselves  down,  roll 
over  and  over,  jump  up,  whirl  about,  drop  down  again,  paw,  or  strike, 
rather,  with  the  front  feet,  steam  and  sweat,  make  frequent  attempts  to 
pass  their  urine,  and  the  penis  is  partially  erected.     Only  a   small 
amount  of  water  is  passed  at  a  time,  and  this  is  due  to  the  bladder  be- 
ing so  frequently  emptied,  i.  e.,  there  is  but  little  water  to  pass.     These 
attempts  to  urinate  are  almost  always  regarded  as  sure  symptoms  of 
trouble  of  the  kidneys  or  bladder.    In  reality  they  are  only  one  of  the 
many  ways  in  which  the  horse  expresses  the  presence  of  pain.    Allow 
me  to  digress  slightly,  and  to  assure  the  reader  that  diseases  of  the 
bladder  or  kidneys  of  the  horse  are  exceedingly  rare.    The  stomach  and 
bowels  are  affected  in  a  thousand  instances  where  the  kidneys  or  blad- 
der are  once.    Attempts    to  pass  water    and  failure  to  do  so  are  not 
enough  to  warrant  us  in  pronouncing  the  case  one  of  "  trouble  with  his 
water,"  nor  should  we,  if  a  horse  yields  or  sinks  when  pinched  over  the 
loins,  declare  that  kidney  disease  exists.    Try  this  pressure  on  any 


40 

horse,  and  tbe  great  majority  will  be  seen  to  thus  yield;  in  fact,  this  is 
rather  a  sign  or  symptom  of  health  than  of  disease. 

To  recapitulate  the  symptoms  of  spasmodic  colic :  Keep  in  mind  the 
history  of  the  case,  the  type  of  horse,  the  suddenness  of  the  attack,  the 
intervals  of  ease  (which  become  of  shorter  duration  as  the  case  pro- 
gresses), the  violent  pain,  the  normal  temperature  and  pulse  during  the 
intervals  of  ease,  the  frequent  attempts  to  urinate,  the  erection  of  the 
penis,  etc.,  and  there  is  but  little  danger  of  confounding  this  with 
other  foruis  of  colic. 

Treatment. — Since  the  pain  is  due  to  spasm  or  cramp  of  the  bowels, 
medicines  that  overcome  spasms — anti-spasmodics — are  the  ones  indi- 
cated. Probably  there  is  no  medicine  better  than  chloral  hydrate. 
This  is  to  be  given  in  a  dose  of  1  ounce  in  a  half  pint  of  water  as  a 
drench.  A  very  common  and  good  remedy  is  sulphuric  ether  and  laud- 
anum; of  each  2  ounces  in  half  pint  of  linseed  oil.  Another  drench 
may  be  composed  of  2  ounces  each  of  sulphuric  ether  and  alcohol  in  8 
ounces  of  water.  If  nothiug  else  is  at  hand  we  may  give  whisky;  one- 
half  pint  in  hot  water.  If  relief  is  not  obtained  in  one  hour  from  any 
of  the  above  doses,  they  may  then  be  repeated.  The  body  should  be 
warmly  clothed  and  perspiration  induced.  Blankets  dipj)ed  in  very  hot 
water  to  which  a  small  quantity  of  turpentine  has  been  added  should 
be  placed  around  the  belly  and  covered  with  dr^'  blankets,  or  the  abdo- 
men may  be  rubbed  with  stimulating  liniments  or  mustard- water.  The 
difficulty,  however,  of  applying  hot  blankets  and  keeping  them  in  place 
forces  us  in  most  instances  to  dispense  with  them.  If  the  cramp  is  due 
to  irritants  in  the  bowels  a  cure  is  not  complete  until  we  have  given  a 
cathartic  of  1  ounce  of  aloes  or  1  pint  of  liuseed-oil.  Injections  into  the 
rectum  of  warm,  soapy  water,  or  salt  and  water,  aid  the  cure. 

One  word  here  about  injections,  or  enemas,  as  they  are  called.  These, 
as  a  rule,  should  be  lukewarm  and  from  3  to  0  quarts  are  to  be  given 
at  a  time.  They  may  be  repeated  every  half  hour  if  necessary.  Great 
care  is  to  be  taken  not  to  iujure  the  rectum  in  giving  rectal  injections. 
A  large  syringe  is  the  best  means  by  which  to  give  them.  If  this  ia 
not  to  be  had,  take  a  large  elder,  from  which  the  pith  has  been  removed, 
or  a  piece  of  hose.  A  large  hog's  bladder  is  to  be  filled  with  the  fluid 
to  be  injected  and  tied  about  one  end  of  the  elder  or  hose.  The  point 
to  be  introduced  into  the  rectum  must  be  blunt,  rounded,  and  smooth. 
It  is  to  be  thoroughly  oiled  and  then  carefully  pushed  through  the  anus 
in  a  slightly  upward  direction.  Pressure  upon  the  bladder  will  force 
its  contents  into  the  bowel.  Much  force  must  be  avoided,  for  the 
rectum  may  be  lacerated  and  serious  complications  or  even  death  re- 
sult. Exercise  will  aid  the  action  of  the  bowels  in  this  and  similar 
colicky  troubles,  but  severe  galloping  or  trotting  is  to  be  condemned. 
If  the  horse  can  have  a  loose  box  or  paddock  it  is  the  best,  as  he  will 
then  take  what  exercise  he  wants.  If  the  patient  be  extremely  violent 
it  is  often  wise  to  restrain  him,  since  rupture  of  the  stomach  or  dis- 
placement of  the  bowels  may  result  and  complicate  the  troubles. 


41 

Flatulent  colic — Tympanites — Wind  colic — Bloat. — Among  the  most 
frequent  causes  of  this  form  of  colic  are  to  be  meutioned  sudden  changes 
of  food,  too  long  fasting  and  food  then  given  while  the  animal  is  ex- 
hausted, new  hay  or  grain,  large  quantities  of  green  food,  food  that 
has  lain  in  the  manger  for  some  time  and  become  sour,  indigestible 
food,  irregular  teeth,  crib-biting,  and  in  fact  anything  that  produces 
indigestion  may  produce  flatulent  colic. 

The  symptoms  of  wind  colic  are  not  so  suddenly  developed,  nor  so 
severe  as  those  of  cramp  colic.  At  first  the  horse  is  noticed  to  be  dull, 
paws  slightly,  may  or  may  not  lie  down.  The  pains  from  the  start  are 
continuous.  The  belly  enlarges,  and  by  striking  it  in  front  of  the 
haunches  a  drum-like  sound  is  elicited.  If  not  soon  relieved  the  above 
symptoms  are  aggravated,  and  in  addition  we  notice  difficult  breath- 
ing, profuse  perspiration,  trembling  of  anterior  limbs,  sighing  respira- 
tion, staggering  from  side  to  side,  and,  finally,  plunging  forward  dead. 
The  diagnostic  symptom  of  flatulent  colic  is  the  distention  of  the  bow- 
els with  gas,  detected  by  the  bloated  appearance  and  resonance  on 
percussion. 

The  treatment  for  wind  colic  differs  very  materially  from  that  of 
cramp  colic.  Alkalines  neutralize  the  gases  formed,  and  must  be 
promptly  given.  Probably  as  good  a  domestic  remedy  as  can  be  had 
is  baking-soda,  in  doses  of  from  2  to  4  ounces.  If  this  fails,  give  chlo- 
ride of  lime  in  half-ounce  doses,  or  the  same  quantity  of  carbonate  of 
ammonia  every  half  hour  until  relieved.  Absorbents  are  also  of  serv- 
ice, and  we  may  give  charcoal  in  any  quantity.  Relaxants  and  anti- 
spasmodics are  also  beneficial  in  this  form  of  colic.  Chloral  hydrate 
not  only  possesses  these  qualities,  but  it  also  is  an  anti-ferment  and  a 
pain-reliever.  It  is  then  particularly  well  adapted  in  the  treatment  of 
wind  colic,  and  should  be  given  in  the  same  sized  doses  and  in  the 
manner  directed  for  spasmodic  colic. 

A  physic  should  always  be  given  in  flatulent  colic  as  early  as  possi- 
ble, the  best  being  Barbadoes  aloes  in  the  dose  already  mentioned. 
Injections,  per  rectum,  of  turpentine  1  to  2  ounces,  linseed-oil  8  ounces, 
may  be  given  frequently  to  stimulate  the  peristaltic  motion  of  the  bow- 
els and  favor  the  escape  of  wind.  Blankets  wrung  out  of  hot  water  do 
much  to  afford  relief;  they  should  be  renewed  every  5  or  10  minutes 
and  covered  with  a  dry  woolen  blanket.  This  form  of  colic  is  much 
more  fatal  than  cramp  colic,  and  requires  prompt  and  persistent  treat- 
ment. It  is  entirely  unsafe  to  predict  the  result,  some  apparently  mild 
attacks  going  on  to  speedy  death,  while  others  that  appear  at  the  onset  • 
to  be  very  severe  yielding  rapidly  to  treatment.  Do  not  cease  your 
efforts  until  you  are  sure  the  animal  is  dead.  I  was  called,  in  one 
instance,  and  on  reaching  my  patient  the  owner  informed  me  that  "the 
horse  had  just  died."  The  heart,  however,  was  still  beating,  and  by 
energetic  measures  (tapping,  etc.)  I  "brought  him  back  to  life,"  as  the 
onlookers  asserted.    In  these  severe  cases  puncturing  of  the  bowels  in 


42 

the  most  prominent  (distended)  part  by  means  of  a  small  trocar  and 
canula,  or  with  the  needle  of  a  hypodermic  syringe,  thus  allowing  tlio 
escape  of  gas,  has  often  saved  life,  and  such  punctures  are  not  foUo-wed 
by  any  bad  results  in  the  majority  of  instances. 

Impaction  of  the  large  intestines. — This  is  a  very  common  bowel  trouble 
and  one  which,  if  not  promptly  recognized  and  properly  treated,  results 
in  death.  It  is  caused  mostly  b^^  overfeeding,  especially  of  grain,  and 
I  have  noticed  that  it  is  much  more  common  where  rye  is  fed  alone,  or 
with  other  grains;  old,  dry,  hard  hay,  or  stalks  when  largely  fed  ;  defi- 
ciency of  secretions  of  the  intestinal  tract,  lack  of  water,  want  of  exer- 
cise, paralysis  of  nerve  endings,  medicines,  etc. 

Symptoms.— Imiiaction  of  the  large  bowels  is  to  be  diagnosed  by  a 
slight  abdominal  pain,  which  may  disappear  for  a  day  or  two  to  reap- 
pear with  more  viole-ice.  The  feces  is  passed  somewhat  more  frequently, 
but  in  smaller  quantities  and  more  dry ;  the  abdomen  is  full,  but  not 
distended  with  gas  5  the  horse  at  first  is  noticed  to  paw  and  soon  begins 
to  look  back  at  his  sides.  Probably  one  of  the  most  characteristic 
symptoms  is  the  position  assumed  when  down.  He  lies  flat  on  his 
side,  head  and  legs  extended,  occasionally  raising  his  head  to  look 
toward  his  flank  ;  he  remains  on  his  side  for  from  five  to  fifteen  minutes 
at  a  time.  Evidently  this  position  is  the  one  giving  the  most  freedom 
from  pain.  He  rises  at  times,  w^alks  about  the  stall,  paws,  looks  at  his 
sides,  backs  up  against  the  stall  which  he  presses  with  his  tail,  and 
soon  lies  down  again,  assuming  his  favored  position.  The  bowels  have 
ceased  entirely  to  move.  The  pulse  is  but  little  changed  at  first,  being 
full  and  sluggish ;  later,  if  this  condition  is  not  overcome,  it  becomes 
rapid  and  feeble.  I  have  known  horses  to  suffer  from  impaction  of  the 
bowels  for  a  week,  yet  eventually  recover,  and  others  have  reported 
cases  extending  two  or  even  three  weeks  which  ended  favorably.  As 
a  rule,  however,  they  seldom  last  over  four  or  five  days,  many,  in  fact, 
dying  sooner  than  this. 

The  treatment  consists  of  efibrts  to  produce  movement  of  the  bowels, 
and  to  prevent  infLammation  of  the  same  from  arising.  A  large  cathartic 
is  to  be  given  as  early  as  possible  5  either  of  the  following  are  recom- 
mended: Powdered  Barbadoes  aloes  1  ounce,  calomel  2  drams,  and 
powdered  nux  vomica  1  dram;  or  linseed  oil  1  pint,  and  croton  oil  15 
drops.  Some  favor  the  administration  of  Epsom  salts,  1  pound,  with 
one-quarter  pound  of  common  salt,  claiming  that  this  causes  the  horse 
to  drink  largely  of  water,  and  thus  mechanically  softening  the  impacted 
mass  and  favoring  its  expulsion.  Whichever  physic  is  selected  it  is 
essential  that  you  give  a  full  dose.  This  is  much  better  than  small  and 
repeated  doses.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  horses  require  about 
twenty-four  hours  in  which  to  respond  to  a  physic,  and  under  no  cir- 
cumstances are  physics  to  be  repeated  sooner  than  this.  If  aloes  has 
been  given  and  has  failed  to  operate  at  the  proper  time,  oil  or  some  dif 
ferent  cathartic  should  then  be  administered.  Allow  the  horse  all  the 
water  he  will  drink.     The  action  of  the  physic  may  be  aided  by  giving, 


43 

every  three  or  four  hours,  one-half  ounce  of  tincture  of  belladonna,  or 
one-halt  dram  of  powdered  nux  vomica.  Copious  enemas  are  to  be 
given  every  hour,  and  should  be  varied;  giving  first  soapy  water,  thea 
salt  and  water,  or  the  emulsions  of  turpentine  already  alluded  to  in 
describing  other  diseases  of  the  bowels.  Enemas  of  glycerine,  2  to  4 
ounces,  are  often  beneficial.  Eubbing  or  kneading  of  the  abdominal 
walls,  the  application  of  stimulating  liniments  or  strong  mustard 
water  will  also,  at  times,  favor  the  expulsion  of  this  mass.  Walking 
exercise  must  occasionally  be  given.  If  this  treatment  is  faithfully 
carried  out  from  the  start  the  majority  of  cases  will  terminate  favorably. 
Where  relief  is  not  obtained  inflammation  of  the  bowels  may  ensue, 
and  death  follow  from  this  cause. 

Constipation  or  costiveness  is  often  witnessed  in  the  horse,  and  particu- 
larly in  the  foal.  Many  colts  die  every  year  from  failure  on  the  part 
of  the  attendant  to  note  the  condition  of  the  bowels  soon  after  birth. 
W^henever  the  foal  fails  to  pass  any  feces,  and  in  particular  if  it  pre- 
sents any  signs  of  colick^^  pains — straining,  etc. — immediate  attention 
must  be  given  it.  As  a  rule,  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  give  a  few 
injections  of  soapy  water  in  the  rectum  and  to  introduce  the  finger 
through  the  anus  to  break  down  any  hardened  mass  of  dung  found 
there.  If  this  is  not  effective,  a  purgative  must  be  given.  Oils  are 
the  best  for  these  young  animals,  and  I  mostly  select  castor  oil,  giving 
from  2  to  4  ounces.  The  foal  should  always  get  the  first  of  the  mother's 
milk,  as  this  milk,  for  a  few  days,  possesses  decided  laxative  properties. 
If  a  mare,  while  suckling,  is  taking  laudanum  or  similar  medicines,  the 
foal  should  bo  fed  during  this  time  by  hand  and  the  mare  milked  upon 
the  ground.  Constipation  in  adult  horses  is  mostly  the  result  of  long 
feeding  on  dry,  innutritions  food,  deficiency  of  intestinal  secretions, 
scanty  water  supply,  or  lack  of  exercise.  If  the  case  is  not  complicated 
with  colicky  symptoms,  a  change  to  light,  sloppy  diet,  linseed  gruel  or 
tea,  with  plenty  of  exercise,  is  all  that  is  required.  If  colic  exists  a 
cathartic  is  needed.  In  very  many  instances  the  constipated  condition 
of  the  bowels  is  due  to  lack  of  intestinal  secretions,  and  when  so  due, 
must  be  treated  by  giving  fluid  extract  of  belladonna  three  times  a  day 
in  2-dram  doses,  and  handful  doses  daily  of  Epsom  salts  in  the  feed. 

ALIjMENTARY   concretions — GASTRIC   AND   INTESTINAL. 

Gastric  concretions,  calculi  {stones)  in  the  stomach. — There  are  prob- 
ably but  few  symptoms  exhibited  by  the  horse  that  will  lead  us  to  sus- 
pect the  presence  of  gastric  calculi,  and  possibly  none  by  which  we  can 
unmistakably  asser^  v-heir  presence.  Stones  in  the  stomach  have  been 
most  frequently  found  in  miller's  horses.  A  small  piece  of  the  mill-stone 
or  other  foreign  body  may  serve  as  a  nucleus  around  which  is  deposited 
in  layers  the  calcareous  substances  which  abound  in  their  feed  (the 
sweepings  of  the  mill  floor,  mixed  with  good  food).  I  have  noticed,  and 
it  is  generally  recorded  by  veterinary  writers,  that  a  depraved  and 


44 

capricious  appetite  is  liommon  in  horses  tliat  have  a  stone  forming  in 
their  stomach.  There  is  a  disposition  to  eat  the  wood  work  of  the  sta- 
ble, earth,  and,  in  fact,  ahnost  any  substance  within  their  reach.  This 
symptom  must  not,  however,  be  considered  as  pathognomonic,  since  it 
is  observed  when  calculi  are  not  present.  Occasional  colics  may  result 
from  these  "  stomach  stones,"  and  when  these  lodge  at  the  outlet  of  the 
stomach  they  may  give  rise  to  symptoms  of  engorged  stomach,  already 
described.  I  remember  one  instance  in  which  I  found  a  stone  that 
weighed  nearly  4  pounds  in  the  stomach  of  a  horse. 

The  position  that  seems  to  aftord  the  most  relief  to  the  afflicted  ani- 
mal is  sitting  upon  the  haunches.  Constipation  may  or  may  not  be 
present.  From  all  this  we  may  conclude  that  there  is  reason  to  sus- 
pect the  presence  of  stone  in  the  stomach,  if  there  is  a  history  of  de- 
praved appetite ;  repeated  attacks  of  colic  (and  particularly  if  these  have 
recovered  abruptly) ;  and  the  position  sought  by  the  horse  while  suffer- 
ing— sitting  on  the  haunches,  or  standing  with  the  front  feet  upon 
some  elevation.  During  the  fatal  attack  the  symptoms  are  simply 
those  of  obstruction,  followed  by  those  of  inflammation  and  gangrene, 
and  are  not  diagnostic.  There  is,  of  course,  no  treatment  that  will 
prove  effective.  We  can  simi)ly  give  remedies  to  move  the  bowels,  to 
relieve  pain,  and  to  combat  inflammation. 

Intestinal  concretions,  calculi  (stones)  in  the  intestines. — These  concre- 
tions are  found  mostly  in  the  large  bowels,  though  they  are  occasionally 
met  with  in  the  small  intestines.  They  are  of  various  sizes,  weighing 
from  1  ounce  to  25  i>ounds ;  they  may  be  single  or  multiple,  and  differ 
in  composition  and  appearance,  some  being  soft  (composed  mostly  of 
animal  or  vegetable  matter),  while  others  are  porous  or  honey-combed 
(consisting  of  animal  and  mineral  matter),  and  others  again  that  are 
entirely  hard  and  stone-like.  The  hair-balls,  so  common  to  the  stomach 
and  intestines  of  cattle,  are  very  rare  in  the  horse.  Intestinal  calculi 
form  around  some  foreign  body  as  a  rule,  mostly  a  nail,  piece  of  wood, 
or  something  of  this  description,  whose  shape  they  assume  to  a  certain 
extent.  Layers  are  arranged  concentrically  around  such  nucleus  until 
the  sizes  above  spoken  of  are  formed.  These  stones  are  also  often  found 
in  millers'  horses,  as  well  also  as  horses  in  limestone  districts  where  the 
water  is  hard.  When  the  calculi  attain  a  sufficient  size  and  become 
lodged  or  blocked  in  some  part  of  the  intestines,  they  cause  obstruction, 
inflammation  of  the  bowels,  colicky  symptoms,  and  death.  Some  vete- 
rinarians pretend  to  diagnose  the  presence  of  these  bodies  during  life, 
but  I  know  of  no  certain  signs  or  symptoms  that  reveal  them.  Recur- 
ring colics  and  character  of  food  and  water  may  enable  us  to  make  a 
good  guess  at  times,  but  nothing  more. 

The  symptoms  will  be  those  of  obstruction  of  the  bowels.  Upon  post- 
mortem examinations  we  will  discover  these  stones,  mostly  in  the  large 
bowels ;  the  intestines  will  be  inflamed  or  gangrenous  about  the  point 
of  obstruction.     Sometimes  calculi  have  been  expelled  by  the  action 


45 

of  a  physic,  or  they  may  be  removed  by  the  hand  when  found  to  occupy 
the  last  gut. 

Treatment. — As  in  concretions  of  the  stomach,  there  can  be  but  little 
done  more  than  to  overcome  spasm  (if  any  exists),  and  to  give  physics 
with  the  hope  of  dislodging  the  stone  or  stones  and  carrying  them  on 
and  outward. 

Intussusception  or  Invagination  is  the  slipping  of  a  portion  of  the  in- 
testine into  another  portion  immediately  adjoining,  like  a  partially 
turned  glove  linger.  This  may  occur  at  any  jjart  of  the  bowels,  but  is 
most  frequent  in  the  small  guts.  The  invaginated  portion  may  be 
slight — 2  or  3  inches  onl}^ — or  extensive,  measuring  as  many  feet. 
Treves,  who  has  written  a  most  valuable  work  on  intestinal  obstruc- 
tion in  man,  may  be  quoted  in  substance,  to  some  extent.  He  cautions 
us  not  to  confound  what  he  classes  as  "obstructive  intussusception" 
with  intussusception  of  the  dying.  This  latter  is  often  seen  upon 
post-mortem  examination  of  children,  or  with  us  in  3'oung  colts.  These 
invaginations  occur  shortly  before  death,  and  are  due  to  irregular  con- 
tractions of  the  bowels  that  take  place  during  the  act  of  dying.  Mus- 
cular actions  are,  at  this  time,  irregular  and  tumultuous,  and  it  is  not 
surprising  that  intussusception  is  produced.  "Intussusceptions  of  the 
dying"  are  characterized  by  the  following  peculiarities :  They  are  small, 
free  from  any  trace  of  congestion,  inflammation,  or  adhesion,  and  can 
very  easily  be  reduced  by  slight  traction,-  they  are  apt  to  be  mul- 
tiple, and  are  most  frequently  directed  forward.  In  obstructive  intus- 
susception, on  the  other  hand,  the  inturned  bowel  is  in  the  direction  of 
the  anus.  There  are  adhesions  of  the  intestines  at  this  point,  conges- 
tion, inflammation,  or  even  gangrene. 

Causes  of  invagination. — This  accident  is  most  likely  to  occur  in  horses 
that  are  suffering  from  spasm  of  the  bowel  or  in  those  where  a  small 
portion  of  the  gut  is  i)aralyzcd.  The  natural  worm  or  ring-like  con- 
traction of  the  gut  favors  the  passage  of  the  contracted  or  paralyzed 
portion  into  that  immediately  behind  it.  It  may  occur  during  the  ex- 
istence of  almost  any  abdominal  trouble,  as  diarrhea,  inflammation  of 
the  bowels,  or  from  injuries,  exposure  to  cold,  etc. 

Symptoms. — Unless  the  invaginated  portion  of  the  gut  becomes  strang- 
ulated, probably  no  symptoms  will  be  appreciable,  except  constipation. 
Strangulation  of  the  bowel  may  take  place  suddenly,  and  the  horse  die 
within  twenty-four  hours,  or  it  may  occur  after  several  days,  a  week 
even,  and  death  follow  at  this  time.  There  are  no  symptoms  positively 
diagnostic.  Colicky  pains,  more  or  less  severe,  are  observed,  and  there 
are  no,  or  but  few,  j^assages  of  dung.  I  have  observed  severe  straining 
in  some  instances  of  intussusception,  and  this  should  be  given  due 
credit  when  it  occurs.  As  death  approaches  the  horse  sweats  profusely, 
sighs,  presents  an  anxious  countenance,  the  legs  and  ears  become  cold, 
and  there  is  often  freedom  from  pain  immediately  before  death.  In  some 
rare  instances  the  horse  recovers,  even  though  the  invaginated  portion  of 


4G 

the  gut  Las  become  strangulated.  The  imprisoned  portion  here  sloughs 
away  so  gradually  that  a  union  has  taken  place  between  the  intestines 
at  the  point  where  one  portion  has  slipped  into  that  behind  it.  The 
piece  sloughing  off  is  found  passed  with  the  manure.  Such  cases  are 
exceedingly  rare,  but  their  possibility  should  guide  us  in  our  treatment. 
Cathartic  medicines  are  more  calculated  to  do  harm  than  good.  Wo 
should  treat  with  anodynes  and  anti-spasmodics,  chloral  hydrate,  laud- 
anum, and  sulphuric  ether,  and  medicines  to  prevent  inflammation. 
Some  practitioners  favor  the  administration  of  powdered  opium,  1  to  2 
drams,  every  three  or  four  hours.  Injections  of  salt  and  water  or 
emulsions  of  turpentine  are  given  with  the  somewhat  fanciful  idea  of  pro- 
ducing peristalsis  of  the  intestines  in  a  direction  opposite  to  the  normal 
one,  i.  e.,  contraction  from  the  anus  forward.  If  this  can  be  produced  by 
these  or  any  other  means,  it  will  prove  a  valuable  adjunct  to  other 
treatment.  Soft  feed  and  mucilaginous  and  nourishing  drinks  are  to  be 
given  during  these  attacks. 

Volvulus,  Gut-tic  or  Ticisting  of  the  Bowels. — These  are  the  terms  ap- 
plied to  the  bowels  when  twisted  or  knotted.  This  accident  is  rather  a 
common  one,  and  frequently  results  from  the  violent  manner  in  which 
a  horse  throws  himself  about  when  attacked  by  spasmodic  colic.  The 
symptoms  are  the  same  as  those  of  intussusception  and  obstructions  of 
the  bowels 5  the  same  directions  as  to  treatment  are  therefore  to  be 
observed. 

Diarrhea  is  due  to  eating  moldy  or  musty  food,  drinking  stagnant 
water,  diseased  condition  of  the  teeth,  eating  irritating  substances,  to 
being  kept  on  low,  marshy  pastures,  and  exposure  during  cold  nights, 
low,  damp  stables,  or  to  some  morbid  or  inflammatory  condition  of  the 
intestinal  canal  or  some  of  its  annexed  organs.  It  is  more  frequently 
a  symptom  of  functional  disorder  than  an  organic  disease.  Some  horses 
are  predisposed  to  scour  and  are  called  "washy"  b}^  horsemen;  tliey 
are  those  of  long  bodies,  long  legs,  and  narrow,  flat  sides.  Horses  of 
this  build  are  almost  sure  to  scour  if  fed  or  watered  immediately  before 
being  put  to  w^ork.  Fast  or  road  work,  of  course,  aggravates  this 
trouble.  Diarrhea  may  exist  as  a  complication  of  other  diseases,  as 
pneumonia  and  influenza  for  instance,  and  again  during  the  diseases  of 
the  liver. 

The  si/m2)toms  are  the  frequent  evacuations  of  liquid  stools,  with  or 
without  pronounced  abdominal  pain,  loss  of  appetite,  emaciation,  etc. 

Treatment  is  at  times  very  simple,  but  requires  the  utmost  care  and 
judgment.  If  due  to  faulty  food  or  water  it  is  sufficient  to  change 
these.  If  it  results  from  some  irritant  in  the  intestines,  this  is  best 
gotten  rid  of  by  the  administration  of  an  oleaginous  purge,  the  diarrhea 
mostly  disappeai-ing  with  the  cessation  of  the  operation  of  the  medicine. 
If,  however,  purging  continues,  it  may  be  checked  by  giving  wheat  flour 
in  water,  starch  water,  whiteoak  bark  tea,  chalk,  opium,  or  half-dram 
doses  of  sulphuric  acid  in  one-half  pint  of  water  twice  or  thrice  daily. 


47 

I  Lave  good  results  from  powdered  opium>^!^ga!faf^jS«*^  subnitrate  of 
bismuth,  1  ouuce,  repeated  three  times  a  day.  Oae-quarter  pouud 
doses  of  the  "Thompsoniau  composition,"  to  which  may  be  added  1 
ouuce  of  baking  soda,  given  two  or  three  times  a  day,  are  frequently 
effective.  It  should  be  remembered  in  all  cases  to  look  to  the  water 
and  feed  the  horse  is  receiving.  If  either  of  these  is  at  fault  they  are 
at  once  to  be  discontinued.  We  should  feed  sparingly  of  good,  easily 
digested  foods.  In  that  peculiar  build  of  nervous  horses  that  scour  on 
the  road  but  little  can  be  done,  as  a  rule.  They  should  be  watered  and 
fed  as  long  as  possible  before  going  on  a  drive.  If  there  is  much  flat- 
ulency accompanying  diarrhea,  baking  soda  or  other  lalkaline  medicines 
often  produce  a  cure,  while  if  the  discharges  have  a  very  disagreeable 
odor,  this  can  be  corrected  by  1  ouuce  of  sulphite  of  soda  or  half-dram 
doses  of  carbolic  acid  in  water,  repeated  twice  a  day.  Be  slow  to  resort 
to  either  the  vegetable  or  mineral  astringents,  since  the  majority  of 
cases  will  yield  to  change  of  food  and  water,  or  the  administration  of  oils. 
Afterwards  feed  upon  wheat-flour  gruel  or  other  light  foods.  The 
body  should  be  warmly  clothed. 

Siqyerpnrgation.— This  is  the  designation  of  that   diarrhea  or  flux 
from  the  bowels  that,  at  times,  is  induced  by  and  follows  the  action  of 
a  physic.     It  is  accompanied  by  much  irritation  or  even  inflammation 
of  the  bowels,  and  is  always  of  a  serious  character.     Although  in  rare 
instances  it  follows  from  a  usual  dose  of  physic  and  where  every  pre- 
caution has  been  taken,  it  is  most  likely  to  result  under  the  following 
circumstances:  Too  large  a  dose  of  physic ;  to  giving  physics  to  horses 
suflering  from  pneumonia,  iufluenza^  or  other  debilitating  diseases;  to 
riding  or  driving  a  horse  when  purging ;  to  exposure  or  draughts  of 
cold  air,  or  giving  large  quantities  of  cold  water  while  the  physic  is 
operating.     There  is  always  danger  of  superpurgation  if  a  physic  is 
given  to  a  horse  suflering  from  diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs.     Small 
and  often-repeated  physics  are  also  to  be  avoided,  as  they  produce  de- 
bility and  great  depression  of  the  system  and  predispose  to  this  dis- 
order.   When  a  physic  is  to  be  given  we  should  give  the  horse  sloppy 
food  until  the  medicine  begins  to  operate  5  we  must  clothe  the  body 
with  a  warm  blanket ;  keep  out  of  draughts;  give  only  chilled  water  in 
small  quantities.     After  a  horse  has  purged  from  twelve  to  twenty-four 
hours  it  can  mostly  be  stopped  or  "  set,"  as  horsemen  say,  by  feeding 
on  dry  oats  and  hay.     Should  the  purging  continue,  however,  it  is 
best  treated  by  giving  demulcent  drinks— linseed  tea,  oatmeal  or  wheat- 
flour  gruel.     After  this  the  astringents  spoken  of  for  diarrhea  may  be 
given.     Besides  this  the  horse  is  to  receive  brandy  in  doses  of  from  2 
to  4  ounces,  with  milk  and  eggs,  four  or  five  times  a  day. 

Laminitis  "founder"  is  a  frequent  sequelae  of  superpurgation  and  is 
to  be  guarded  against  by  removing  the  shoes  and  standing  the  horse  on 
moist  sawdust  or  some  similar  bedding. 
Dysentery— 'Willia.ms  defines  dysentery,  or  bloody  flux,  as  an  intes- 


48 

tinal  inflammatory  action  of  a  peculiar  or  specific  character,  attended 
with  fever,  occasional  abdominal  pain,  and  fluid  alvine  discharges, 
mingled  with  blood  or  albuminous  materials ;  the  tissue  changes,  which 
are  usually  regarded  as  special,  being  situated  chiefly  in  the  minute 
gland  structures  and  inter-connective  tissue  of  the  large  intestine,  and 
of  an  ulcerative  or  gangrenous  character.  To  be  plainer,  dysentery  is 
characterized  by  coffee-colored  or  bloody  discharges,  liquid,  and  very 
offensive  in  odor,  and  passed  with  much  tenesmus  (straining).  It  is 
very  rare  in  the  horse. 

Causes. — Probably  the  most  common  cause  is  keeping  young  horses 
in  particular  for  a  long  time  on  low,  wet,  marshy  pastures,  without 
other  feed  (a  diarrhea  of  long  standing  sometimes  terminates  in  dysen- 
tery) ;  exposure  during  cold,  wet  weather;  decomposed  foods;  stagnant 
water  that  contains  large  quantities  of  decomposing  vegetable  matter; 
low,  damp,  and  dark  stables,  particularly  if  crowded ;  the  existence  of 
some  disease,  as  tuberculosis  of  the  abdominal  form. 

Symptoms. — The  initial  symptom  is  a  chill,  which  probably  escapes 
notice  in  the  majority  of  instances.  The  discharges  are  offensive  and 
for  the  most  part  liquid,  although  it  is  common  to  find  lumps  of  solid 
fecal  matter  floating  in  this  liquid  portion ;  shreds  of  mucous  membrane 
and  blood  are  passed,  or  the  evacuations  may  be  muco-purulent;  there 
is  much  straining,  and,  rarely,  symptoms  of  abdominal  pain ;  the  horse 
lies  down  a  great  deal ;  the  pulse  is  quickened  and  the  temperature 
elevated.  The  appetite  may  remain  fair,  but  in  spite  of  this  the  horse 
rapidly  loses  flesh  and  becomes  a  sorry-looking  object.  Death  rarely 
follows  under  two  to  three  weeks.     Thirst  is  a  prominent  symptom. 

Treatment — This  is  most  unsatisfactory,  and  1  am  inclined  to  place 
more  dependence  upon  the  care  and  feed  than  any  medication  that  may 
be  adopted.  First  of  all  the  horse  must  be  placed  in  a  dry,  warm,  yet 
well- ventilated  stable;  the  skin  is  to  receive  attention  by  frequent  rub- 
bings of  the  surface  of  the  body,  with  blankets,  and  bandages  to  the 
legs.  The  water  must  be  pure  and  given  in  small  quantities;  the  food, 
that  which  is  light  and  easily  digested.  Medicinally,  we  must  give  at 
first  a  light  dose  of  castor  oil,  about  one-half  pint,  to  which  has  been 
added  2  ounces  of  laudanum.  The  vegetable  or  mineral  astringents 
are  also  to  be  given.  Starch  injections  containing  laudanum  often 
afford  great  relief.  The  strength  must  be  kept  up  by  milk  punches, 
eggs,  beef  tea,  oat-meal  gruel,  etc.  In  spite  of  the  best  care  and  treat- 
ment, however,  dysentery  mostly  proves  fatal. 

Hcemorrlioids — Piles. — These  are  rare  in  horses,  although  more  fre- 
quently met  with  than  most  people  suppose.  They  are  diagnosed  by 
the  appearance  of  bright-red  irregular  tumors  after  defecation,  which 
may  remain  visible  at  all  times  or  be  seen  only  when  the  horse  is  down 
or  after  passing  his  manure.  They  are  mostly  due  to  constipation,  to 
irritation  or  injuries,  or  follow  from  the  severe  straining  during  dysen- 
tery, I  have  observed  them  to  follow  from  severe  labor  pains  in  the 
mare. 


49 

Treatment.— Attention  must  be  paid  to  the  condition  of  the  bowels; 
they  should  be  soft,  but  purging  is  to  be  avoided.  The  tumors  should 
be  washed  in  warm  water  and  thoroughly  cleansed,  after  which  we  must 
scarify  them  and  gently  but  firmly  squeeze  out  the  liquid  that  will  be 
seen  to  follow  the  shallow  incisions.  While  this  treatment  may  be 
considered  as  heroic,  to  say  the  least,  by  medical  practitioners,  yet  it 
has  invariably  proven  successful  in  my  experience,  no, bad  results  fol- 
lowing. After  thus  squeezing  these  tumors  and  before  replacing 
through  the  anus,  bathe  the  parts  with  some  anodyne  wash.  I  prefer 
for  this  purpose  the  glycerite  of  tannin  and  laudanum  in  equal  parts. 
Mucilaginous  injections  into  the  rectum  may  be  of  service  for  a  few  days. 

Enteritis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous-membrane  lining  the 
bowels.  This  inflammation  may  extend  and  involve  the  muscular  or  even 
serous  coats.  From  my  observations  enteritis  is  exceedingly  rare  in  the 
horse  unless  caused  by  irritants  or  corrosive  poisons,  or  following  from 
invagination,  twisting  of  the  bowels,  etc.  In  ftict,  I  can  not  remember 
ever  to  have  seen  but  one  case  of  enteritis  apart  from  these  or  similar 
causes.  It  is  claimed,  however,  by  some  that  enteritis  may  be  pro- 
duced by  drinking  when  warm  large  quantities  of  cold  water,  driving 
through  deep  streams  when  the  animal  is  heated,  washing  the  entire 
surface  of  the  body  at  such  a  time,  and  by  feeding  moldy  or  musty 
foods,  or  keeping  the  horse  in  damp  cellar  stables. 

Symptoms. — Febrile  symptoms,  from  the  onset,  mark  all  attacks  of 
idiopathic  enteritis.  The  membranes  of  the  nose,  mouth,  and  eyes  are 
congested  and  reddened,  the  mouth  is  hot  and  dry,  respirations  are  in- 
creased, the  pulse  is  hard  and  rapid,  temperature  is  elevated  to  103^  or 
105°  Fah.  Colicky  pains  are  continuous.  The  horse  walks  about  the 
stall,  pa«^s,  lies  down  carefully,  and  most  frequently  turns  himself  upon 
his  back  by  the  side  of  the  stall  and  remains  in  this  position  for  some 
time.  Thirst  is  present.  As  a  rule,  the  bowels  are  sluggish  or  even 
entirely  inactive,  but  when  this  disease  is  due  to  irritant  foods  or  med- 
icines purging  and  tympanites  may  be  present.  The  inflammatory 
pulse,  high  temperature,  continuous  pain,  which  is  increased  upon 
l^ressure,  position  of  the  horse  when  down,  coldness  of  ears  and  legs, 
etc.,  will  enable  us  to  diagnose  a  case  of  enteritis.  Where  enteritis  fol- 
lows as  a  complication  of  diseases  before  described,  the  symptoms  will 
depend  upon  the  character  of  the  original  intestinal  disorder. 

Treatment. — We  must  rely  almost  wholly  upon  opium  internally. 
Give  1  or  2  drams  of  powdered  opium  every  three  or  four  hours. 
One  dram  of  extract  of  belladonna  should  be  added  to  the  above 
doses  of  opium.  Calomel  in  1-dram  doses  twice  a  day  is  also  recom- 
mended. As  a  rule,  purgatives  and  enemas  are  not  to  be  given ;  our 
object  is  to  keep  the  bowels  as  quiet  as  possible.  Hot  blankets  applied 
to  the  belly,  or  counter-irritants  to  abdominal  walls,  are  advisable.  Give 
mucilaginous  drinks,  as  linseed  tea,  oatmeal  gruel,  and  starch  water. 
Avoid  all  solid  foods  that  are  in  the  least  hard,  dry,  and  indigestible. 
11035 4 


50 

If,  when  the  symptoms  of  iuflammatiou  subside,  the  bowels  do  not  act, 
try  to  encourage  this  by  meaus  of  walking  exercise  and  injections  per 
rectum.     Should  these  fail  a  mild  cathartic  is  indicated. 

Another  form  of  disease,  described  by  some  as  enteritis,  by  others  as 
muco  enteritis  ixwd'-'-  anoplexy  of  the  large  Z>o^ce'.s,"is  much  more  common. 
It  is  perhaps  the  most  rapidly  fatal  of  all  bowel  diseases,  and  is  seen 
most  frequently  in  heavy  draught  horses.  Its  causes  are  hard  to  deter- 
mine, but  it  may  follow  exposure  to  cold  storms,  immersing  the  body 
in  cold  water,  and  in  fact  about  the  same  causes  that  produce  true 
enteritis.  In  this  disease  we  find  in  the  large  bowels  mostly  an  exten- 
sive effusion  or  extravasation  of  blood  between  the  mucous  and  muscular 
coats,  giving  a  bluish  or  black  color.  The  intestinal  walls  are  thickened 
by  this  effusion  and  sometimes  measure  from  2  to  3  inches  in  thickness, 

The  symptoms  are  severe  and  jiersistent  pain,  labored  respiration, 
rapid  and  zcealc  pulse,  profuse  perspiration,  aud  paleness  of  the  visible 
mucous  membranes,  A  peculiar,  anxious  expression  exists  that,  once 
seen,  is  almost  diagnostic.  Toward  the  last  the  horse  sighs,  breathes 
stertorously,  staggers  and  pitches  about,  and  dies  in  a  state  of  delirium. 
They  rarely  live  more  than  ten  or  twelve  hours,  and  often  die  inside  of 
six  hours. 

Treatment. — This  is  of  but  little  avail,  since  the  case  has  mostly  made 
great  i^rogress  before  being  seen.  Probably  the  best  domestic  remedy 
is  white-oak  bark  tea  given  in  large  aud  frequently  repeated  doses. 
Tannic  acid,  1  dram,  or  tiuid  extract  of  ergot,  1  ounce,  are  preferable, 
if  at  hand,  and  can  be  given  every  half  hour  until  four  or  five  doses 
have  been  taken.  Hot  ai)plications  to  the  body — blankets  wrung  out 
of  hot  water  and  sprinkled  with  turpentine — are  to  be  applied  fre- 
quently. Mustard  water  should  be  applied  with  smart  friction  to  the 
legs.  Could  we  see  these  cases  at  their  inception  general  bloodletting 
might  prove  of  service. 

Hernia. — There  are  several  different  kinds  of  hernice  that  require  no- 
tice at  this  point,  not  all  of  which,  however,  produce  any  serious  symp- 
toms or  results.  Abdominal  hernia  or  ruptures  are  divided  into  reduci- 
hie,  irreducible,  and  strangulated,  according  to  condition;  aud  'into  ingui- 
nal, scrotal,  ventral,  umbilical  and  diaphragmatic,  according  to  their 
situation.  A  hernia  is  reducible  when  it  can  be  easily  returned  into  the 
abdomen.  It  consists  of  a  soft  swelling,  without  heat,  pain,  or  any 
uneasiness,  generally  larger  after  a  full  meal,  and  decreases  in  size  as 
the  bowels  become  empty.  An  irreducible  hernia  is  one  that  can  not  be 
returned  into  the  abdomen,  and  yet  does  not  cause  any  pain  or  uneasi- 
ness. Strangulated  hernia  is  one  where  the  contents  of  the  sac  are 
greatly  distended,  or  where  from  pressure  upon  the  blood-vessels  of  the 
imprisoned  portion  the  venous  circulation  is  checked  or  stopped,  thereby 
causing  extensive  congestion,  swelling,  inflammation,  and,  if  not  re- 
lieved, gangrene  of  the  part  and  death  of  the  animal.  Hernia  may  be 
congenital  and  accidental  or  acquired. 


51 

Congenital  scrotal  hernia. — Not  a  few  foals  are  noticed  from  birth  to 
have  an  euhirged  scrotum,  which  gradnally  increases  in  size  up  to  about 
the  sixth  mouth,  sometimes  longer.  In  some  instances  I  have  noticed 
the  scrotum  of  a  six-months  old  colt  to  be  as  large  as  that  of  an  adult 
stallion,  and  have  been  repeatedly  asked  to  prescribe  treatment  for  it. 
This  is  entirely  unnecesary  in  ninety-nine  out  of  every  hundred  cases, 
as  this  enlargement  entirely  disappears  by  the  time  the  colt  has  reached 
his  second  year.  Any  interference,  medicinal  or  surgical,  is  worse  than 
useless.  If  the  intestine  contained  within  the  scrotum  should  at  any 
time  become  strangulated,  it  must  then  be  treated  the  same  as  in  an 
adult  horse. 

Scrotalhernia is  caused  by  dilatation  of  the  sheath  of  the  testicle,  com- 
bined with  relaxation  of  the  fibrous  tissue  surrounding  the  inguinal  ring, 
thus  allowing  the  intestine  to  descend  to  the  scrotum.  At  first  this  is  in- 
termittent, appearing  during  work  and  returning  when  the  horse  is  at 
rest.  For  a  long  time  this  form  of  hernia  may  not  cause  the  least  uneasi- 
ness or  distress.  In  course  of  time,  however,  the  imprisoned  gut  becomes 
filled  with  feces,  its  return  into  the  abdominal  cavity  is  prevented,  and 
it  soon  becomes  strangulated.  While  the  gut  is  thus  filling  the  horse 
often  appears  dull,  is  disinclined  to  move,  appetite  is  impaired,  and  there 
is  rumbling  and  obstruction  of  the  bowels.  Colicky  symptoms  now 
supervene.  I  do  not  wish  to  imply  that  strangulation  and  its  conse- 
quent train  of  symptoms  always  follows  in  scrotal  hernia,  as  I  know  of  an 
old  horse  where  the  scrotum,  by  weight  of  the  contained  gut,  forms  a 
pendulous  tumor  reaching  half  way  to  the  hock,  and  yet  he  has  never 
experienced  any  serious  inconvenience. 

Inguinal  hernia  is  but  an  incomi)lete  scrotal  hernia,  and,  like  the  lat- 
ter, may  exist  and  cause  no  signs  of  distress,  or  again  it  may  become 
strangulated  and  cause  the  death  of  the  animal.  Inguinal  hernia  is  seen 
mostly  in  stallions,  next  in  geldings,  and  very  rarely  in  the  mare.  Bear- 
ing in  mind  that  scrotal  hernia  is  seen  only  in  horses,  we  can  proceed  to 
detail  the  symptoms  of  both  strangulated,  inguinal,  and  scrotal  hernia 
at  the  same  time.  When,  during  the  existence  of  colicky  symptoms, 
we  find  a  horse  kicking  with  his  hind  feet  while  standing,  or  lying  upon 
his  back,  we  should  look  to  the  inguinal  region  and  scrotum.  If  scro- 
tal hernia  exists  the  scrotum  will  be  enlarged  and  lobulated;  by  press- 
ure we  may  force  a  i)ortion  of  the  contents  of  the  gut  back  into  the 
abdomen,  eliciting  a  gurgling  sound.  If  we  take  a  gentle  but  firm  hold 
upon  the  enlarged  scrotum  and  then  have  an  assistant  cause  the  horse 
to  cough,  the  swelling  will  be  felt  to  expand  and  as  quickly  contract 
again. 

The  history  of  these  cases  will  materially  aid  us,  as  the  owner  can 
often  assure  us  of  preceding  attacks  of  "colic,"  more  or  less  severe, 
that  have  been  instantaneously  relieved  in  some  (to  him)  unaccounta- 
ble manner.  The  colicky  symptoms  of  these  hernial  are  not  diagnostic, 
but,  probably,  more  closely  resemble  those  of  enteritis  than  any  other 


52 

bowel  diseases.  Cold  sweats,  particularly  of  the  scrotum  and  thighs,  are 
held  by  some  writers  to  be  j)atboguomonic. 

The  diagnosis  can,  in  many  cases,  only  be  made  by  a  veterinarian, 
when  he  has  recourse  to  a  rectal  examination;  the  bowels  can  here  be 
felt  entering  the  internal  abdominal  ring.  If  the  reader  can  be  sure  of 
the  existence  of  these  hernioe,  he  should  secure  the  horse  upon  its  back, 
and,  with  a  hand  in  the  rectum,  endeavor  to  catch  hold  of  the  wander- 
ing bowel  and  pull  it  gently  back  into  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen.  Press- 
ure should  be  made  upon  the  scrotum  during  this  time.  I  once  suc- 
ceeded in  reducing  a  strangulated  scrotal  hernia,  after  having  cast  the 
animal,  by  keeping  a  bag  of  cracked  ice  upon  the  scrotum,  thus  con- 
densing the  imprisoned  gases  and  causing  contraction  of  the  swelling. 
If  these  means  fail  a  veterinarian  must  be  called  to  reduce  the  hernia 
by  means  of  incising  the  inguinal  ring,  rej)lacing  the  intestines,  and 
castrate,  using  clamps  and  performing  the  "  covered  operation." 

Ventral  hernia. — In  this  form  of  hernia  the  protrusion  is  through 
some  accidental  opening  or  rupture  of  some  of  the  abdominal  coats  or 
coverings.  It  may  occur  at  any  part  of  the  belly  except  at  the  umbili- 
cus, and  is  caused  by  kicks,  blows,  hooks,  severe  jumping  or  pulling, 
etc.  Ventral  hernia  is  most  common  in  pregnant  mares,  and  is  here 
due  to  the  weight  of  the  foetus  or  some  degenerative  changes  taking 
place  in  the  abdominal  coats.  It  is  recognized  by  the  appearance  of  a 
swelling,  at  the  base  of  which  can  be  felt  the  opening  or  rent  in  the 
abdominal  tunics,  and  from  the  fact  that  the  swelling  containing  the 
intestines  can  be  made  to  disappear  when  the  animal  is  placed  in  a 
favorable  position. 

Treatment. — In  many  instances  there  is  no  occasion  for  treatment,  and 
again,  where  the  hernial  sac  is  extensive,  treatment  is  of  no  avail.  If 
the  hernia  is  small  we  may  attempt  a  cure  by  the  methods  to  be  de- 
scribed in  treating  of  umbilical  hernia.  If  we  are  fortunate  enough  to 
be  present  when  the  hernia,  occurs,  and  particularly  if  it  is  not  too  large, 
we  may,  by  the  proper  application  of  a  pad  and  broad  bandage,  effect 
a  perfect  cure. 

Umbilical  hernia  is  the  passing  of  any  portion  of  the  bowel  or  omen- 
tum through  the  navel,  forming  a  "  tumor"  at  this  point.  This  is  often 
congenital  in  our  animals,  and  is  due  to  the  imperfect  closure  of  the 
umbilicus  and  to  the  position  of  the  body.  Many  cases  of  umbilical 
hernia,  like  inguinal  and  scrotal  of  the  congenital  kind,  disappear 
entirely  by  the  time  the  animal  reaches  its  second  or  third  year.  Ad- 
vancing age  favors  cure  in  these  cases  from  the  fact  that  the  omentum 
(swinging  support  of  the  bowels)  is  proportionally  shorter  in  adults 
than  in  foals,  thus  lifting  the  intestines  out  of  the  hernial  sac  and 
allowing  the  opening  in  the  walls  to  close.  Probably  one  of  the  most 
frequent  causes  of  umbilical  hernia  in  foals  is  the  practice  of  keeping 
them  too  long  from  their  dams,  causing  them  to  fret  and  worry,  and 
bo  neigh  or  cry  by  the  hour.    The  coutractiou  of  the  abdominal  muscles 


53 

and  pressure  of  the  intestiues  during  neighing  seem  to  open  the  um- 
bilicus and  induce  hernia.  Accidents  may  cause  umbilical  hernia  in 
adults  in  the  same  manner  as  ventral  hernia  is  produced,  though  this 
is  very  rare. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  umbilical  hernia  varies  much  with 
different  practitioners.  We  should  remember  the  fact  that  cong(nital 
hernije  are  often  removed  with  age,  but  i^robably  congenital  umbilical 
hernife  less  frequently  than  others.  Among  the  many  plans  of  treat- 
ment are  to  be  mentioned  the  application  of  a  pad  over  the  tumor,  the 
pad  being  held  in  place  by  a  broad,  tight  bandage  placed  around  the 
animal's  body.  The  chief  objection  to  this  is  the  difficulty  in  keeping 
the  pad  in  its  place.  Blisters  are  often  applied  over  the  swelling,  and 
as  the  skin  hardens  and  contracts  by  the  formation  of  scabs  an 
artficial  bandage  or  i^ressure  is  produced  that  at  times  is  successful. 
Another  treatment  that  has  gained  considerable  repute  of  4ate  years 
consists  in  first  clipping  off  the  hair  over  the  swelling.  Nitric  acid  is 
then  applied  by  a  small  brush,  using  only  enough  to  moisten  the  skin. 
This  sets  up  a  deep-seated  adhesive  inflammation,  which,  in  very  many 
cases,  closes  the  opening  in  the  navel.  Still  another  plan  is  to  inject  a 
solution  of  common  salt  by  means  of  the  hypodermic  syringe  at  three 
or  four  points  about  the  base  of  the  swelling.  This  acts  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  preceding,  but  in  my  experience  is  not  as  effectual. 

Others  again,  after  keeping  the  animal  fasting  for  a  few  hours,  cast 
and  secure  it  upon  its  back ;  the  bowel  is  then  carefully  returned  into 
the  abdomen.  The  skin  over  the  opening  is  to  be  pinched  up  and  one 
or  two  skewers  are  to  be  run  through  the  skin  from  side  to  side  as  close 
as  possible  to  the  umbilical  opening.  These  skewers  are  kept  in  place 
by  passing  a  cord  around  the  skin  between  them  and  the  abdomen  and 
securely  tied.  Great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  draw  these  cords  too 
tight,  as  this  would  cause  a  speedy  slough  of  the  skin,  the  intestines 
would  extrude,  and  death  result.  If  properly  applied  an  adhesion  is 
established  between  the  skin  and  the  umbilicus  which  effectually  closes 
the  orifice. 

Diaphragmatic  hernia. — This  consists  of  the  i^assage  of  any  of  the 
abdominal  viscera  through  a  rent  in  the  diaphragm  (midriff)  into  the 
cavity  of  the  thorax.  It  is  rather  a  rare  accident  and  one  often  impos- 
sible to  diagnose  during  life.  Colicky  symptoms,  accompanied  by  great 
difficulty  in  breathing,  and  the  i^eculiar  position  so  often  assumed 
(that  of  sitting  upon  the  haunches)  are  somewhat  characteristic  of  this 
trouble,  though  these  symptoms,  as  we  have  already  seen,  may  be  pres- 
ent during  diseases  of  the  stomach  or  anterior  portion  of  the  bowels. 
Even,  could  we  pronounce,  with  certainty,  this  form  of  hernia,  there  is 
little  or  nothing  that  cau  be  done.  Leading  the  horse  up  a  very  steep 
gangway  or  causing  him  to  rear  up  may  possibly  cause  the  hernial 
portion  to  return  to  its  natural  position.  This  is  not  enough,  however  j 
it  must  be  kept  there. 


54 

Feritonitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  serous  membrane  lining  the 
cavity  of  and  covering  the  viscera  coutaiaed  within  the  ahdomeu. 
It  is  very  rare  to  see  a  case  of  idioi)athic  peritonitis.  It  is,  however, 
somewhat  common  from  extension  of  the  inflammatory  action  involving 
organs  covered  by  the  ijeritoneum.  Peritonitis  is  often  caused  by  in- 
juries, as  i)uuctured  wounds  of  the  abdomen,  severe  blows  or  kicks,  or, 
as  is  still  more  common,  following  the  operation  of  castration.  It  fol- 
lows frequently  from  strangahited  heruiae,  invagination,  rupture  of  the 
stomach,  intestines,  liver,  or  womb. 

Symptoms. — Peritonitis  is  mostly  preceded  by  a  chill ;  the  horse  is  not 
disposed  to  move,  and  if  compelled  to  do  so,  moves  with  a  stiff  or  sore 
gait;  he  paws  with  the  front  feet,  and  probably  strikes  at  his  belly 
with  the  hind  ones ;  lies  down  very  carefully,  and  as  the  pain  is  in- 
creased while  down,  he  maintains  during  most  of  the  time  the  standing 
position  5^  he  walks  uneasily  about  the  stall.  Constipation  is  usually 
l^reseut.  Pressure  on  the  belly  causes  acute  pain,  and  the  horse  will 
bite,  strike,  or  kick  at  you  if  so  disturbed ;  the  abdomen  is  tacked  up } 
the  extremities  fine  and  cold.  The  temperature  is  higher  than  normal, 
reaching  from  102'^  to  104^  Fah.  The  pulse  in  peritonitis  is  almost,  of 
itself,  diagnostic;  it  is  quickened,  beating  from  seventy  to  ninety  beats 
per  minute,  and  is  hard  and  iviry.  This  peculiarity  of  the  pulse  is 
characteristic  of  inflammation  of  the  serous  membrane,  and  if  occurring 
with  colicky  symptoms,  and,  in  i^articular,  if  following  any  injuries, 
accidental  or  surgical,  of  the  peritoneum,  we  may  rest  assured  that 
peritonitis  is  present.  Peritonitis  in  the  horse  is  mostly  fatal  when  it 
is  at  all  extensive.  If  death  does  not  occur  in  a  short  time,  the  inflam- 
mation assumes  a  chronic  form,  in  which  there  is  an  extensive  efl'usion 
of  water  in  the  cavity  of  the  belly,  constituting  what  is  known  as 
ascites,  and  which,  as  a  rule,  results  in  death. 

The  treatment  of  i)eritonitis  is  to  be  somewhat  like  that  of  enteritis. 
Opium  in  powder,  1  to  2  drams,  with  calomel,  one-half  dram,  is  to  be 
given  every  two,  three,  or  four  hours,  and  constitute  our  main  de- 
pendence in  this  disease.  Extensive  counter-irritants  over  the  belly, 
consisting  of  mustard-plasters,  turpentine  stupes,  or  even  mild  blisters, 
are  highly  recommended.  Purgatives  must  never  be  given  during  this 
complaint.  Should  we  desire  to  move  the  bowels  it  can  be  done  by 
gentle  enemas,  though  it  is  seldom  necessary  to  resort  even  to  this. 

Ascites,  or  dropsy  of  the  abdomen,  is  mostly"  seen  as  a  result  of  sub- 
acute cr  chronic  peritonitis,  but  may  be  due  to  diseases  of  the  liver, 
kidneys,  heart,  or  lungs.  There  will  be  found,  on  opening  the  cavity 
of  the  belly,  a  large  collection  of  yellowish  or  reddish  liquid ;  from  a 
few  quarts  to  several  gallons  may  be  present.  It  may  be  clear  in 
color,  though  generally  it  is  yellowish  or  of  a  red  tint,  and  contains 
numerous  loose  flakes  of  coagulable  lymph. 

Symiytoms.-^ThiirG  is  slight  tenderness  on  pressure;  awkward  gait  of 
the  hind  legs;  the  horse  is  dull,  and  may  have  occasional  very  slight 


55 

colicky  paius,  sliowii  by  looking  back  and  striking  at  tlie  belly  with 
the  hind  feet.  Ofteuer,  however,  these  colicky  symptoms  are  absent. 
Diarrhea  often  precedes  death,  but  during  the  progress  of  the  disease 
the  bowels  are  alternately  constipated  and  loose.  On  percussing  the 
abdominal  walls  we  find  that  dullness  exists  to  the  same  height  ou  both 
sides  of  the  belly;  by  suddenly  pushing  or  striking  the  abdomen  we 
can  hear  the  rushing  or  flooding  of  water.  If  the  case  is  an  advanced 
one  the  horse  is  pot-bellied  to  the  extreme,  and  dropsical  swellings  are 
seen  under  the  belly  and  upon  the  legs. 

Treatment  is,  as  a  rule,  unsatisfactory.  Saline  cathartics,  as  Epsom 
or  Glauber  salts,  and  diuretics,  ounce  doses  of  saltpeter,  are  to  be 
given.  If  a  veterinarian  is  at  hand  he  should  withdraw  the  accumula- 
tion of  water  by  tapping  and  should  then  endeavor  to  prevent  its  re- 
currence (though  this  is  almost  sure  to  follow)  by  giving  three  times  a 
day  saltpeter,  1  ounce,  and  iodide  of  potash,  1  dram,  and  by  the  appli- 
cation of  mustard  or  blisters  over  th^  abdominal  walls.  Tonics,  min- 
eral and  vegetable,  are  also  indicated".  Probably  the  best  tonic  is  one 
consisting  of  powdered  sulphate  of  iron,  gentian,  and  ginger  in  equal 
parts.  A  heaping  tablespoonful  of  the  mixture  is  to  be  given  as  a 
drench  or  mixed  with  the  feed,  twice  a  day.  Good  nutritious  foods 
and  gentle  exercise  complete  the  treatment. 

DISEASES   OF    THE   LIVEE. 

This  organ  in  the  horse  is  but  rarely  the  seat  of  disease,  and  when 
we  consider  how  frequently  the  liver  of  man  is  affected,  this  can  not 
but  appear  strange  to  all.  There  is  a  difference  of  the  anatomical  ar- 
rangement of  the  liver  of  the  horse  from  that  of  man  that  may  to  some 
extent  account  for  this  rarity  of  disease  in  the  former.  It  is  very  com- 
mon to  hear  the  w^ould-be  veterinarian  assert  that  a  horse  "has  disease 
of  his  gall-bladder."  He  thus  displays  his  ignorance,  as  the  horse  has 
no  such  biliary  reservoir.  This  absence  of  the  gall-bladder  may  ac- 
count to  a  certain  extent  for  his  freedom  from  liver  diseases;  as  over- 
distension of  this  and  the  presence  in  it  of  calculi  (stones)  in  man  is  a 
frequent  source  of  trouble.  In  domestic  animals,  as  in  man,  hot  cli- 
mates tend  to  i)roduce  diseases  of  the  liver,  just  as  in  cold  climates 
lung  diseases  prevail.  Not  only  are  diseases  of  the  liver  rare  in  horses, 
but  they  are  also  very  obscure,  and  in  many  cases  pass  totally  unob- 
served until  after  death.  There  are  some  symptoms,  however,  which, 
when  present,  should  make  us  examine  the  liver  as  carefully  as  possi- 
ble. These  are  jaundice  (yellowness  of  the  mucous  membranes  of  the 
mouth,  nose,  and  eyes)  and  the  condition  of  the  dung,  it  being  light  in 
color  and  pasty  in  appearance. 

Hepatitis,  inflammation  of  the  liver,  may  be  general  or  local  and  may 
assume  an  acute  or  chronic  form.  The  symptoms  of  acute  hepatitis  are : 
Dullness ;  the  horse  is  sufl'ering  from  some  internal  pain,  but  not  of  a  se- 
vere type;  constipated  and  clay  colored  dung  balls,  scanty  and  high- 


56 

colored  urine,  and  general  febrile  symptoms.  If  lying  down  lie  is  mostly 
found  on  the  left  side;  loolis  occasionally  toward  the  right  side,  which, 
upon  close  inspection,  may  be  found  to  be  slightly  enlarged  over  the 
posterior  ribs,  where  pain  upon  pressure  is  also  evinced.  Obscure 
lameness  in  front,  of  the  right  leg  mostly,  is  said  by  some  of  the  best 
veterinary  writers  to  be  a  symptom  of  hepatitis.  The  horse,  toward  tlie 
last,  reels  or  staggers  in  his  gait  and  falls  backward  in  a  fointing  fit, 
during  one  of  which  he  finally  succumbs.  Death  is  sometimes  due  to 
rupture  of  the  enveloping  coat  of  the  liver  or  of  some  of  its  blood-ves- 
sels. 

Among  the  causes  that  lead  to  this  disease  we  must  mention  first  the 
stimulating  effect  of  overfeeding,  particularly  during  hot  weather. 
Those  horses  that  are  well  fed  and  receive  but  little  exercise — old  favor- 
ites that  are  being  liberally  fed  and  have  passed  the  time  of  service, 
pensioned  heroes  of  years  of  faithful  toil — these  are  the  best  subjects 
for  diseases  of  this  organ.  We  must  add  to  these  causes  the  more 
mechanical  ones,  as  injuries  on  the  right  side  over  the  liver,  worms  in 
the  liver,  gall-stones  in  the  biliary  ducts,  foreign  bodies,  as  needles  or 
nails  that  have  been  swallowed  and  in  their  ^vauderings  have  entered 
the  liver,  and,  lastly,  in  some  instances,  the  extension  of  inflammation 
from  neighboring  parts,  thus  involving  this  organ.  Acute  hepatitis  may 
terminate  in  chronic  inflammation,  abscesses,  rupture  of  the  liver,  or 
may  disappear,  leaving  behind  no  trace  of  disease  whatever. 

Treatment. — This  should  consist,  at  first,  of  the  administration  of  1 
ounce  of  Barbadoes  aloes  or  other  physic.  A  large  blister  is  to  be  ap- 
plied to  the  right  side,  letting  it  extend  from  a  little  behind  the  girth 
backward  to  the  last  rib  and  in  width  about  12  to  14  inches  midway 
between  the  spine  above  and  the  middle  of  the  belly  below.  General 
blood-letting,  if  had  recourse  to  early,  must  prove  of  much  benefit  in 
acute  inflammation  of  the  liver.  The  vein  in  the  neck— jugular— must 
be  opened,  and  from  4  to  0  quarts  of  blood  may  be  drawn.  Saline  medi- 
cines, to  act  on  the  kidneys,  should  follow  this  treatment;  1-ounce  doses 
of  saltpeter  or  muriate  of  ammonia,  repeated  three  or  four  times  a  day, 
are  probably  as  good  as  any.  The  horse  is  to  be  fed  sparingly  on  soft 
food,  bran-mashes  chiefly.  If  we  prove  successful  and  recovery  takes 
place,  see  to  it  that  the  horse  afterwards  gets  regular  exercise  and  that 
his  food  is  not  of  a  highly  nutritious  character,  or  excessive. 

It  will,  I  think,  be  useless  to  attempt  much  of  a  description  of  c/tromc 
hepatitis,  the  symptoms  of  this  trouble  being  so  obscure  that  the  veteri- 
nary surgeon,  in  most  cases,  can  scarcely  hope  to  do  more  than  diag- 
nose it  by  exclusion.  True,  if  a  horse  has  had  acute  hepatitis  and  re- 
mains dull  for  too  great  a  length  of  time,  with  occasional  slight  colicky 
symptoms,  yellow  membranes,  etc.,  we  may  not  fear  of  being  far  wrong 
in  saying  that  this  disease  has  passed  to  the  chronic  form ;  but  to  diag- 
nose this  form  of  hepatitis,  without  any  such  previous  knowledge  of 
the  case,  is,  to  tell  the  truth,  very  often  "  guess-work  "  with  us. 


57 

Jaimdice— Icterus—The  Yelloics.—Thm  is  a  condition  caused  by  the 
retention  and  absorption  of  bile  into  the  blood.  It  was  formerly  con- 
sidered to  be  a  disease  of  itself,  but  can  not,  I  think,  be  accepted  as 
more  than  a  symptom,  or  at  most  as  expressing  the  existence  of  func- 
tional disorder  of  the  liver.  "  The  Yellows  "  is  observed  by  looking  at 
the  eyes,  nose,  and  mouth,  when  it  will  be  seen  that  these  parts  are 
yellowish  instead  of  the  pale-pink  color  of  health.  In  white  or  light- 
colored  horses  the  skin  even  may  show  this  yellow  tint.  The  urine  is 
saflron-colored,  the  dung  is  of  a  dirty  gray  color,  and  constipation  is 
mostly  present.  Jaundice  may  be  present  as  a  symptom  of  almost  any 
inflammatory  disease.  We  know  that  when  an  animal  is  "fevered" 
the  secretions  are  checked,  the  bile  is  retained  and  absorbed  through- 
out the  system,  and  yellowness  of  the  mucous  membranes  follows. 
Jaundica  may  also  exist  during  the  presence  of  simple  constipation, 
hepatitis,  biliary  calculi,  abscesses,  hardening  of  the  liver,  etc. 

Treatment. — When  jaundice  exists  we  must  endeavor  to  rid  the  sys- 
tem of  the  excess  of  bile,  and  this  is  best  accomplished  by  giving  pur- 
gatives that  act  upon  the  liver.  Calomel,  2  drams,  with  aloes,  7  drams, 
should  be  given.  Glauber  salts  in  handful  doses  once  or  twice  a  day 
for  a  week  is  also  effective.  May-apple,  rhubarb,  castor  oil,  and  other 
cathartics  that  act  upon  the  first  or  small  bowels,  may  be  selected. 
We  must  be  careful  to  see  that  the  bowels  are  kept  open  by  avoiding 
hard,  dry,  bulky  foods. 

Rupture  of  the  liver. — This  is  known  to  occur  at  times  in  the  horse, 
most  frequently  in  old,  fat  horses  and  those  that  get  but  little  exercise. 
Horses  that  have  suffered  from  chronic  liver  disease  for  years  eventually 
present  symptoms  of  colic  and  die  quite  suddenly.  Upon  post-mortem 
examination  we  discover  that  the  liver  had  ruptured.  The  cicatrices 
or  scars  that  are  often  found  upon  the  liver  lead  me  to  think  that  that 
organ  may  suffer  small  rupture  and  yet  the  horse  recover  from  it.  This 
result  can  not  obtain,  however,  if  the  rent  or  tear  is  extensive,  since  in 
such  cases  death  must  quickly  follow  from  hemorrhage,  or,  later,  from 
peritonitis.  Enlarged  liver  is  particularly  liable  to  rupture,  and  it  is 
not  surprising  that,  when  we  read  of  this  organ  weighing  55  to  CO  pounds, 
this  accident  occurs.  The  immediate  causes  of  rupture  appear  to 
be  excessive  muscular  exertion,  sudden  distention  of  the  abdomen  with 
gas,  or  some  accident,  as  falling  or  being  kicked  by  another  horse. 

The  symptoms  of  rupture  will  depend  upon  the  extent  of  the  lacera- 
tion. If  slight  there  will  be  simply  the  symptoms  of  abdominal  pain, 
looking  back  to  the  sides,  lying  down,  etc.;  if  extensive  the  horse  is 
dull  and  dejected,  has  no  appetite,  breathing  becomes  short  and  catch- 
ing, he  sighs  or  sobs,  visible  mucous  membranes  are  pale,  extremities 
cold,  pulse  fVist,  small,  and  weak  or  running  down.  Countenance  now 
shows  much  distress,  he  sweats  profusely,  totters  in  his  gait,  props  bis 
legs  wide  apart,  reels,  staggers,  and  falls.  He  may  get  up  again,  but 
soon  falls  dead.     The  rapid  running-down  pulse,  paleness  of  the  eyes, 


58 

nose^  aud  mouth,  sigbing,  stertorous  breathing,  tottering  gait,  etc.,  are 
the  symptoms  by  which  we  know  that  the  auimal  is  dying  from  inter- 
nal hemorrhage. 

Treatment. — But  little  can  be  done.  Opium  in  powder,  in  doses  of  2 
drams  every  two  or  three  hours,  may  be  given,  with  the  idea  of  pre- 
venting as  much  as  i)ossible  all  movements  of  internal  organs.  If  we 
have  reason  to  suspect  internal  bleeding  we  should  give  large  and  fre- 
quent doses  of  white- oak  bark  tea,  dram  doses  of  tannic  or  gallic 
acid,  or  the  same  quantity  of  sugar  of  lead,  every  half  hour  or  hour. 
Fluid  extract  of  ergot  or  tincture  of  the  chloride  of  iron,  in  ounce  doses, 
may  be  selected.  Cold  water  dashed  upon  the  right  side  or  injected 
into  the  rectum  is  highly  spoken  of  as  a  means  of  checking  the  hem- 
orrhage. 

Biliary  calculi. — Gall-stones. — These  are  rarely  found  in  the  horse,  but 
may  occupy  the  hepatic  ducts,  giving  rise  to  jaundice  and  to  colicky 
X)ains.  There  are  no  absolutely  diagnostic  symptoma,  but  should  we 
fiud  a  horse  that  suffers  from  repeated  attacks  of  colic,  accompanied  by 
symptoms  of  violent  pain,  and  that  during  or  following  these  attacks 
the  animal  is  jaundiced,  wc  may  hazard  the  conjecture  that  gall-stones 
are  present.  There  is  little  or  nothing  to  be  done  except  to  give  medi- 
cines to  overcome  pain,  trusting  that  these  concretions  may  pass  on  to 
the  bowels,  where,  from  their  small  size,  they  will  not  occasion  any  in- 
convenience. 

Diseases  of  the  pancreas  and  spleen  are  so  rare,  or  their  symptoms 
so  little  understood,  that  it  is  impossible  to  write  anything  concerning 
either  of  these  organs  and  their  simple  diseases  that  will  convey  to  the 
reader  information  from  a  worthy  stand-point,  i.  e.,  that  of  experience 
and  observation.  It  is  sometimes  well,  even  for  the  veterinarian,  to 
know  that  he  does  not  know.  This  knowledge  has  saved  my  readers 
an  infliction. 


X 


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i  ;  (  )  T  s  . 

I    Bols  ill  llic  sliiiiu'icli , 
'1   I  )()l  s  in  llic  ill  Kiilci  Mini. 


PI.ATK    111. 


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Asfftrfs  i/f  (f/ff/nitplutln 


I  hiuu'.v  iif'i 


1  SYV.  S  riNAI.  WOllM  s 


DISEASES  OF  THE  URINARY  ORGANS. 


By  JAMES  LAW,  F.  R.  C.  V.  S., 

Professor  of  Veterinary  Science,  etc.,  in  Cornell  University, 


The  urinary  organs  constitute  tlie  main  channel  through  which  are 
excreted  the  nitrogenous  or  albuminoid  principles,  whether  derived  di- 
rectly from  the  food  or  from  the  muscular  and  other  uitrogenized  tissues 
of  the  body.  They  constitute,  besides,  the  channel  through  which  are 
thrown  out  most  of  the  poisons,  whether  taken  in  by  the  mouth  or  skin 
or  developed  in  connection  with  faulty  or  natural  digestion,  blood- 
forming,  nutrition,  or  tissue  destruction;  or,  finally,  poisons  that  are 
developed  within  the  body  as  the  result  of  normal  cell-life  or  of  the  life 
of  bacteria  or  other  germs  that  have  entered  the  body  from  without.  To 
a  large  extent,  therefore,  these  organs  are  the  sanitary  scavengers  and 
purifiers  of  the  system,  and  when  their  functions  are  impaired  or  ar- 
rested the  retained  poisons  quickly  show  their  presence  in  resulting 
disorders  of  the  skin  and  connective  tissue  beneath  it,  of  the  nervous 
system,  or  other  organs.  Nor  is  this  influence  one-sided.  Scarcely  an 
important  organ  of  the  body  can  suffer  derangement  without  entailing 
a  corresponding  disorder  of  the  urinary  system.  Nothing  can  be  more 
striking  than  the  mutual  balance  maintained  between  the  liquid  secre- 
tions of  the  skin  and  kidneys  during  hot  and  cold  weather.  In  sum- 
mer, when  so  much  liquid  exhales  through  the  skin  as  sweat,  compar- 
atively little  urine  is  passed,  whereas  in  winter,  when  the  skin  is  inact- 
ive, the  urine  is  correspondingly  increased.  This  vicarious  action  of 
skin  and  kidneys  is  usually  kept  within  the  limits  of  health,  but  at 
times  the  draining  otf  of  the  water  by  the  skin  leaves  too  little  to  keep 
the  solids  of  the  urine  safely  in  solution,  and  these  are  liable  to  crys- 
tallize out  and  form  stone  and  gravel.  Similarly  the  passage  in  the 
sweat  of  some  of  the  solids  that  normally  leave  the  body,  dissolved  in 
the  urine,  serves  to  irritate  the  skin  and  produce  troublesome  eruptions. 
A  disordered  liver  contributes  to  the  production,  under  different  cir- 
cumstances, of  an  excess  of  biliary  coloring-matter,  which  stains  the 
urine;  of  an  excess  of  hippuric  acid  and  allied  products,  which,  being 
less  soluble  than  urea  (the  normal  product  of  tissue  change),  favor  the 
forniatiou  of  stone,  of  taurocholic  acid,  and  other  bodies  that  tend,  when 

59 


60 

in  excess,  to  destroy  the  blood  globules  aud  to  cause  irritation  of  the 
kidneys  by  the  resulting  hfemoglobiu  excreted  in  the  urine,  and  of 
glycogen  too  abundant  to  be  burned  up  in  the  system,  which  in- 
duces saccharine  urine  (diabetes).  Any  disorder  leading  to  impaired 
functional  activity  of  the  lungs  is  causative  of  an  excess  of  hippuric 
acid  and  allied  bodies,  of  oxalic  acid,  of  sugar,  etc.,  in  the  urine,  which 
irritate  the  kidneys  even  if  they  do  not  produce  solid  deposits  in  the 
urinary  passages.  Diseases  of  the  nervous  system,  and  notably  of  the 
base  of  the  brain  and  of  the  spinal  cord,  induce  various  urinary  dis- 
orders, prominent  among  which  are  diabetes,  chylous  urine,  and  al- 
buminuria. Certain  affections,  with  imperfect  nutrition  or  destructive 
waste  of  the  bon^^  tissues,  tend  to  charge  the  urine  with  i>hosphates  of 
lime  aud  magnesia,  and  endanger  the  formation  of  stone  and  gravel. 
In  all  extensive  inflammations  and  acute  fevers  the  liquids  of  the  urine 
are  diminished,  while  the  solids  (waste  products),  which  should  form 
the  urinary  secretion,  are  increased,  and  the  surcharged  urine  proves 
irritant  to  the  urinary  organs  or  the  retained  waste  products  poison 
the  system  at  large. 

Diseases  of  the  heart  and  lungs,  by  interfering  with  the  free  onward 
flow  of  the  blood  from  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  tend  to  throw  that 
liquid  back  on  the  veins,  and  this  backward  pressure  of  venous  blood 
strongly  tends  to  disorders  of  the  kidneys.  Certain  poisons  taken  with 
the  food  and  water,  notably  that  found  in  magnesian  limestone  and 
those  found  in  irritant  diuretic  plants,  are  especially  injurious  to  the 
kidneys,  as  are  also  various  cryptogams,  whether  present  in  musty  hay 
or  oats.  The  kidneys  may  be  irritated  by  feeding  green  vegetables 
covered  with  hoar-frost  or  by  furnishing  an  excess  of  food  rich  in  phos- 
phates (wheat  bran,  beans,  pease,  vetches,  lentils,  rape-cake,  cotton-seed 
cake)  or  b^^  a  privation  of  water  which  entails  a  concentrated  condition 
aud  high  density  of  the  urine.  Exposure  in  cold  rain  or  snow  storms, 
cold  draughts  of  air,  aud  damp  beds  are  liable  to  further  disorder  an 
already  overworked  or  irritable  kidney.  Finally,  sprains  of  the  back 
and  loins  may  cause  bleeding  from  the  kidneys  or  inflammation. 

The  right  kidney,  weighing  23^  ounces,  is  shaped  like  a  French  bean, 
and  extends  from  the  loins  forward  to  beneath  the  heads  of  the  last  two 
ribs.  The  left  kidney  (Plate  IV),  resembles  a  heart  of  cards,  and  extends 
from  the  loins  forward  beneath  the  head  of  the  last  rib  only.  Each  con- 
sists of  three  distinct  parts,  (a)  the  external  (cortical)  or  vascular  part,  in 
which  the  blood-vessels  form  elaborate  capillary  networks  within  the 
dilated  globular  sacs  which  form  the  beginnings  of  the  secreting 
(uriniferous)  tubes  and  on  the  surface  of  the  sinuous  secreting  tubes 
leading  from  the  sacs  inward  toward  the  second  or  medullary  part  of 
the  organ;  (6)  the  internal  (medullary)  part,  made  up  in  the  main  of 
blood-vessels,  lymi)hatics,  aud  nerves  extending  between  the  notch  on 
the  inner  border  of  the  kidney  to  and  from  the  outer  vascular  portion, 
in  which  the  secretion  of  urine  is  almost  exclusively  carried  on;  and 


61 

(d)  a  large  saccular  reservoir  in  the  center  of  the  kidney  into  which  all 
iiriuiferous  tubes  pour  their  secretions  and  from  which  the  urine  is 
carried  away  through  a  tube  (j,  (ureter),  which  passes  out  of  the  notch  at 
the  inner  border  of  the  kidney  and  which  opens  by  a  valve-closed  orifice 
into  the  roof  of  the  bladder  just  in  front  of  its  neck.  The  bladder  is  a 
dilatable  reservoir  for  the  retention  of  the  urine  until  the  discomfort  of 
its  presence  causes  its  voluntary  discharge.  It  is  kept  closed  by  cir- 
cular muscular  fibers  surrounding  its  neck  or  orifice,  and  is  emptied  by 
looped  muscular  fibers  extending  in  all  directions  forward  from  the 
neck  around  the  blind  anterior  end  of  the  sac.  From  the  bladder  the 
urine  escapes  through  a  dilatable  tube  (urethra)  which  extends  from- 
the  neck  of  the  bladder  backward  on  the  floor  of  the  pelvis,  and  in  the 
male  through  the  penis  to  its  free  end,  where  it  opens  through  a  pink 
conical  papilla.  In  the  mare  the  urethra  is  not  more  than  an  inch  in 
length,  and  is  surrounded  by  the  circular  muscular  fibers  closing  the 
neck  of  the  bladder.  Its  opening  may  be  found  directly  in  the  median 
line  of  the  floor  of  the  vnlva,  about  4|  inches  from  its  external  opening. 

General  sijmptoms. — These  apply  especially  to  acute  inflammations 
and  the  irritation  caused  by  stone.  The  animal  moves  stiffly  on  the 
hind  limbs,  straddles,  and  makes  frequent  attempts  to  pass  urine,  which 
may  be  in  excess,  deficient  in  amount,  liable  to  sudden  arrest  in  spite 
of  the  straining,  passed  in  driblets,  or  entirely  suppressed.  Again,  it 
may  be  mo(lifie<l  in  density  or  constituents.  Difficulty  in  making  a 
sharp  turn,  or  in  lying  down  and  rising  with  or  without  groaning,  drop- 
ping the  back  when  mounted  or  when  pinched  on  the  loins  is  sugpest- 
ive  of  kidney  disease,  and  so  to  a  less  extent  are  swelled  legs,  dropsy, 
and  diseases  of  the  skin  and  nervous  system.  The  oiled  hand  intro- 
duced through  the  rectum  may  feel  the  bladder  beneath  and  detect  any 
over-distension,  swelling,  tenderness,  or  stone.  In  ponies  the  kidneys 
even  may  be  reached. 

Examination  of  the  urine. — In  some  cases  the  changes  in  the  urine 
are  the  sole  sign  of  disease.  In  health  the  horse's  urine  is  of  a  deep 
amber  color  and  has  a  strong  odor.  On  a  feed  of  grain  and  hay  it  may 
show  a  uniform  transparency,  while  on  a  green  ration  there  is  an 
abundant  white  deposit  of  carbonate  of  lime.  Of  its  morbid  changes 
the  following  are  to  be  looked  for:  (1)  Color:  White  from  deposited 
salts  of  lime ',  brown  or  red  from  blood  clots  or  coloring  matter  ;  yoUow 
or  orange  from  bile  or  blood-pigment  5  pule  from  excess  of  water,  or 
variou sly  colored  from  vegetable  ingredients  (santonin  makes  it  i"ed, 
rhubarb  or  senna,  brown;  tar  or  carbolic  acid,  green).  (2)  Density: 
The  horse's  urine  may  be  1.030  to  1.050,  but  it  may  greatly  exceed  this 
in  diabetes  and  may  sink  to  1.007  in  diuresis.  (3)  Chemical  re-action^ 
as  ascertained  by  blue  litmus  or  red  test  papers.  The  horse  on  vege- 
table diet  has  alkaline  urine  turning  red  test  papers  blue,  while  in  the 
sucking-colt  and  the  horse  fed  on  flesh  or  on  his  own  tissues  (in  star- 
vation or  abstinence  during  disease)  it  is  acid,  tui-ning  blue  litmus  red. 


62 

(4)  Organic  constituents,  as  when  glairy  from  albumen  coagulable  by 
strong  nitric  acid  and  boiling,  -when  cliarged  with  microscopic  casts  of 
the  uriuiferous  tubes,  with  the  eggs  or  bodies  of  worms,  with  sugar, 
blood,  or  bile.  (5)  In  its  salts,  which  may  crystalize  out  spontaneously, 
or  on  boiling,  or  on  the  addition  of  chemical  re-agents. 

Albuminous  urine  in  the  horse  is  usually  glairy,  so  that  it  may  be 
drawn  out  in  threads,  but  its  presence  can  always  be  tested  as  follows: 
If  the  liquid  is  opaque,  it  may  be  first  passed  through  filter  paper;  if 
very  dense  and  already  precipitating  its  salts,  it  may  be  diluted  with 
distilled  water ;  add  to  the  suspected  liquid  acetic  acid  drop  by  drop 
until  it  reddens  blue  litmus  paper;  then  boil  gently  in  a  test  tube; 
if  a  precipitate  is  thrown  down,  set  the  tube  aside  to  cool  and  then  add 
strong  nitric  acid.  If  the  precipitate  is  not  dissolved  it  is  albumen;  if 
dissolved  it  was  probably  urate  or  hippurate  of  ammonia.  Albumen  is 
normally  present  in  advanced  gestation;  abnormally  it  is  seen  in  dis- 
eases in  which  there  occurs  destruction  of  blood  globules  (anthrax,  low 
fevers,  watery  states  of  the  blood,  dropsies),  in  diseases  of  the  heart 
and  liver  which  prevent  the  free  escape  of  blood  from  the  veins  and 
throw  back  venous  pressure  on  the  kidneys,  in  inflammation  of  the 
lungs  and  pleuraB,  and  even  tympany  (bloating),  doubtless  from  the 
same  cause,  and  in  all  congestive  or  inflammatory  diseases  of  the  kid 
neys,  acute  or  chronic. 

Casts  of  the  uriniferous  tubes  can  only  be  seen  by  placing  the  sus- 
pected urine  under  the  microscope.  They  are  usually  very  clastic  and 
mobile,  waving  about  in  the  liquid  when  the  cover-glass  is  touched,  and 
showing  a  uniform  clear  transparency  (waxy)  or  entangled  circular 
epithelial  cells  or  opaque  granules  or  flattened  red  blood  globules  or 
clear  refrangent  oil  globules.  They  may  be  even  densely  opaque  from 
crystals  of  earthy  salts. 

Pus  cells  maybe  found  in  the  urine  associated  with  albumen,  and 
are  recognized  by  clearing  up,  when  treated  with  acetic  acid,  so  that 
each  cell  shows  two  or  three  nuclei. 

DIURESIS — POLYURIA — DIABETES    INSIPIDUS— EXCESSIVE    SECRETION 

OF    URINE. 

This  consists  in  an  excessive  secretion  of  a  clear,  watery  urine  of  a 
low  specific  gravity  (1.007)  with  a  correspondingly  ardent  thirst,  a  rap- 
idly advancing  emaciation,  and  great  loss  of  strength  and  spirit. 

Its  causes  may  be  any  agent,  medicinal,  alimentary,  or  poisonous, 
which  unduly  stimulates  the  kidneys;  the  reckless  administration  of 
diuretics,  which  form  such  a  common  constituent  of  quack  horse-powders; 
acrid  diuretic  plants  in  grass  or  hay;  new  oats  still  imperfectly  cured; 
an  excess  of  roots  or  other  very  watery  food  ;  a  full  allowance  of  salt  to 
animals  that  have  become  inordinately  fond  of  it ;  but,  above  all,  feeding 
on  hay,  grain,  or  bran  which  has  not  been  properly  dried  and  has  be- 
come musty  and  permeated  by  fungi.     Thus  bay,  straw,  or  oats  secured 


63 

in  wet  seasons  and  heating  in  tlie  rick  or  stack  is  especially  injurious. 
Hence  this  malady,  like  coma  somnoleyitum  (sleepy  staggers),  is  wide- 
spread in  wet  seasons,  and  especially  in  rainy  districts. 

Symptoms. — The  horse  drinks  deep  at  every  opportunity  and  passes 
urine  on  every  occasion  when  stopped,  the  discharge  beiug  pale,  watery, 
of  a  low  density,  and  inodorous ;  in  short,  it  contains  a  great  excess  of 
water  and  a  deficiency  of  the  solid  excretions.  So  great  is  the  quantity 
passed,  however,  that  the  small  amount  of  solids  in  any  given  specimen 
amounts  in  twenty-four  hours  to  far  more  than  the  normal,  a  fact  in 
keeping  with  the  rapid  wasting  of  the  tissues  and  extreme  emaciation. 
The  flanks  become  tucked  up,  the  fat  disappears,  the  bones  and  muscles 
stand  out  prominently,  the  skin  becomes  tense  and  hidebound,  and  the 
hair  erect,  scurfy,  and  deficient  in  luster.  The  eye  becomes  dull  and 
sunken,  the  spirits  are  depressed,  the  animal  is  weak  and  sluggish, 
sweats  on  the  slightest  exertion,  and  can  endure  little.  The  subject 
may  survive  for  months,  or  he  may  die  early  of  exhaustion.  In  the 
slighter  cases,  or  when  the  cause  ceases  to  operate,  he  may  make  a 
somewhat  tardy  recovery. 

Treatment.— Hhi^  consists  in  stopping  the  ingestion  of  the  faulty 
drugs,  poisons  or  food,  and  supplying  sound  hay  and  grain  free  Irom  all 
taint  of  heating  or  mustiness.  A  liberal  supply  of  boiled  flaxseed 
in  the  drinking  water  at  once  serves  to  eliminate  the  poison  and  to  sheath 
and  protect  the  irritated  kidneys.  Tonics  like  sulphate  or  phosphate 
of  iron  (2  drams  morning  and  evening)  and  powdered  gentian  or 
Peruvian  bark  (4  drams)  help  greatly  by  bracing  the  system  and  hasten- 
ing repair.  To  these  may  be  added  agents  calculated  to  destroy  the  fun- 
gus and  eliminate  its  poisonous  products.  In  that  form  which  depends 
on  musty  food  nothing  acts  better  than  large  doses  of  iodide  of  potas- 
sium (2  drams),  while  in  other  cases  creosote,  carbolic  acid  (1  dram), 
or  oil  of  turpeutiue  (4  drams)  properly  diluted,  may  be  resorted  to. 

SACCHARINE  DIABETES — DIABETES  MELLITUS — GLYCOSUKIA— INOSU- 

RIA. 

This  is  primarily  a  disease  of  the  nervous  system  or  liver  rather  than 
of  the  kidneys,  yet,  as  the  most  prominent  symptom  is  the  sweet  urine, 
it  may  be  treated  here.  Its  causes  are  varied,  but  resolve  themselves 
largely  into  disorder  of  the  liver  or  disorder  of  the  brain.  One  of  the 
most  prominent  functions  of  the  liver  is  the  formation  of  glycogeu,  a 
principle  allied  to  grape-sugar,  and  passing  into  it  by  further  oxidation 
in  the  blood.  This  is  a  constant  function  of  the  liver,  but  in  health  the 
resulting  sugar  is  burned  up  in  the  circulation  and  does  not  appear  in 
the  urine.  On  the  contrary,  when  the  supply  of  oxygen  is  defective,  as 
in  certain  diseases  of  the  lungs,  the  whole  of  the  sugar  does  not  undergo 
combustion  and  the  excess  is  excreted  by  the  kidneys.  Also  in  certain 
forms  of  enlarged  liver  the  amount  of  sugar  produced  is  more  than  can 
be  disposed  of  in  the  natural  way,  and  it  appears  in  the  urine.    A  tern- 


64 

porary  sweetness  of  the  urine  often  occurs  after  a  hearty  meal  on 
starchy  food,  but  this  is  due  altogether  to  the  superabundant  supply  of 
the  sugar-forming  food,  lasts  for  a  few  hours  only,  and  has  no  patho- 
logical significance.  In  many  cases  of  fatal  glycosuria  the  liver  is 
found  to  be  enlarged,  or  at  least  congested,  and  it  is  found  that  the  dis- 
order can  be  ijroduced  experimentally  by  agencies  which  produce  an 
increased  circulation  through  the  liver.  Thus  Bernard  produced  gly- 
cosuria by  pricking  the  oblong  medulla  at  the  base  of  the  brain  close 
to  the  roots  of  the  pneumogastric  nerve,  which  happens  to  be  also  the 
nerve  center  (vaso-motor)  which  presides  over  the  contractions  of  the 
minute  blood-vessels.  The  pricking  and  irritation  of  this  center  leada 
to  congestion  of  the  liver  and  the  excessive  production  of  sugar.  Irri- 
tation carried  to  this  i^oint  through  the  pneumogastric  nerve  causes 
saccharine  urine,  and,  in  keeping  with  this,  disease  of  the  pancreas  has 
been  found  in  this  malady,  the  irritation  being  conveyed  thence  to  the 
brain  through  the  pneumogastric  nerve  and  reflected  to  the  liver  through 
the  vasomotor  nerves.  The  same  result  follows  the  reflection  of  irrita- 
tion from  other  sources,  as  from  difterent  ganglia  (corpora  striata,  optic 
thalami,  pons,  cerebellum,  cerebrum)  of  the  brain.  Similarly  it  is  induced 
by  interruption  of  the  nervous  control  along  the  vaso  motor  tracts,  as 
in  destruction  of  the  upper  or  lower  cervical  sympathetic  ganglion,  by 
cutting  the  nervous  branch  connecting  these  two,  in  injury  to  the  spiual 
marrow  in  the  interval  between  the  brain  and  the  second  or  fourth  dorsal 
vertebra,  or  in  disease  of  the  cceliac  plexus,  which  directly  presides 
over  the  liver.  Certain  chemical  poisons  also  cause  saccharine  urine, 
notably  woorara,  strychnia,  morphia,  phosphoric  acid,  alcohol,  ether, 
chloroform,  quiuia,  ammonia,  and  arsenic. 

The  symptoms  are  ardent  thirst  and  profuse  secretion  of  a  pale  urine 
of  a  high  density  (1.060  and  upward),  rapid  loss  of  condition,  scurfy,  un- 
thrifty skin,  costiveness  or  irregularity  of  the  bowels,  indigestion,  and 
the  presence  in  the  urine  of  a  sweet  principle,  grape-sugar  or  inosite,  or 
both.  This  may  be  most  promptly  detected  by  touching  the  tip  of  the 
tongue  with  a  drop.  Sugar  may  be  detected  simply  by  adding  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  liquid  yeast  to  4  ounces  of  the  urine  and  keeping  it  lightly 
stopped  at  a  temperature  of  70°  to  80°  F.,  for  twelve  hours,  when 
the  sugar  will  be  found  to  have  been  changed  into  alcohol  and  carbon 
dioxide.  The  loss  of  density  will  give  indication  of  the  amount  of  sugar 
transformed;  thus  a  density  of  1.035  in  a  urine  which  was  formerly  l.OGO 
would  indicate  about  15  grains  of  sugar  to  the  fluid  ounce. 

Inosite  or  muscle-sugar,  frequently  present  in  the  horse's  urine,  and 
even  replacing  the  glucose,  is  not  fermentable.  Its  presence  may  be 
indicated  by  its  sweetness  and  the  absence  of  fermentation,  or  by  Gal- 
lois'  test.  Evaporate  the  suspected  urine  at  a  gentle  heat  almost  to 
dryness,  then  add  a  drop  of  a  solution  of  mercuric  nitrate  and  evapo- 
rate carefully  to  dryness,  when  a  yellowish  residue  is  left  that  is  changed 
on  further  cautious  heating  to  a  deep  rose-color,  which  disappears  on 
cooling  and  re-appears  on  heating. 


65 

In  advanced  diabetes,  dropsies  in  the  limbs  and  nnder  the  chest  and 
belly,  puffy,  swollen  eyelids,  cataracts,  catarrhal  inflammation  of  the 
lungs,  weak,  uncertain  gait,  and  drowsiness  may  be  noted. 

Treatment  is  most  satisfactory  in  cases  dependent  on  some  curable 
disease  of  liver,  pancreas,  lungs,  or  brain.  Thus,  in  liver  disease,  a  run 
at  pasture  in  warm  weather,  or  in  winter  a  warm,  sunny,  well-aired 
stable,  with  sufficient  clothing  and  laxatives  (sulphate  of  soda,  1  ounce 
daily)  and  alkalies  (carbonate  of  ijotassium,  one-fourth  ounce)  may  ben- 
efit. To  this  may  be  added  mild  blistering,  cupping,  or  even  leeching 
over  the  last  ribs.  Diseases  of  the  brain  or  pancreas  may  be  treated 
according  to  their  indications.  The  diet  should  be  mainly  albuminous, 
such  as  wheat-bran  or  middlings,  j^ease,  beans,  vetches,  and  milk.  In- 
deed, an  exclusive  milk  dTet  is  one  of  the  very  best  remedial  agencies. 
It  may  be  given  as  skim  milk  or  butter-milk,  and  in  the  last  case  com- 
bines an  anti-diabetic  remedy  in  the  lactic  acid.  Under  such  an  exclu- 
sive diet  recent  and  mild  cases  are  often  entirely  restored,  though  at 
the  expense  of  an  attack  of  rheumatism.  Codeia,  one  of  the  alkaloids 
of  opium,  is  strongly  recommended  by  Dr.  Tyson.  The  dose  for  the 
horse  would  be  3  grains  thrice  daily.  In  cases  in  which  there  is  mani- 
fest irritation  of  the  brain  bromide  of  potassium,  4  drams,  or  ergot,  one- 
half  ounce,  may  be  resorted  to.  Salicylic  acid  and  salicylate  of  sodium 
have  proved  useful  in  certain  cases ;  also  phosphate  of  sodium.  Bitter 
tonics  (especially  nux  vomica,  one-half  dram)  are  useful  iu  improving 
the  digestion  and  general  health. 

BLOODY    URINE — HEMATURIA. 

As  seen  in  the  horse  bloody  urine  is  usually  the  direct  result  of  me' 
chanical  injuries,  as  sprains  and  fractures  of  the  loins,  lacerations  of 
the  sub-lumbar  muscles  (psoas),  irritation  caused  by  stone  in  the  kid- 
ney, ureter,  bladder,  or  urethra.  It  may,  however,  occur  with  acute 
congestion  of  the  kidney,  with  tumors  iu  its  substance,  or  with  papil- 
loma or  other  diseased  growth  in  the  bladder.  Acrid  diuretic  plants 
present  in  the  food  may  also  lead  to  the  escape  of  blood  from  the 
kidney.  The  predisposition  to  this  affection  is,  however,  incomparably 
less  than  in  the  case  of  the  ox  or  sheep,  the  difference  being  attributed 
to  the  greater  plasticity  of  the  horse's  blood  in  connection  with  the " 
larger  quantity  of  fibrine. 

The  blood  may  be  present  in  small  clots  or  in  more  or  less  intimate 
admixture  with  the  urine.  Its  condition  may  furnish  some  indication 
as  to  its  source ;  thus,  if  from  the  kidneys  it  is  more  likely  to  be  uni- 
formly diffused  through  the  urine,  while  as  furnished  by  the  bladder  or 
passages  clots  are  more  likely  to  be  present.  Again,  in  bleeding  from 
the  kidney,  minute  cylindrical  clots  inclosing  blood  globules  and  formed 
in  the  uriniferous  tubes  can  be  detected  under  the  microscope.  Precis- 
ion also  may  be  approximated  by  observing  whether  there  is  coexisting 
fracture,  sprain  of  the  loins,  stone  or  tumor  in  the  bladder  or  urethra. 
11035 5 


66 

The  disease  being  mainly  due  to  direct  injury,  treatment  will  consist 
first  in  removing  such  cause  whenever  possible,  and  then  in  applying 
general  and  local  styptics.  Irritants  in  food  must  be  avoided,  sprains 
appropriately  treated,  and  stone  in  bladder  or  urethra  removed.  Then 
give  mucilaginous  drinks  (slippery  elm,  linseed  tea)  freely,  and  styptics 
(tincture  of  chloride  of  iron,  3  drams ;  acetate  of  lead,  one-half  dram ; 
tannic  acid,  one-half  dram ;  or  oil  of  turpentine,  1  ounce).  If  the  dis- 
charge is  abundant  apply  cold  water  to  the  loins  and  keep  the  animal 
perfectly  still. 

HEMOGLOBINURIA— AZOTURIA—AZOTAEMIA— POISONING    BY     ALBU- 
MINOIDS. 

Like  diabetes,  this  is  rather  a  disease  of  the  liver  and  blood-forming 
functions  than  of  the  kidney,  but  as  prominent  symptoms  are  loss  of 
control  over  the  hind  limbs  and  the  passage  of  ropy  and  dark-colored 
urine,  the  vulgar  idea  is  that  it  is  a  disorder  of  the  urinary  organs.  It 
is  a  complex  affection  directly  connected  with  a  plethora  in  the  blood  of 
nitrogenized  constituents,  with  extreme  nervous  and  muscular  disorder 
and  the  excretion  of  a  dense  reddish  or  brownish  urine.  It  is  directly 
connected  with  high  feeding,  especially  on  highly  nitrogenized  food 
(oats,  beans,  pease,  vetches,  cotton-seed  meal),  and  with  a  period  of  idle- 
ness in  the  stall  under  full  rations.  The  disease  is  never  seen  at  pas- 
ture, rarely  under  constant  daily  work,  even  though  the  feeding  be  high, 
and  the  attack  is  usually  precipitated  by  taking  the  horse  from  the 
stable  and  subjecting  it  to  exercise  or  work.  The  poisoning  is  not  pres- 
ent when  taken  from  the  stable,  as  the  horse  is  likely  to  be  noticeably 
lively  and  spirited,  but  he  will  usually  succumb  under  the  first  hundred 
yards  or  half  mile  of  exercise.  It  seems  as  if  the  aspiratory  power  of 
the  chest  under  the  sudden  exertion  and  accelerated  breathing  speedily 
drew  from  the  gorged  liver  and  abdominal  veins  (portal)  the  accumu- 
lated store  of  nitrogenous  matter  in  an  imperfectly  oxidized  or  elabo- 
rated condition,  and  as  if  the  blood,  surcharged  with  these  materials, 
was  unable  to  maintain  the  healthy  functions  of  the  nerve  centers  and 
muscles.  A  peculiar  anatomical  feature  of  the  horse's  liver  doubtless 
contributes  to  this,  namely,  the  persistence,  throughout  life,  of  several 
•considerable  veins  leading  directly  from  the  veins  of  the  stomach  and 
intestines  (portal  veins)  into  the  posterior  vena  cava  and  heart. 

This  condition,  common  to  fcEtal  mammals,  persists  through  life  in 
the  solipeds  only,  among  our  domestic  animals.  In  all  others  the  portal 
vein  has  no  communication  with  the  vena  cava  except  through  the 
capillaries  of  the  liver.  With  the  direct  channel  the  rich,  crude  blood 
coming  from  the  intestines  is  drawn  at  once  into  the  general  circulation 
unchanged  by  the  secretion  in  the  liver  and  the  chemical  changes 
therein  effected.  Hence  this  disease  is  peculiar  to  solipeds.  It  has  been 
noticed  rather  more  frequently  in  mares  than  horses,  attributable,  per- 
haps, to  the  nervous  excitement  attendant  on  heat  and  to  the  fact  that 


67 

the  unmutilated  mare  is  naturally  more  excitable  than  the  docile  geld- 


ing. 


St/mptoms. — lu  the  milder  forms  this  affection  may  appear  as  a  lame- 
ness in  one  limb,  from  indefinite  cause,  succeeding  to  some  sudden  ex- 
ertion and  attended  by  a  dusky-brown  color  of  the  membranes  of  the 
eye  and  nose  and  some  wincing  when  the  last  ribs  are  struck.  The 
severe  forms  come  on  after  one  or  two  days  of  rest  on  a  full  ration,  when 
the  animal  has  been  taken  out  and  driven  one  hundred  paces  or  more. 
The  tire  and  life  with  wliich  he  had  left  the  stable  suddenly  give  place 
to  dullness  and  oppression,  as  shown  in  heaving  flanks,  dihited  nostrils, 
pinched  face,  perspiring  skin,  and  trembling  body.  The  muscles  of  the 
loins  or  haunch  become  swelled  and  rigid,  the  subject  moves  stiffly  or 
unsteadily,  crouches  behind,  the  limbs  being  carried  semi-flexed,  and  he 
soon  drops,  unable  to  support  himself.  When  down,  the  body  and  limbs 
are  moved  convulsively,  but  there  is  no  power  of  coordination  of  move- 
ment in  the  muscles.  The  pulse  and  breathing  are  accelerated,  the 
eyes  red  with  a  tinge  of  brown,  and  the  urine,  if  passed,  is  seen  to  be 
highly  colored,  dark  brown,  red,  or  black,  but  it  contains  neither  blood 
clots  nor  globules.  The  color  is  mainly  due  to  hsemoglobin  and  other 
imperfectly  elaborated  constituents  of  the  blood.  ♦ 

Jt  may  end  fatally  in  a  few  hours  or  days,  or  a  recovery  may  ensue, 
which  is  usually  more  speedy  and  perfect  if  it  has  set  in  at  an  early 
stage.  In  the  late  and  tardy  recoveries  a  partial  paralysis  of  the  hind 
limbs  may  last  for  months.  A  frequent  sequel  of  these  tardy  cases  is 
an  extensive  wasting  of  the  muscles  leading  up  from  the  front  of  the 
stifle  (those  supplied  by  the  crural  nerve),  and  a  complete  inability,  to 
stand. 

The  preve7ition  of  this  serious  affection  lies  in  restricting  the  diet  and 
giving  daily  exercise  when  the  animal  is  not  at  work.  A  horse  that 
has  had  one  attack  should  never  be  left  idle  for  a  single  day  in  the  stall 
or  barn-yard.  When  a  horse  has  been  condemned  to  absolute  repose 
on  good  feeding  he  may  have  a  laxative  (one  half  to  1  pound  Glauber 
salts),  and  have  graduated  exercise,  beginning  with  a  short  walk  and 
increasing  day  by  day. 

The  treatment  of  the  mild  cases  may  consist  in  a  laxative,  graduated 
daily  exercise,  and  a  daily  dose  of  saltpeter  (1  ounce).  Sudden  attacks 
will  sometimes  promptly  subside  if  taken  on  the  instant  and  the  sub- 
ject kept  still  and  calmed  by  a  dose  of  bromide  of  potassium  (4 
drams)  and  sweet  spirits  of  niter  (1  ounce).  The  latter  has  the  advan- 
tage of  increasing  the  secretion  of  the  kidneys.  In  severe  cases,  as 
a  rule,  it  is  desirable  to  begin  treatment  by  a  full  dose  of  aloes  (4  to  G 
drams)  with  the  above-named  dose  of  bromide  of  potassium,  and  this 
latter  may  be  continued  at  intervals  of  four  or  six  hours,  as  may  be 
requisite  to  calm  the  nervous  excitement.  Fomentations  with  warm 
water  over  the  loins  are  always  useful  in  calming  the  excitable  condi- 
tion of  the  spinal  cord,  muscles,  liver,  and  kidneys,  and  also  in  favor- 


68 

in^  secretion  from  the  two  latter.  On  the  second  day  diuretics  may  be 
resorted  to,  such  as  saltpeter,  one-half  ounce,  and  powdered  colchicum, 
one-half  dram,  to  be  repeated  twice  daily.  A  laxative  may  be  re- 
peated in  three  or  four  days  should  the  bowels  seem  to  demand  it,  and 
as  the  nervous  excitement  disappears  any  remaining  muscular  weak- 
ness or  paralysis  may  be  treated  by  one-half  dram  doses  of  nux  vomica 
twice  a  day  and  a  stimulating  liniment  (aqua  ammonia  and  sweet-oil 
in  equal  proportions)  rubbed  on  the  torpid  muscles. 

During  the  course  of  the  disease  friction  to  the  limbs  is  useful,  and 
in  the  advanced  paralytic  stage  the  application  of  electricity  along  the 
line  of  the  affected  muscles.  When  the  patient  can  not  stand  he  must 
have  a  thick,  soft  bed,  and  should  be  turned  from  side  to  side  at  least 
every  twelve  hours.  As  soon  as  he  can  be  made  to  stand  he  may  be 
helped  up  and  even  supported  in  a  sling. 

■     ACUTE  -INFLAMMATION   OF   THE   KIDNEYS — ACUTE   NEPHRITIS. 

Inflammations  of  the  kidneys  have  been  differentiated  widely,  accord- 
ing as  they  were  acute  or  chronic,  parenchymatous  or  tubal,  suppurative 
or  not,  with  increased  or  shrunken  kidney,  etc.,  but  in  a  work  like  the 
present,  utility  will  be  consulted  by  classing  all  under  acute  or  chronic 
inflammation. 

The  causes  of  inflammation  of  the  kidneys  are  extremely  varied.  Con- 
gestion occurs  from  the  altered  and  irritant  products  passed  through 
these  organs  during  recovery  from  inflammations  of  other  organs  and 
during  fevers.  This  may  last  only  during  the  existence  of  its  cause,  or 
may  persist  and  become  aggravated.  Heart  disease,  throwing  the  blood 
pressure  back  on  the  veins  and  kidneys,  is  another  cause.  Disease  of 
the  ureter  or  bladder,  preventing  the  escape  of  urine  from  the  kidney 
and  causing  increased  fullness  and  tension  in  its  pelvis  and  tubes,  will 
determine  inflammation.  Decomposition  of  the  detained  urine  in  such 
cases,  and  the  production  of  ammonia  and  other  irritants,  must  also  be 
named.  The  advance  of  bacteria  upward  from  the  bladder  to  the  kid- 
ney is  another  cause.  The  consumption  in  hay  or  other  fodder  of  acrid 
or  irritant  plants,  including  fungi,  the  absorption  of  cantharidine  from 
a  surface  blistered  by  Spanish  flies,  the  reckless  administration  of  diu- 
retics, the  presence  of  stones  in  the  kidney,  exposure  of  the  surface  to 
cold  and  wet,  and  the  infliction  of  blows  or  sprains  on  the  loins,  may 
contribute  to  its  production.  Liver  disorders  which  throw  on  the  kid- 
neys the  work  of  excreting  irritant  products,  diseases  of  the  lungs  and 
heart  from  which  clots  are  carried,  to  be  arrested  in  the  small  blood- 
vessels of  the  kidney,  and  injuries  and  paralysis  of  the  spinal  cord,  are 
additional  causes. 

The  symptoms  are  more  or  less  fever,  manifest  stiffness  of  the  back  and 
straddling  gait  with  the  hind  limbs,  difiBculty  in  lying  down  and  rising, 
or  in  walking  in  a  circle,  the  animal  sometimes  groaning  under  the  effort, 
arching  of  the  loins  and  tucking  up  of  the  flank,  looki>ng  back  at  the 


69 

abdomen  as  if  from  colicky  pain,  and  tenderness  of  the  loins  to  pinch- 
lug,  especially  just  beneath  the  bony  processes  C  inches  to  one  side  of 
the  median  line.  Urine  is  passed  frequently,  a  small  quantity  at  a  time, 
of  a  high  color,  and  sometimes  mixed  with  blood  or  even  pus.  Under 
the  microscope  it  shows  the  microscopic  casts  referred  to  under  general 
symptoms.  If  treated  by  acetic  acid,  boiling,  and  subsequent  addition 
of  strong  nitric  acid,  the  resulting  and  persistent  precipitate  indicates 
the  amount  of  albumen.  The  legs  tend  to  swell  from  the  foot  up,  also 
the  dependent  parts  beneath  the  belly,  and  chest,  and  effusions  of  liquid 
may  occur  within  the  chest  or  abdomen.  In  the  male  animal  the  alter- 
nate drawing  np  and  relaxation  of  the  testicles  in  the  scrotum  are  sug- 
gestive, and  in  small  horses  the  oiled  hand  introduced  into  the  rectum 
may  reach  the  kidney  and  ascertain  its  sensitiveness. 

Treatment  demands,  first,  the  removal  of  any  recognized  cause.  Then, 
if  the  suffering  and  fever  are  high,  3  to  4  quarts  of  blood  may  be  ab- 
stracted from  the  jugular  vein  5  in  weak  subjects  or  unless  in  high  fever 
this  should  be  omitted.  Next  relieve  the  kidneys  as  far  as  possible  by 
throwing  their  work  on  the  bowels  and  skin.  A  pint  of  castor  oil  is 
less  likely  than  either  aloes  or  salts  to  act  on  the  kidneys.  To  affect 
the  skin  a  warm  stall  and  heavy  clothing  may  be  supplemented  by 
dram  doses  of  Dover's  powder.  Boiled  flaxseed  may  be  added  to  the 
drinking  water,  and  also  thrown  into  the  rectum  as  an  injection,  and 
blankets  saturated  with  hot  water  should  be  persistently  applied  to  the 
loins.  This  may  be  followed  by  a  very  thin  pulp  of  the  best  ground 
mustard  made  with  tepid  water,  rubbed  in  against  the  direction  of  the 
hair,  and  covered  up  with  paper  and  a  blanket.  This  may  be  kept  on 
for  an  hour,  or  until  the  skin  thickens  and  the  hair  stands  erect.  It 
may  then  be  rubbed  or  sponged  off  and  the  blanket  re-api)lied.  When 
the  action  of  the  bowels  has  been  started  it  may  be  kept  up  by  a  daily 
dose  of  2  or  3  ounces  of  Glauber  salts. 

During  recovery  a  course  of  bitter  tonics  (nux  vomica  1  scruple, 
ground  gentian  root  4  drams),  should  be  given.  The  patient  should 
also  be  guarded  against  cold,  wet,  and  any  active  exertion  for  some 
time  after  all  active  symptoms  have  subsided. 

CHRONIC    INFLAMMATION   OP   THE    KIDNEYS. 

Chronic  inflammation  of  the  kidneys  is  more  commonly  associated 
with  albumen  and  casts  in  the  urine  than  the  acute  form,  and  in  some 
instances  these  conditions  of  the  urine  may  be  the  onlj^  prominent 
symptoms  of  the  disease.  Though  it  may  supervene  on  blows,  injuries, 
and  exposures,  it  is  much  more  commonly  connected  with  faulty  con- 
ditions of  the  system — as  indigestion,  heart  disease,  lung  or  liver  dis- 
ease, imperfect  blood  formation  or  assimilation.  In  short,  it  is  rather 
the  attendant  on  a  constitutional  infirmity  than  on  a  simple  local  injury. 

It  may  be  associated  with  various  forms  of  diseased  kidney,  as  shrink- 
age (atrophy),  increase  (hypertrophy),  softening,  red  congestion,  white 


70 

enlargement,  etc.,  so  that  it  forms  a  group  of  diseases  rather  than  a 
disease  by  itself. 

The  symptoms  may  include  stiffness,  weakness,  and  increased  sensi- 
bility of  the  loins,  and  modified  secretion  of  urine  (increase  or  sup- 
pression), or  the  flow  may  be  natural.  Usually  it  contains  albumen, 
the  amount  furnishing  a  fair  criterion  of  the  gravity  of  the  affection, 
and  microscopic  casts,  also  most  abundant  in  bad  cases.  Dropsy, 
manifested  in  swelled  legs,  is  a  significant  symptom,  and  if  the  effusion 
takes  place  along  the  lower  line  of  the  bodj,  or  in  chest  or  abdomen, 
the  significance  is  increased.  A  scurfy,  unthrifty  skin,  lack-luster  hair, 
inability  to  sustain  severe  or  continued  exertion,  poor  or  irregular  ap- 
petite, loss  of  fat  and  flesh,  softness  of  the  muscles,  and  pallor  of  the 
eyes  and  nose  are  equally  suggestive.  So  are  skin  eruptions  of  various 
kinds.  Any  one  or  more  of  these  symptoms  would  warrant  an  examina- 
tion of  the  urine  for  albumen  and  casts,  the  finding  of  which  signifies 
renal  inflammation. 

Treatment  of  these  cases  is  not  alwavs  satisfactorv,  as  the  cause  is 
liable  to  be  maintained  in  the  disorders  of  important  organs  elsewhere. 
If  any  such  coincident  disease  of  another  organ  or  function  can  be  de- 
tected, that  should  be  treated  first  or  simultaneously  with  this  affection 
of  the  kidneys.  In  all  cases  the  building  up  of  the  general  health  is 
important.  Hence  a  course  of  tonics  may  be  given  (phosphate  of  iron, 
2  drams;  nux  vomica,  20  grains;  powdered  gentian  root,  4  drams, 
daily),  or  GO  drops  of  sulphuric  acid  or  nitro-muriatic  acid  may  be 
given  daily  in  the  drinking  water.  If  there  is  any  elevated  temperature 
of  the  body  and  tenderness  of  the  loins,  fomentations  may  be  applied, 
followed  by  a  mustard  pulp  as  for  acute  inflammation,  and  even  in  the 
absence  of  these  indications  the  mustard  may  be  resorted  to  with  ad- 
vantage at  intervals  of  a  few  days.  In  suppression  of  urine,  fomenta- 
tions with  warm  water  or  with  infusion  of  digitalis  leaves  is  a  safer 
resort  than  diuretics,  and  cupping  over  the  loins  maj-  also  benefit.  To 
apply  a  cup  shave  the  skin  and  oil  it;  then  take  a  narrow-mouthed 
glass,  rarify  the  air  within  it  by  introducing  a  taper  in  full  flame  for  a 
second,  withdraw  the  taper  and  instantly  apply  the  mouth  of  the  glass 
to  the  skin  and  hold,  it  closely  applied  till  the  cooling  tends  to  form  a 
vacuum  in  the  glass  and  to  draw  up  the  skin,  like  a  sucker. 

As  in  the  acute  iuflauimation,  every  attention  must  be  given  to  secure 
warm  clothing,  a  warm  stall,  and  pure  air. 

TUMORS   OF   THE   KIDNEYS — PARASITES. 

Tumors,  whether  malignant  or  simple,  would  give  rise  to  symptoms 
resembling  some  form  of  inflammation,  and  are  not  likely  to  be  recog- 
nized during  life.  To  parasites  of  the  kidney  belong  the  echinococciis, 
the  larval  or  bladder- worm  stage  of  the  small  echinococcus  tape- worm 
of  the  dog;  also  the  Cysticercus  JistiOaris,  another  bladder-worm  of  an 
tinknown  tape- worm;  but  in  these  there  is  the  possibility  of  the  pas- 


'71 

sage  with  tbe  urine  of  a  detached  head  of  the  bladder-worm  or  of  some 
of  its  microscopic  booklets,  which  might  be  found  iu  the  sedimeut  of 
the  urine.  So  with  Stro7i(jylus  gigas  (giant  strongle),  the  largest  of  round 
worms,  which  has  been  found  in  tbe  kidney  of  the  horse,  and  tbe  pres- 
ence of  wbicli  could  only  be  certified  by  tbe  passage  of  its  microscopic 
eggs  or  of  the  entire  worm. 

SPASM   OF   THE   NECK   OF   THE   BLADDER. 

Tbis  affection  consists  in  spasmodic  closure  of  the  outlet  from  tbe 
bladder  by  tonic  contraction  of  the  circular  muscular  fibers.  It  may  be 
accompanied  by  a  painful  contraction  of  the  muscles  on  the  body  of  tlie 
bladder,  or  if  tbe  organ  is  already  unduly  distended  these  will  be  affected 
with  temporary  paralysis.  It  is  most  frequent  iu  the  horse,  but  by  no 
means  unknown  iu  the  mare. 

The  causes  are  usually  hard  and  continuous  driving  without  opportu- 
nity for  passing  urine,  cold  rain-storms,  draughts  of  cold  air  when  per- 
spiring and  fatigued,  the  administration  of  Si)anish  fly  or  tbe  applica- 
fion  of  extensive  blisters  of  tlie  same,  abuse  of  diuretics,  tbe  presence 
of  acrid  diuretic  plants  in  the  fodder,  and  tbe  presence  of  stone  iu  tbe 
bladder.  As  most  mares  refuse  to  urinate  while  iu  harness,  tbey  should 
be  unhitched  at  suitable  times  for  urination.  Spasms  of  tbe  bowels 
are  always  attended  by  spasm  of  tbe  bladder,  hence  tbe  free  passage  of 
water  is  usually  a  symptom  of  relief. 

Tbe  symj}toms  are  frequent  stretcbing'and  straining  to  urinate,  with  no 
result  or  a  slight  dribbling  only.  These  vain  efforts  are  attended  by 
pain  and  groaning.  Ou  resuming  bis  natural  position  the  animal  is 
not  freed  from  tbe  pain,  but  moves  uneasily,  paws,  shakes  tbe  tail, 
kicks  at  the  abdomen  with  his  bind  feet,  looks  back  to  tbe  flank,  lies 
down  and  rises,  arches  the  back,  and  attempts  to  urinate  as  before.  If 
the  oiled  band  is  introduced  into  tbe  rectum  tbe  greatly  distended  blad- 
der may  be  felt  beneath,  and  the  patient  will  often  shrink  when  it  is 
handled. 

It  is  important  to  notice  that  irritation  of  the  urinary  organs  is  often 
present  in  impaction  of  tbe  colon  with  solid  matters,  because  the  im- 
pacted intestine  under  the  straining  of  the  patient  is  forced  backward 
into  the  pelvis  and  presses  upon  and  irritates  tbe  bladder.  In  such 
cases  tbe  horse  stands  with  his  fore  limbs  advanced  and  tbe  hind  ones 
stretched  back  beyond  the  natural  posture,  and  makes  frequent  elibrts 
to  urinatfe  with  varying  success.  Unpracticed  observers  naturally  cou- 
cluiie  that  the  secondary  urinary  trouble  is  tbe  main  and  only  one,  and 
tbe  intestinal  impaction  and  obstruction  is  too  often  neglected  until  it 
is  irremediable.  In  cases  where  the  irritation  has  caused  spasm  of  tbe 
neck  of  the  bladder  and  overdistension  of  that  organ,  tbe  mistake  is 
still  more  easily  made,  hence  it  is  important  iu  all  cases  to  examine  for 
the  impacted  bowel,  forming  a  bend  or  loop  at  tbe  entrance  of  tbe  j)elvi8 
and  usually  toward  the  left  side.    Tbe  impacted  intestine  feels  soft  and 


72 

doughy,  aud  is  easily  indented  with  the  knuckles,  forming  a  marked 
contrast  with  the  tense,  elastic,  resilient  overdisteuded  bladder. 

It  remains  to  be  noted  that  similar  symptoms  may  be  determined  by 
a  stone,  or  sebaceous  mass,  or  stricture  obstructing  the  urethra,  or  in 
the  new-born  by  thickened  mucus  in  that  duct  aud  the  pressure  of 
hardened  impacted  feces  in  the  rectum  In  obstruction,  the  Lard  im- 
pacted body  can  usually  be  felt  by  tracing  tbe  urethra'along  the  lower 
and  posterior  surface  of  the  penis  and  forward  to  the  median  line  of 
the  floor  of  the  pelvis  to  the  neck  of  the  bladder.  That  part  of  the 
urethra  between  the  seat  of  obstruction  and  the  bladder  is  usually  dis- 
tended with  urine,  and  feels  enlarged,  elastic,  and  fluctuating. 

Treatment  may  be  begun  by  taking  the  animal  out  of  harness.  This 
failing,  spread  clean  litter  beneath  the  belly  or  turn  the  patient  out  on 
the  dung-heap.  Some  seek  to  establish  sympathetic  action  by  pouring 
water  from  one  vessel  into  another  with  dribbling  noise.  Others  soothe 
and  distract  the  attention  by  slow  whistling.  Friction  of  the  abdomen 
with  wisps  of  straw  may  succeed,  or  it  may  be  rubbed  with  ammonia 
and  oil.  These  failing,  an  injection  of  2  ounces  of  laudanum  or  of  a*i 
infusion  of  1  ounce  of  tobacco  in  water  may  be  tried.  In  the  mare  the 
neck  of  the  bladder  is  easily  dilated  by  inserting  two  oiled  fingers  and 
slightly  parting  them.  In  the  horse  the  oiled  hand  introduced  into  the 
rectum  may  i^ress  from  before  backward  on  the  anterior  or  blind  end  of 
the  bladder.  Finally  a  well-oiled  gum  elastic  catheter  may  be  entered 
into  the  urethra  through  the  papilla  at  the  end  of  the  penis  and  pushed 
on  carefully  until  it  has  entered  the  bladder.  To  effect  this  the  penis 
must  first  be  withdrawn  from  its  sheath,  and  when  the  advancing  end 
of  the  catheter  has  reached  the  bend  of  the  urethra  beneath  the  anus 
it  must  be  guided  forward  by  pressure  with  the  hand,  which  guidance 
must  be  continued  onward  into  the  bladder,  the  oiled  hand  being  intro- 
duced into  the  rectum  for  this  purpose.  The  horse  catheter,  3i  feet 
long  and  one-third  inch  in  diameter,  may  be  bought  of  a  surgical-instru- 
ment maker. 

PARALYSIS  OF  THE  BLADDER. 

Paralysis  of  the  body  of  the  bladder  with  spasm  of  the  neck  has  been 
described  under  the  last  heading,  and  may  occur  in  the  same  way  from 
overdistension  in  tetanus,  acute  rheumatism,  paraplegia,  and  hemi- 
jjlegia,  in  which  the  animal  can  not  stretch  himself  to  stale,  and  in  cys- 
titis, affecting  the  body  of  the  bladder  but  not  the  neck.  In  all  these 
cases  the  urine  is  suppressed.  It  also  occurs  as  a  result  of  disease  of 
the  posterior  end  of  the  spinal  marrow  and  with  broken  back,  aud  is 
then  associated  with  jjalsy  of  the  tail,  and  it  may  be  of  the  hind  limbs. 

The  symptoms  are  a  constant  dribbling  of  urine  when  the  neck  is  in- 
volved, the  liquid  running  down  the  inside  of  the  thighs  and  irritating 
the  skin.  When  the  neck  is  unaffected  the  urine  is  retained  until  the 
bladder  is  greatly  overdisteuded,  when  it  may  be  expelled  in  a  gush 


73 

by  the  active  contraction  of  the  muscular  walls  of  the  abflomen  ;,•  but 
this  never  empties  the  bladder,  and  the  oiled  hand  introduced  through 
the  rectum  may  feel  the  soft,  flabby  organ  still  half  full  of  urine.  This 
retained  urine  is  liable  to  decompose  and  give  off  ammonia,  which  dis- 
solves the  epithelial  cells,  exposing  the  raw  mucous  membrane,  and 
causing  the  worst  type  of  cystitis.  Suppression  and  incontinence  of 
urine  are  common  also  to  obstruction  of  the  urethra  by  stone  or  other- 
wise;  hence  this  source  of  fallacy  should  be  excluded  by  manual  ex- 
amination along  the  whole  course  of  that  duct. 

Treatment  is  only  applicable  in  cases  in  which  the  determining  cause 
can  be  abated.  In  remediable  sprains  of  the  back  or  disease  of  the 
spinal  cord  these  must  have  appropriate  treatment,  and  the  urine  must 
be  drawn  ofi"  frequently  with  a  catheter  to  prevent  overdistension  and 
injury  to  the  bladder.  If  the  paralysis  persists  after  recovery  of  the 
spinal  cord,  or  if  it  continues  after  relief  of  spasm  of  the  neck  of  the 
bladder,  apply  a  pulp  of  mustard  and  water  over  the  back  part  of  the 
bellv  in  front  of  the  udder,  and  cover  with  a  rug  until  the  hair  stands 
erect.  In  the  male  the  mustard  may  be  applied  between  the  thighs 
from  near  the  anus  downward.  Daily  doses  of  2  drams  extract  of 
belladonna,  or  of  2  grains  powdered  Spanish  fly,  may  serve  to  rouse 
the  lost  tone.  These  fiiiling,  a  mild  current  of  electricity  daily  may 
STOceed. 

INFLAMMATION   OF   THE  BLADDER— CYSTITIS— UEOCYSTITIS. 

Cystitis  may  be  slight  or  severe,  acute  or  chronic,  partial  or  general. 
It  may  be  caused  by  abuse  of  diuretics,  especially  sucLi  as  are  irritating 
(cantharides,  turpentine,  copaiba,  resin,  etc.),  by  (he  presence  of  a  stone 
or  gravel  in  the  bladder,  the  irritation  of  a  catheter  or  other  foreign 
body  introduced  from  without,  the  septic  ferment  (bacterium)  intro- 
duced on  a  filthy  catheter,  the  overdistension  of  the  bladder  by  re- 
tained urine,  the  extrication  of  ammonia  from  retained  decomposing 
urine,  resulting  in  destruction  of  the  epithelial  cells  and  irritation  of 
the  raw  surface,  and  a  too-concentrated  and  irritating  urine.  The 
aj)plication  of  Spanish  flies  or  turpentine  over  a  too-extensive  surface, 
sudden  exposure  of  a  perspiring  and  tired  horse  to  cold  or  wet,  and  the 
presence  of  acrid  plants  in  the  fodder  may  cause  cystitis,  as  they  may 
nephritis.  Finally,  inflammation  may  extend  from  a  diseased  vagina 
or  urethra  to  the  bladder. 

The  sympto7ns  are  slight  or  severe  colicky  pains ;  the  animal  moves 
his  hind  feet  uneasily  or  even  kicks  at  the  abdomen,  looks  around  at 
his  flank,  and  may  even  lie  down  and  rise  frequently.  More  char- 
acteristic are  frequently  repeated  efibrts  to  urinate,  resulting  in  the 
discharge  of  a  little  clear,  or  red,  or  more  commonly  flocculent  urine, 
always  in  jets,  and  accompanied  by  signs  of  pain,  which  persist  after 
the  discharge,  as  shown  in  continued  straining,  groaning,  and  perhaps 
in  movements  of  the  feet  and  tail.    The  penis  hangs  from  the  sheath, 


74 

or  in  the  mare  the  vulva  is  frequently  opened  and  closed,  as  after  uri- 
nation. The  animal  winces  when  the  abdomen  is  pressed  in  the  region 
of  the  sheath  or  udder,  and  the  bladder  is  found  to  be  sensitive  and 
tender  when  pressed  with  the  oiled  hand  introduced  through  the  rectum 
or  vagina.  In  the  mare  the  thickening  of  the  walls  of  the  bladder  may- 
be felt  by  introducing  one  finger  through  the  urethra.  The  discharged 
urine,  which  may  be  turbid  or  even  oily,  contains  an  excess  of  mucus, 
with  flat  shreds  of  membrane,  with  scaly  epithelial  cells,  and  pus  cor- 
puscles, each  showing  two  or  more  nuclei  when  treated  with  acetic  acid, 
but  there  are  no  microscopic  tubular  casts,  as  in  nephritis.  If  due  to 
stone  in  the  bladder,  that  will  be  found  on  examination  through  rectum 
or  vagina. 

Treatment  implies,  first,  the  removal  of  the  cause,  whether  poisons  in 
food  or  as  medicine,  the  removal  of  Spanish  flies  or  other  blistering 
agents  from  the  skin,  or  the  extraction  of  stone  or  gravel.  If  the  urine 
has  been  retained  and  decomposi'd  it  must  be  completely  evacuated 
through  a  clean  catheter,  and  the  bladder  thoroughly  washed  out  with 
a  solution  of  1  dram  of  borax  in  a  quart  of  water.  This  must  be  re- 
peated twice  daily  until  the  urine  no  longer  decomposes,  because  as 
long  as  ammonia  is  developed  in  the  bladder  the  protecting  layer  of 
epithelial  cells  will  be  dissolved  and  the  surface  kept  raw  and  irrita- 
ble. The  diet  must  be  light  (bran  mashes,  roots,  fresh  grass),  and  the 
drink  impregnated  with  linseed  tea,  or  solution  of  slippery-elm  or 
marsh-mallow.  The  same  agents  may  be  used  to  inject  into  the  rectum, 
or  they  may  even  be  used  atong  with  borax  and  opium  to  inject  into 
bladder  (gum  arable,  1  dram;  opium,  1  dram;  tepid  water,  1  pint). 
Fomentations  over  the  loins  are  often  of  great  advantage,  and  these 
may  be  followed  or  alternated  with  the  application  of  mustard,  as  in 
paralysis.  Or  the  mnstard  may  be  applied  on  the  back  part  of  the  ab- 
domen below,  or  between  the  thighs  from  the  anus  downward.  Finally, 
when  the  acute  symptoms  have  subsided,  a  daily  dose  of  buchu  1 
dram,  and  nux  vomica  one-half  dram,  will  serve  to  restore  lost  tone. 

IRRITABLE   BLADDER. 

Some  horses,  and  especially  mares,  show  an  irritability  of  the  blad- 
der and  nerve  centers  presiding  over  it  by  frequent  urination  in  small 
quantities,  though  the  urine  is  not  manifestly  changed  in  character 
and  no  more  than  the  natural  amount  is  passed  in  the  twenty-four 
hours.  The  disorder  appears  to  have  its  source  quite  as  frequently  in 
the  generative  or  nervous  system  as  in  the  urinary.  A  troublesome 
and  dangerous  form  is  seen  in  mares,  which  dash  off  and  refuse  all  con- 
trol by  the  rein  if  driven  with  a  full  bladder,  but  usually  prove  docile 
if  the  bladder  has  been  emptied  before  hitching.  In  other  cases  the 
excitement  connected  with  getting  the  tail  over  the  reins  is  a  powerful 
determining  cause.  The  condition  is  marked  in  many  mares  during 
the  period  of  heat. 


75 

An  oleaginous  laxative  (castor  oil  1  pint)  will  serve  to  reuove  any 
cause  of  irritation  in  the  digestive  organs,  and  a  careful  dieting  will 
avoid  continued  irritation  by  acrid  vegetable  agents.  The  bladder 
should  be  examined  to  see  that  there  is  no  stone  or  other  cause  of  irri- 
tation, and  the  sheath  and  penis  should  be  washed  with  soap-suds,  any 
sebaceous  matter  removed  from  the  bilocular  cavity  at  the  end  of  the 
penis,  and  the  whole  lubricated  with  sweet  oil.  Irritable  mares  should 
be  induced  to  urinate  before  they  are  harnessed,  and  those  that  clutch 
the  lines  under  the  tail  may  have  the  tail  set  high  by  cutting  the  cords 
on  its  lower  surface,  or  it  may  be  prevented  getting  over  the  reins  by 
having  a  strap  carried  from  its  free  end  to  the  breeching.  Those  i)rov- 
ing  troublesome  when  in  heat  may  have  4-dram  doses  of  bromide  of 
potassium,  or  they  may  be  served  by  the  male  or  castrated.  Sometimes 
irritability  may  be  lessened  by  daily  doses  of  belladonna  extract  (1 
dram),  or  a  better  tone  may  be  given  to  the  parts  by  balsam  copaiba 
(1  dram). 

DISEASED    GROWTHS   IN   THE   BLADDER. 

These  may  be  of  various  kinds,  malignant  or  simple.  In  the  horse  I 
have  found  villous  growths  from  the  mucous  membrane  especially 
troublesome.  They  may  be  attached  to  the  mucous  membrane  by  a 
narrow  neck  or  by  a  broad  base  covering  a  great  part  of  the  organ. 
The  symptoms  are  frequent  straining,  passing  of  urine  and  blood  with 
occasionally  gravel.  An  examination  of  the  bladder  with  the  hand  in 
the  rectum  will  detect  the  new  growth,  which  may  be  distinguished  from 
a  hard  resistant  stone.  In  mares,  in  which  the  finger  can  be  inserted 
into  the  bladder,  the  recognition  is  still  more  satisfactory.  The  polypi 
attached  by  narrow  necks  may  be  removed  by  surgical  operation,  but 
for  those  with  broad  attachments  treatment  is  eminently  unsatisfac- 
tory. 

DISCHARGE   OF   URINE   BY   THE  NAVEL — PERSISTENT   URACHUS. 

This  occurs  only  in  the  new-born,  and  consists  in  the  non-closure  of 
the  natural  channel  (urachus),  through  which  the  urine  is  discharged 
into  the  outer  water  bag  (allautois)  in  foetal  life.  At  that  early  stage 
of  the  animal  existence  the  bladder  resembles  a  long  tube,  which  is  pro- 
longed through  the  navel  string  and  opens  into  the  outermost  of  the 
two  water-bags  in  which  the  foetus  floats.  In  this  way  the  urine  is  i)re- 
vented  from  entering  the  inner  water-bag  (amnios),  where  it  would 
mingle  with  the  liquids,  bathing  the  skin  of  the  foetus  and  cause  irrita- 
tion. At  birth  this  channel  closes  up,  and  the  urine  takes  the  course 
normal  to  extra-uterine  life.  Imperfect  closure  is  more  frequent  in 
males  than  in  females,  because  of  the  grefit;  length  and  small  caliber  of 
the  male  urethra  and  its  consequent  tendency  to  obstruction.  In  the 
female  there  may  be  a  discharge  of  a  few  drops  only  at  a  time,  while  in 
the  male  the  urine  will  be  expelled  in  strong  jets  coincidently  with  the 
contractions  of  the  bladder  and  walls  of  the  abdomen. 


76 

The  first  care  is  to  ascertain  if  the  urethra  is  pervious  by  passing  a 
human  catheter.  This  determined,  the  open  urachus  may  be  firmly 
closed  by  a  stout  waxed  thread,  carried  with  a  needle  through  the  tis- 
sues back  of  the  opening  and  tied  in  front  of  it  so  as  to  inclose  as  little 
skin  as  possible.  If  a  portion  of  the  navel  string  remains,  the  tying  of 
that  may  be  all  sufficient.  It  is  important  to  tie  as  early  as  possible  so 
as  to  avoid  inflammation  of  the  navel  from  contact  with  the  urine.  In 
summer  a  little  carbolic  acid  water  or  tar  water  may  be  applied  to 
keep  off  the  flies. 

EVERSION    OF   THE   BLADDER. 

This  can  occur  only  in  the  female.  It  consists  in  the  turning  of  the 
organ  outside  in  through  the  channel  of  the  urethra,  so  that  it  appears 
as  a  red,  pear  shaped  mass  hanging  from  the  floor  of  the  vulva  and  pro- 
truding externally  between  its  lips.  It  may  be  a  mass  like  the  fist,  or 
it  may  swell  up  to  the  size  of  an  infant's  head.  On  examining  its  upper 
surface  the  orifices  of  the  urethra  may  be  seen,  one  on  each  side,  a  short 
distance  behind  the  neck,  with  the  urine  ooziug  from  them  drop  by 

drop. 

Tbis  displacement  usually  supervenes  on  a  flaccid  condition  of  the 
bladder,  the  result  of  paralysis,  over  distention,  or  severe  compression 
during  a  difficult  parturition. 

The  protruding  organ  may  be  washed  with  a  solution  of  1  ounce  of 
laudanum  and  a  teaspoonful  of  carbolic  acid  in  a  quart  of  water,  and 
returned  by  pressing  a  smooth,  rounded  object  into  the  fundus  and 
directing  it  into  the  urethra,  while  careful  pressure  is  made  on  the  sur- 
rounding parts  with  the  other  hand.  If  too  large  and  resistant  it  may 
be  wound  tightly  in  a  strip  of  bandage  about  two  inches  broad  so  as  to 
express  the  great  mass  of  blood,  and  exudate  and  diminish  the  bulk  of 
the  protruded  organ  so  that  it  can  be  easily  pushed  back.  This  method 
has  the  additional  advantage  of  protecting  the  organ  against  bruises 
and  lacerations  in  the  effort  made  to  return  it.  After  the  return  strain- 
ing may  be  kept  in  check  by  giving  laudanum  (1  to  2  ounces),  and  by 
applying  a  truss  to  press  upon  the  lips  of  the  vulva  (see  eversion  of  the 
womb.)  The  patient  should  be  kept  in  a  stall  a  few  inches  lower  in 
front  than  behind,  so  that  the  action  of  gravity  will  favor  retention. 

INFLAMMATION   OF   THE   URETHRA— URETHRITIS— GLEET. 

This  affection  belongs  quite  as  much  to  the  generative  organs,  yet  it 
can  not  be  entirely  overlooked  in  a  treatise  on  urinary  disorders,  it 
may  be  induced  by  the  same  causes  as  cystitis  (which  see),  by  the  pas- 
sage and  temporary  arrest  of  small  stones,  or  gravel,  by  the  irritation 
caused  by  foreign  bodies  introduced  from  without,  by  blows  on  the 
penis  by  sticks,  stones,  or  by  the  feet  of  a  mare  which  kicks  while  being 
served,  by  an  infecting  inflammation  contracted  from  a  mare  served  in 


77 

the  first  few  d^s  after  parturition,  or  one  suffering  from  leucorrlicea, 
by  infecting  matter  introduced  on  a  dirty  catheter,  or  by  the  extension 
of  inflammation  from  an  irritated  bilocular  cavity  filled  with  hardened 
sebaceous  matter,  or  from  an  uncleaused  sheath. 

The  symptoms  are  swelling,  heat,  and  tenderness  of  the  sheath  and 
penis,  difficulty,  pain,  and  groaning  in  passing  urine,  which  is  liable  to 
sudden  temporary  arrests  in  the  course  of  a  micturition,  and  later  a 
whitish  muco-purulent  oozing  from  the  papilla  on  the  end  of  the  penis. 
There  is  a  tendency  to  erection  of  the  penis,  and  in  cases  contracted 
from  a  mare  the  outer  surface  of  that  organ  will  show  more  or  less  ex- 
tensive sores  and  ulcers.  Stallions  sufiering  in  this  way  will  refuse  to 
mount,  or  having  mounted  will  fail  to  complete  the  act  of  coition.  If 
an  entrance  is  effected  infection  of  the  mare  is  liable  to  follow. 

Treatment  in  the  early  stages  consists  in  a  dose  of  physic  (aloes,  6 
drams),  and  fomentations  of  warm  water  to  the  sheath  and  penis.  If 
there  is  reason  to  suspect  the  presence  of  infection,  inject  the  urethra 
twice  daily  with  borax  1  dram,  water  1  quart,  using  it  tepid.  Where 
the  mucopurulent  discharge  indicates  the  supervention  of  the  second 
stage,  a  more  astringent  injection  may  be  employed  (nitrate  of  silver  20 
grains,  water  1  quart),  and  the  same  may  be  applied  to  the  surface  of 
the  penis  and  inside  the  sheath.  Balsam  of  copaiba  (1  dram  daily) 
may  also  be  given  with  advantage  after  the  purulent  discharge  has  ap- 
peared. 

Every  stallion  suffering  from  urethritis  should  be  withheld  from  serv- 
ice, as  should  mares  with  leucorrhoea. 

STRICTURE   OF    THE   URETHRA. 

This  is  a  permanent  narrowing  of  the  urethra  at  a  given  point,  the 
result  of  previous  inflammation,  caused  by  the  passage  or  arrest  of  a 
stone  or  gravel,  by  strong  astringent  injections  in  the  early  non-secret- 
ing stages  of  urethritis,  or  by  contraction  of  the  lining  membrane  occur- 
ring during  the  healing  of  ulcers  in  neglected  inflammations  of  that 
canal.  The  trouble  is  shown  by  the  passage  of  urine  in  a  fine  stream 
with  straining,  pain,  and  groaning,  and  by  frequent  painful  erections. 
It  must  be  remedied  by  mechanical  dilatation,  with  catheters  just  large 
enough  to  pass  with  gentle  force,  to  be  inserted  once  a  day,  and  to  be 
used  of  larger  size  as  the  passage  will  admit  them.  The  catheter  should 
be  kept  perfectly  clean,  and  washed  in  a  borax  solution  and  well  oiled 
before  it  is  introduced. 

URINARY   CALCULI — STONE — GRAVEL. 

These  consist  in  some  of  the  solids  of  the  urine  that  have  been  pre- 
cipitated from  the  urine  in  the  form  of  crystals,  which  remain  apart  as 
a  fine  powdery  mass  or  magma,  or  aggregate  into  calculi  or  stones  of 
varying  size.  Their  composition  is  therefore  determined  in  ditt'erent 
animals  by  the  salts  and  other  constituents  found  dissolved  in  the 


78 

healthy  urine,  and  by  the  additional  constituents  which  maybe  thrown 
off  in  solution  in  the  urine  in  disease.  In  this  connection  it  is  impor- 
tant to  obseive  the  following  analysis  of  the  horse's  urine  in  health: 

Water 918,5 

Urea 13.4 

Uric  acid  and  viratcs 0. 1 

Hippnric  acid 26.  4 

Lactic  acid  and  lactates 1.0 

Mucus  and  organic  matter 22.0 

Sulphates  (alkaline) 1.2 

Phosphates  (lime  and  soda) 0.  2 

Chlorides  (sodium) 1.0 

Carbonates  (potash,  magnesia,  lime) 16.0 

1000.  0 

The  carbonate  of  lime,  which  is  present  in  large  amount  in  the  urine  of 
horses  fed  on  green  fodder,  is  practically  insoluble,  and  therefore  forms 
in  the  passages  after  secretion,  and  its  microscopic  rounded  crystals 
give  the  urine  of  such  horses  a  milky  whiteness.  It  is  this  material 
which  constitutes  the  soft,  white,  pultaceous  mass  that  sometimes  fills 
the  bladder  to  repletion  and  requires  to  be  washed  out.  In  hay-fed 
horses  carbonates  are  still  abundant,  while  in  those  mainly  grain-fed 
they  aie  replaced  by  hii)i)urates  and  phosphates — the  products  of  the 
wear  of  tissues — the  carbonates  being  the  result  of  oxidation  of  the 
vegetable  acids  in  the  food.  Carbonate  of  lime,  therefore,  is  a  very 
common  constituent  of  urinary  calculi  in  herbivora,  and  in  many  cases 
is  the  most  abundant  constituent. 

Oxalate  of  lime,  like  carbonate  of  lime,  is  derived  from  the  burning 
up  of  the  carbonaceous  matter  of  the  food  in  the  system,  one  important 
factor  being  the  less  perfect  oxidation  of  the  carbon.  Indeed,  Fiirsten- 
berg  and  Schmidt  have  demonstrated  on  man,  horse,  ox,  and  rabbit, 
that  under  the  full  play  of  the  breathing  (oxidizing)  forces  oxalic,  like 
other  organic  acids,  is  resolved  into  carbonic  acid.  In  keeping  with 
this  is  the  observation  of  Lehmann  that  in  all  cases  in  which  man  suf- 
fered from  interference  with  ihe  breathing,  oxalate  of  lime  appeared  in 
the  urine.  An  excess  of  oxalate  of  lime  in  the  urine  may,  however, 
claim  a  different  origin.  Uric  and  hippuric  acids  are  found  in  the  urine 
ofcarnivora  and  herbivora,  respectively,  as  the  result  of  the  healthy 
wear  (disassimilatiou)  of  nitrogenous  tissues.  But  if  these  products  are 
fully  oxidized  they  are  thrown  out  in  the  form  of  the  more  soluble  urea 
rather  than  as  these  acids.  When  uric  a'cid  out  of  the  body  is  treated 
with  peroxide  of  lead  it  is  resolved  into  urea,  allantoine,  and  oxalic 
acid,  and  Woehler  and  Frerrichs  found  that  the  administration  of  uric 
acid  not  only  increased  the  excretion  of  urea,  but  also  of  oxalic  acid. 
It  may  therefore  be  inferred  that  oxalic  acid  is  not  produced  from  the* 
carbonaceous  food  alone,  but  also  from  the  disintegration  of  the  nitro- 
genous tissues  of  the  body.  An  important  element  of  its  production 
is,  however,  the  imperfect  performance  of  the  breathing  functions,  and 


79 

hence  it  is  liable  to  result  from  diseases  of  the  chest  (heaves,  chronic 
bronchitis,  etc.).  This  is  above  all  likely  to  prove  the  case  if  the  sub- 
ject is  fed  to  excess  on  highly  carbonaceous  foods  (grass  and  green  food 
generally,  potatoes,  etc.). 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,  another  almost  constant  ingredient  of  the 
urinary  calculi  of  the  horse,  is  formed  in  the  same  way  as  the  carbonate 
of  lime,  from  the  excess  of  carbonaceous  food  (organic  acids),  becoming 
oxidized  into  carbon  dioxide,  which  unites  with  the  magnesia  derived 
from  the  food. 

The  phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia  are  not  abundant  in  urinary 
calculi  of  the  horse,  the  phosphates  being  only  present  to  excess  in  the 
urine  in  two  conditions;  (a)  when  the  ration  is  excessive  and  specially 
rich  in  phosphorus  (wheat  bran,  beans,  peas,  vetches,  rape  cake,  oil 
cake,  cotton-seed  cake);  and  {b)  when  through  the  morbid  destructive 
changes  in  the  living  tissues,  and  especially  of  the  bones,  a  great 
amount  of  phosphorus  is  given  off  as  a  waste  product.  Under  these 
conditions,  however,  the  phosphates  may  contribute  to  the  formation  of 
calculi,  and  this  is,  above  all,  likely  if  the  urine  is  retained  in  the  blad- 
der until  it  has  undergone  decomposition  and  given  off  ammonia.  The 
ammonia  at  once  unites  with  the  phosphate  of  magnesia  to  form  a 
double  salt,  phosphate  of  ammonia  and  magnesia,  which,  being  insolu- 
ble, is  at  once  precipitated.  The  precipitation  of  this  salt  is,  however, 
rare  in  the  urine  of  the  horse,  though  much  more  frequent  in  that  of 
man  and  sheep. 

These  are  the  chief  mineral  constituents  of  the  urine  which  form  in- 
gredients in  the  horse's  calculi,  for  though  iron  and  manganese  are 
usually  present  it  is  only  in  minute  quantities. 

The  excess  of  mineral  matters  in  a  specimen  of  urine  unquestionably 
contributes  to  the  formation  of  calculi,  just  as  solution  of  such  matters 
out  of  the  body  is  increasingly  disposed  to  throw  them  down  in  the  form 
of  crystals  as  it  becomes  more  concentrated  and  approaches  nearer  to 
the  condition  of  saturation.  Hence,  in  considering  the  causes  of  calculi 
we  can  not  ignore  the  factor  of  an  excessive  ration,  rich  in  mineral  mat- 
ters and  in  carbonaceous  matters  (the  source  of  carbonates  and  much 
of  the  oxalates),  uor  cau  we  overlook  the  concentration  of  the  urine 
that  comes  from  dry  food  and  privation  of  water,  or  from  the  existence 
of  fever  which  causes  suspension  of  the  secretion  of  water.  In  these 
cases,  at  least  the  usual  amount  of  solids  are  thrown  oft'  by  the  kid- 
neys, and  as  tht.  water  is  diminished  there  is  danger  of  its  approaching 
the  point  of  supersaturation,  when  the  dissolved  solids  must  necessa- 
rily be  thrown  down.  Hence,  calculi  are  more  common  in  stabled 
horses  fed  on  dry  grain  and  hay,  in  those  denied  a  sufficiency  of  water 
or  that  have  water  supplied  irregularly,  in  those  subjected  to  profuse 
perspiration  (as  in  summer),  and  in  those  suffering  from  a  watery 
diarrhea.  On  the  whole,  calculi  are  most  commonly  found  in  winter, 
because  the  horses  are  then  on  dry  feeding,  but  such  dry  feeding  is 


80 

even  more  conducive  to  them  in  summer  when  the  condition  is  aggra- 
vated by  the  abundant  loss  of  water  by  the  skin. 

In  the  same  way  the  extreme  hardness  of  the  water  in  certain  dis- 
tricts must  be  looked  upon  as  contributing  to  the  concentration  of  the 
urine  and  correspondingly  to  the  production  of  stone.  The  carbonates, 
sulphates,  etc.,  of  lime  and  magnesia  taken  in  the  water  must  be  again 
thrown  out,  and  just  in  j)roportion  as  these  add  to  the  solids  of  the 
urine  they  dispose  it  to  precipitate  its  least  soluble  constituents.  Thus 
the  horse  is  very  obnoxious  to  calculi  on  certain  limestone  soils,  as  over 
the  calcareous  formations  of  central  and  western  New  York,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  Ohio,  in  America;  of  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Derbyshire,  Shrop- 
shire, and  Gloucestershire,  in  England ;  of  Poitou  and  Landes,  in 
France ;  and  Munich,  in  Bavaria. 

But  the  saturation  of  the  urine  from  any  or  all  of  these  conditions 
can  only  be  looked  on  as  an  auxiliary  cause,  and  not  as  in  itself  an 
efQcient  one,  except  on  the  rarest  occasions.  For  a  more  direct 
and  immediate  cause  we  must  look  to  the  organic  matter  which 
forms  a  large  proportion  of  all  urinary  calculi.  This  consists  of  mucus, 
albumen,  pus,  hyaline  casts  of  the  uriuiferous  tubes,  epithelial  cells, 
blood,  etc.,  mainly  agents  that  belong  to  the  class  of  colloid  or  non- 
crystalline bodies.  A  horse  may  live  for  months  and  years  with  the 
urine  habitually  of  a  high  density,  and  having  the  mineral  constituents 
in  excess,  without  the  formation  of  stone  or  gravel;  and  again  one  with 
dilute  urine  of  low  specific  gravity  will  have  a  calculus. 

Eainey,  Ord,  and  others  furnish  the  explanation.  They  not  only 
show  that  a  colloid  body,  like  mucus,  albumen,  pus,  or  blood,  deter- 
mined the  ijrecipitation  of  the  crystalline  salts  in  the  solution,  but  they 
determined  the  precipitation  in  the  form  of  globules  or  spheres,  capa- 
ble of  developing  by  further  deposits  into  calculi.  Heat  intensifies 
this  action  of  the  colloids,  and  a  colloid  in  a  state  of  decomposition  is 
specially  active.  The  presence,  therefore,  of  developing  fungi  and 
bacteria  must  be  looked  upon  as  active  factors  in  causing  calculi. 

In  looking,  therefore,  for  the  immediate  causes  of  calculi  we  must 
consider  especially  all  those  conditions  which  determine  the  presence 
of  albumen,  blood,  and  excess  of  mucus,  pus,  etc.,  in  the  urine.  Thus 
diseases  of  distant  organs  leading  to  albuminuria,  diseases  of  the  kid- 
neys and  urinary  passages  causing  the  escape  of  blood  or  tlie  formation 
of  mucus  or  pus,  become  direct  causes  of  calculi.  Foreign  bodies  of  all 
kinds  in  the  bladder  or  kidney  have  long  been  known  as  determining 
causes  of  calculi,  and  as  forming  the  central  nucleus.  This  is  now  ex- 
I>lained  by  the  fact  that  these  bodies  are  liable  to  carry  bacteria  into 
the  passages  and  thus  determine  decomposition,  and  they  are  further 
liable  to  irritate  the  mucous  membrane  and  become  enveloped  in  a  coat- 
ing M  mucus,  pus,  and  perhaps  blood. 

The  fact  that  horses  appear  to  suffer  from  calculi,  especially  on  the 
maguesiau  limestones,  the  same  districts  in  which  they  suffer  from 


81 

• 

goiter,  may  be  similarly  explained.  The  untnown  poison  wliicli  pro- 
duces goiter  presumably  leads  to  such  chaages  in  the  blood  and  urine 
as  will  furnish  the  colloid  necessary  for  precipitation  of  the  urinary 
Baits  in  the  form  of  calculi. 

Classification  of  Urinary  Calculi. — These  have  been  named  according 
to  the  place  where  they  are  found,  renal  (kidney),  uretral  (ureter),  vesical 
(bladdev),  urethral  (urethra),  aud  2}reputial  (shenth  or  prepuce).  They 
have  been  otherwise  named  according  to  their  most  abundant  chemical 
constituent,  carbonate  of  lime,  oxalate  of  lime,  and  'phosphate  of  lime  cal- 
culi. The  stones  formed  of  carbonates  or  phosphates  are  usually  sn^ooth 
on  the  surface,  though  they  may  be  molded  into  the  shape  of  the  cav- 
ity in  which  they  have  been  formed;  thus  those  in  the  pelvis  of  the  kid- 
ney may  have  two  or  three  short  branch-like  prolongations,  while  those 
in  the  bladder  are  round,  oval,  or  slightly  flattened  upon  each  other. 
Calculi  containing  oxalate  of  lime  on  the  other  hand  have  a  rough- 
open,  crystalline  surface,  which  has  gained  for  them  the  name  of  mul, 
berry  calculi,  from  a  supposed  resemblance  to  that  fruit.  These  are 
usually  covered  with  more  or  less  mucus  or  blood,  ])roducfcd  by  the  irri- 
tation of  the  mucous  membrane  by  their  rough  surfaces.  The  color  of 
calculi  varies  from  white  to  yellow  and  deep  brown,  the  shades  de- 
pending mainly  on  the  amount  of  the  coloring  matter  of  blood,  bile,  or 
urine  which  they  may  contain. 

Renal  Calculi. — These  may  consist  of  minute,  almost  microscopic  de- 
posits in  the  uriniferous  tubes  in  the  substance  of  the  kidney,  but  more 
commonly  they  are  large  masses  and  lodged  in  the  pelvis.  The  larger 
calculi,  sometimes  weighing  12  to  24  ounces,  are  molded  in  the  pelvis 
of  the  kidney  into  a  cylindroid  mass,  with  irregular  rounded  swellings 
at  intervals.  Some  have  a  deep  brown,  rough,  crystalline  surface  of 
oxalate  of  lime,  while  others  have  a  smooth,  pearly  white  aspect  from 
carbonate  of  lime.  A  smaller  calculus,  which  has  been  called  coral- 
line, is  also  cylindroid,  with  a  number  of  brown,  rough,  crystalline 
oxalate  of  lime  branches  aud  whitish  depressions  of  carbonate.  These 
vary  in  size  from  15  grains  to  nearly  2  ounces.  Less  frequently  are 
found  masses  of  very  hard,  brownish  white,  rounded,  pea-like  calculi. 
These  are  smoother,  but  on  the  surface  crystals  of  oxalate  of  lime  may 
be  detected  with  a  lens.  Some  renal  calculi  are  formed  of  more  dis- 
tinct layers,  more  loosely  adherent  to  each  other,  and  contain  an  excess 
of  mucus  but  no  oxalate  of  Inue.  Finally  a  loose  aggregation  of  small 
masses,  forming  a  very  friable  calculus,  is  found  of  all  sizes  within  the 
limits  of  the  jjelvis  of  the  kidney.  These,  too,  are  in  the  main  car- 
bonate of  lime  (84  to  88  per  cent.),  and  without  oxalate. 

Symptoms  of  renal  calculi  are  violent  colicky  pains  appearing  sud- 
denly, very  often  in  connection  with  exhausting  work  or  the  drawing 
of  specially  heavy  loads,  aud  in  certain  cases  disappearing  with  equal 
suddenness.  The  nature  of  the  colic  becomes  more  manifest  if  it  is 
associated  with  stiffness  of  the  back  aud  hind  liuibs,  frequent  passage 
11035 6 


82 

of  urine,  and  above  all  the  passage  of  gravel  witli  the  urine,  especially 
at  the  time  of  the  access  of  relief  The  passage  of  blood  and  pus  in  the 
urine  is  equally  significant.  If  the  irritation  of  the  kidney  goes  on  to 
active  inflammation  then  the  symptoms  of  nephritis  are  added. 

Uretral  Calcnli. — These  are  so-called  because  they  are  found  in  the 
passage  leading  from  the  kidney  to  the  bladder.  They  are  simply  small 
renal  calculi  which  have  escaped  from  the  i:»elvis  of  the  kidney  and 
have  become  arrested  in  the  ureter.  They  give  rise  to  symptoms  almost 
identical  with  those  of  renal  calculi,  with  this  difference,  that  the  colicky 
pains,  caused  by  the  obstruction  of  the  ureter  by  the  impacted  calculus, 
are  more  violent,  and  if  the  calculus  passes  ou  into  the  bladder  the 
relief  is  instantaneous  and  complete.  If  the  ureteris  completely  blocked 
for  a  length  of  time  the  retained  urine  may  give  rise  to  destructive  in- 
flammation in  the  kidney,  which  may  end  in  the  entire  absorption  of 
that  organ,  leaving  only  a  fibrous  capsule  containing  an  urinous  fluid. 
If  both  the  ureters  are  similarly  blocked  the  animal  will  die  of  uroemic 
poisoning. 

Treatment  of  Renal  and  Uretral  Calculi. — This  is  unsatisfactory,  as  it 
is  only  the  small  calculi  that  can  i^ass  through  the  ureters  and  escape 
into  the  bladder.  This  may  be  favored  by  agents  which  will  relax  the 
walls  of  the  ureters  by  counteracting  their  spasm  and  even  lessening 
their  tone,  and  by  a  liberal  use  of  water  and  waterj-  fluids  to  increase 
the  urine  and  the  i)ressure  upon  the  calculus  from  behind.  One  or 
two  ounces  of  laudanum  or  two  drams  of  extract  of  belladonna,  may 
be  given  and  repeated  as  it  may  be  necessary,  the  relief  of  the  pain 
being  a  fair  criterion  of  the  abating  of  the  spasm.  To  the  same  end 
use  warm  fomentations  across  the  loins,  and  these  should  be  kept  up 
persistently  until  relief  is  obtained.  These  act  not  alone  by  sooth- 
ing and  relieving  the  spasm  and  inflammation,  but  they  also  favor  the 
freer  secretion  of  a  more  watery  urine  and  thus  tend  to  carry  off  the 
smaller  calculi.  To  further  secure  this  object  give  cool  water  freely, 
and  let  the  food  be  only  such  as  contains  a  large  proportion  of  liquid, 
gruels,  mashes,  turnips,  beets,  apples,  pumpkins,  ensilage,  succulent 
grasses,  etc.  If  the  acute  stage  has  passed  and  the  presence  of  the 
calculus  is  manifested  only  by  the  frequent  passage  of  urine  with  gritty 
particles,  by  stiffness  of  the  loins  and  hind  limbs  and  by  tenderness  to 
pressure,  the  most  promising  resort  is  a  long  run  at  pasture  where  the 
grasses  are  fresh  and  succulent.  The  long-continued  secretion  of  a 
■watery  urine  will  sometimes  cause  the  breaking  down  of  a  calculus,  as 
the  imbibition  of  the  less  dense  fluid  by  the  organic  sponge-like  frame 
work  of  the  calculus  causes  it  to  swell  and  thus  lessens  its  cohesion. 
The  same  end  is  sought  by  the  long  continued  use  of  alkalies  (carbonate 
of  potassium),  and  of  acids  (muriatic),  each  acting  in  a  diftereut  way  to 
alter  the  density  and  cohesion  of  the  stone.  But  it  is  only  excep- 
tionally that  any  of  these  methods  is  entirely  satisfactory.  If  inflam- 
mation of  the  kidneys  develop,  treat  as  advised  under  that  head. 


83 

Stone  in  the  hladder. —  Yesical  calculus, — Cystic  calculus. — These  may  be 
of  any  size  up  to  over  a  pound  weight.  One  variety  is  rough  and 
crystalline  and  has  a  yellowish  white  or  deep  brown  color.  These  con- 
tain about  87  per  cent,  carbonate  of  lime,  the  remainder  being  carbonate 
of  magnesia,  oxalate  of  lime,  and  organic  matter.  The  phosphatic  cal- 
culi are  smooth  and  white  and  formed  of  thin  concentric  layers  of  great 
hardness  extending  from  the  nucleus  outward.  Beside  the  phosphate 
of  lime  these  contain  the  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia  and  organic 
matter.  In  some  cases  the  bladder  contains  and  may  be  even  distended 
by  a  soft  pultaceous  mass  made  up  of  minute  round  granules  of  carbon- 
ates of  lime  and  magnesia.  This,  when  removed  and  dried,  makes  a 
firm,  white,  stony  mass.  Sometimes  this  magma  is  condensed  into  a 
solid  mass  in  the  bladder  by  reason  of  the  binding  action  of  the  mucus 
and  other  organic  matter,  and  then  forms  a  conglomerate  stone  of  nearly 
uniform  consistency  and  without  stratification. 

The  symptoms  of  stone  in  the  bladder  are  more  obvious  than  those  of 
renal  calculus.  The  rough  mulberry  calculi  especially  lead  to  irritation 
of  the  mucous  membrane  and  frequent  passing  of  urine  in  small  quan- 
tities and  often  mingled  with  mucus  or  blood,  or  containing  minute 
gritty  particles.  At  times  the  flow  is  suddenly  arrested,  though  the 
animal  continues  to  strain  and  the  bladder  is  not  quite  emptied.  In 
the  smooth  phosphatic  variety  the  irritation  is  much  less  marked,  and 
may  even  be  altogether  absent.  With  the  pultaceous  deposit  in  the 
bladder  there  is  incontinence  of  urine,  which  dribbles  away  continually 
and  keeps  the  hair  on  the  inner  side  of  the  thighs  matted  with  soft 
magma.  In  all  cases  alike  the  calculus  may  be  felt  by  the  examination 
of  the  bladder  with  the  oiled  hand  in  the  rectum.  The  pear-sbaped 
outline  of  the  bladder  can  be  felt  beneath,  and  within  it  the  solid  oval 
body.  It  is  most  easily  recognized  if  the  organ  is  half  full  of  liquid,  as 
then  it  is  not  grasped  by  the  contracting  walls  of  the  bladder,  but  may 
be  made  to  move  from  place  to  place  in  the  liquid.  If  a  pultaceous 
mass  is  present  it  has  a  soft,  doughy  feeling,  and  when  pressed  an  in- 
dentation is  left. 

In  the  mare  the  hard  stone  may  be  touched  by  the  finger  introduced 
through  the  short  urethra. 

The  treatment  of  stone  in  the  bladder  consists  in  the  removal  of  the 
offending  body.  In  the  mare  this  is  easily  effected  with  the  lithotomy 
forceps.  These  are  slightly  warmed  and  oiled,  and  carried  forward 
along  the  floor  of  the  passage  of  the  vulva  for  4  inches,  when  the  ori- 
fice of  the  urethra  will  be  felt  exactly  in  the  median  line.  Through 
this  the  forceps  are  gradually  pushed  with  gentle  oscillating  movement 
until  they  enter  the  bladder  and  strike  against  the  hard  surface  of  the 
stone.  The  stone  is  now  grasped  between  the  blades,  care  being  taken 
to  include  no  loose  fold  of  the  mucous  membrane,  and  it  is  gradually 
withdrawn  with  the  same  careful  oscillating  motions  as  before.  Facility 
and  safety  in  seizing  the  stone  will  be  greatly  favored  by  having  the 


84 

bladder  half  full  of  liquid,  and  if  necessary  one  oiled  hand  may  be  intro- 
duced into  the  rectum  or  vagina  to  assist.  The  resulting  irritation 
may  be  treated  by  an  injection  of  laudanum,  1  ounce,  in  a  pint  of  tepid 
water. 

The  removal  of  the  stone  in  the  horse  is  a  much  more  difiicult  pro- 
ceeding. It  consists  in  cutting  into  the  urethra  just  beneath  the  anus 
and  introducing  the  lithotomy  forceps  from  this  forward  into  the  blad- 
der, as  in  the  mare.  It  is  needful  to  distend  the  urethra  with  tepid 
water  or  to  insert  a  sound  or  catheter  to  furnish  a  guide  upon  which 
the  incision  may  be  made,  and  in  case  of  a  large  stone  it  may  be  need- 
ful to  enlarge  the  passage  by  cutting  in  a  direction  upward  and  out- 
ward with  a  probe-poiuted  knife,  the  back  of  which  is  slid  along  in  the 
groove  of  a  director  until  it  enters  the  bladder. 

The  horse  may  be  operated  upon  in  the  standing  position,  being 
simply  iiressed  against  a  wall  by  a  pole  passed  from  before  backward 
along  the  other  side  of  the  body.  The  tepid  water  is  injected  into  the 
end  of  the  penis  until  it  is  felt  to  fluctuate  under  the  pressure  of  the 
finger,  in  the  median  line  over  the  boue  just  beneath  the  auus.  The 
incision  is  then  made  into  the  center  of  the  fluctuating  canal,  and  from 
above  downward.  When  a  sound  or  catheter  is  used  as  a  guide  it  is 
inserted  through  the  penis  until  it  can  be  felt  through  the  skin  at  the 
point  where  the  incision  is  to  be  made  beneath  the  anus.  The  skin  is 
then  rendered  tense  by  the  thumb  and  fingers  of  the  left  hand  pressing 
on  the  two  sides  of  the  sound,  while  the  right  hand,  armed  with  a 
scalpel,  cuts  downward  on  to  the  catheter.  This  vertical  incision  into 
the  canal  should  escape  wounding  any  important  blood-vessel.  It  is  in 
making  the  obliquely  lateral  incision  in  the  subsequent  dilatation  of  the 
urethra  and  neck  of  the  bladder  that  such  danger  is  to  be  apprehended. 

If  the  stone  is  too  large  to  be  extracted  through  the  urethra  it  may 
be  broken  down  with  the  lithotrifce  and  extracted  piecemeal  with  the 
forceps.  The  lithotrite  is  an  instrument  composed  of  a  straight  stem 
bent  for  an  inch  or  more  to  one  side  at  its  free  end  so  as  to  form  an  obtuse 
angle,  and  having  on  the  same  side  a  sliding  bar  moving  in  a  groove  in 
the  stem  and  operated  by  a  screw  so  that  the  stone  may  be  seized  be- 
tween the  two  blades  at  its  free  extremity  and  crushed  again  and  again 
into  pieces  small  enough  to  extract.  Extra  care  is  required  to  avoid 
injury  to  the  urethra  in  the  extraction  of  the  angular  fragments,  and 
the  gravel  or  jiowder  that  can  not  be  removed  in  this  way  must  be 
washed  out  as  advised  below. 

When  a  pultaceous  magma  of  carbonate  of  lime  accumulates  in  the 
bladder  it  must  be  washed  out  by  injecting  water  through  a  catheter 
by  means  of  a  force  pump  or  a  funnel,  shaking  it  up  with  the  hand  intro- 
duced through  the  rectum  and  allowing  the  muddy  liquid  to  flow  out 
through  the  tube.  This  is  to  be  repeated  until  the  bladder  is  empty 
and  the  water  comes  away  clear.  A  catheter  with  a  double  tube  is 
sometimes   used,  the  injection  passing  in  through  the  one  tube  and 


85 

escaping  through  the  other.  But  the  advantage  is  more  apparent  than 
real,  as  the  retention  of  the  water  until  the  inagtna  has  been  shaken 
up  and  mixed  with  it  hastens  greatly  its  complete  evacuation.  To 
lyrevent  the  formation  of  a  new  deposit  any  fault  iu  feeding  (dry  grain 
and  hay  with  privation  of  water,  excess  of  beaus,  peas,  wheat  bran,  etc.) 
and  disorders  of  stomach,  liver,  and  lungs  must  be  corrected.  Give 
abundance  of  soft  drinking  water,  encouraging  the  animal  to  drink  by 
a  handful  of  salt  daily;  let  the  food  be  laxative,  consisting  largely  of 
roots,  apples,  pumpkins,  ensilage,  and  give  daily  in  the  drinking  water 
a  dram  of  carbonate  of  potash  or  soda.  Powdered  gentian  root  (3 
drams  daily)  will  also  serve  to  restore  the  tone  of  the  stomach  and 
system  at  large. 

Urethral  calculus. — Stone  in  the  urethra. — This  is  less  frequent  than 
in  cattle  and  sheep,  owing  to  the  larger  size  of  the  urethra  in  the  horse 
and  the  absence  of  the  S-shaped  curve  and  vermiform  appendix.  The 
calculi  arrested  in  the  urethra  are  never  formed  there,  but  consist  of 
cystic  calculi  which  have  been  small  enough  to  pass  through  the  neck 
of  the  bladder,  but  too  large  to  pass  through  the  whole  length  of  the 
uretlira  and  escape.  Such  calculi  therefore  are  primarily  formed  either 
in  the  bladder  or  kidney,  and  have  the  chemical  composition  of  the 
other  calculi  found  iu  those  organs.  They  may  be  arrested  at  any  point 
of  the  urethra,  from  the  neck  of  the  bladder  back  to  the  bend  of  the 
tube  beneath  the  anus,  and  from  that  point  down  to  the  extremity  of 
the  penis.  I  have  found  them  most  frequently  in  the  papilla  on  the 
extreme  end  of  the  i)enis,  and  immediately  behind  this. 

The  symptoms  are  violent  straining  to  urinate,  but  without  any  dis- 
charge, or  with  the  escape  of  water  in  drops  only.  Examination  of  the 
end  of  the  penis  will  detect  the  swelling  of  the  papilla  or  the  urethra 
behind  it,  and  the  iiresence  of  a  hard  mass  iu  the  center.  A  probe  in- 
serted into  the  urethra  will  strike  against  the  gritty  calculus.  If  the 
stone  has  been  arrested  higher  up  its  position  may  be  detected  as  a 
small,  hard,  sensitive  knot  on  the  line  of  the  urethra,  in  the  median  line 
of  the  lower  surface  of  the  penis,  or  on  the  floor  of  the  pelvis  in  the 
median  line  from  the  neck  of  the  bladder  back  to  the  bend  of  the  urethra 
beneath  the  anus.  In  any  case  the  urethra  between  the  neck  of  the 
bladder  and  the  point  of  obstruction  is  likely  to  be  filled  with  fluid,  and 
to  feel  like  a  distended  tube  fluctuating  on  pressure. 

Treatment  may  be  begun  by  an  attemi:)t  to  extract  the  calculi  by 
manipulation  of  the  papilla  on  the  end  of  the  peuis.  This  failing,  the 
calculus  may  be  seized  with  a  pair  of  fine-pointed  forceps  and  with- 
drawn from  the  urethra;  or,  if  necessary,  a  probe  pointed  knife  may 
be  inserted  and  the  urethra  slightly  dilated,  or  even  laid  open,  and  the 
stone  removed.  If  the  stone  has  been  arrested  higher  up  it  must  be 
extracted  by  a  direct  incision  through  the  walls  of  the  urethra  and 
down  upon  the  nodule.  If  in  the  free  (protractile)  portion  of  the  penis, 
that  organ  is  to  be  withdrawn  from  its  sheath  until  the  nodule  is  ex- 


86 

posed  and  can  be  incised.  If  behind  the  scrotum,  the  incision  must  be 
made  in  the  mediaa  line  between  the  thighs  and  directly  over  the 
nodule,  the  skin  having  been  rendered  tense  by  the  fingers  and  thumb 
of  the  left  hand.  If  the  stone  has  been  arrested  in  the  intra-pelvic 
portion  of  the  urethra,  the  incision  must  be  made  beneath  the  anus  and 
the  calculus  extracted  with  forceps,  as  in  stone  in  the  bladder.  The 
wound  in  the  urethra  may  be  stitched  up  and  usually  heals  slowly 
but  satisfactorily.  Healing  will  be  favored  by  washing  two  or  three 
times  daily  with  a  solution  of  a  teaspoonful  of  carbolic  acid  in  a  pint 
of  water. 

Pre])utial  calculus. — Galciihis  in  the  sheath  or  bilocular  cavity. — These 
are  concretions  in  the  sheath,  though  the  term  has  been  also  applied 
to  the  nodule  of  sebaceous  matter  which  accumulates  in  the  blind 
pouches  (bilocular  cavity)  by  the  sides  of  the  papilla  on  the  end  of  the 
penis.  Within  the  sheath  the  concretion  may  be  a  soft,  cheesy-like 
sebaceous  matter,  or  a  genuine  calculus  of  carbonate,  oxalate,  phos- 
phate and  sulphate  of  lime,  carbonate  of  magnesia  and  organic  matter. 
These  are  easily  removed  with  the  fingers,  after  which  the  sheath 
should  be  washed  out  with  castile  soap  and  warm  water,  and  smeared 
with  sweet-oil. 


PLATE  IV. 


■M'       (t 


'"■~i^ 


ik(' 


b    \ 


f^        >i    £ 


/■/ 


// 


a , Ck)rtical  ( or  i  -a^cidar) poi -tion  :     h,  MecluUar  y  (or  Uihuhtr  )  portiarh  . 
c,  Peripheral  p(?rtion  of  the  leUter ;    d ,  Interior  of  the  pelvis ;   d',d ', 
Arm,vofthe.pelvi.s;  e,  Border  of  t/ie  creM :  fjnfundibuhimi  gji-eicr. 


Geo.  Marx. (lel,afterD'Arbo\-al.p.669. 


I.OXGITrniNAL  SETTIOX  THROUGH  KIDNt^Y 


i^.vi'i-;   \- 


StriRUu-H  ol'tlio  Kiiluey.   lJiagi';iiiiiii;ilii  . 
a  ,  Mpdiillafv  hiyci-;  h,  Boiuidary  \o/ic :  c,  Cort.icaf  Icn'er;  I,  E.X'-c/~e.tory  tube  .'-^.Ope/i- 
inff  on  tJie  si///t//uf  ofrena/ papi//r/;ijj'trst  dra/Lc/i  of  hif'urcaUon i  ^.Second  branch 
of  bifurcation;  5, Third  branch  of  bifiirccUion  :6',Strcuffht  coUcc/ing  tid>e;  7,.///nr~^ 
tionai  tubule ; S.Ascendincf  portion  of  ffenlc'.'i  Loop^  9,  Dcscendincf  portion  ol' Hade's 
loop;  10, Loop  ofHenle:Jl,Con\'ohdrd  tuhidc :  I?,Malpiffhi((n  rorpus-cle ;  13,fip/ial  «/•- 
terv;  M,Branc/i   .supplyinff  the  glomeruli ;  15 ,  Afferenf  wAsel  of  the  glomeruli  ;  16, 
Branch  going  directly  to  the  capdlaries;  17,Straighi  (/rteriaie<s-  caniing  directly 
from  tlie  rcnul  r/rten-;  JS.Strf/i^/hi  arteriole  co/iung  from  the  edfercnt    vessel  of  the 
gloineridus;  J9,  Straight  (uieriole  cotning  fro///  the  capilla/y  ple.e//^-;  :iO,  Va.seidar 
loop  of  the  p}7Xtr/u'el,v;  i'l  /Tfle/^e/d  \e.',sciofthe//lo//i.e/-itl/isgoi//glothe  cctpilleu\v 
ple.ru.s-;  i'?,ty/pilla/-\- plea-u.s  of  the  gto/neruleu-  pa/i  oft/ie    rorticc/l   A-uiwla/ice ; 
23,fapilla/y  ple^rn.s  of  the  pyr/u/iid.s-  of  Fer-rci/i ;  2'/,Co/-tie</l  pleTusoftheh/d/zey, 
?5,\'e/iac  stellatae  ;  26',\eui  conii/ig  //■(////  t/ie  capilia/-ies  of  the  ro/^tev :    '^'7,  frUe/' 
tobiila/-  \  cin  ;   <^6',  \7'i/i    /•ecei\'ing  the  \-e/ic/e  reet/te ;  2.9,  I'e/u/c  /•retac . 

Xotc  :  Theshe/dedpartnfthe  uri/u>/-y  duets /<'fi/-e.sent  the pa/l  in    w/iie/i   l/ir 
epitheliur/r  i.v  /'added  laid  of  a  g/ri/u/la/-  appea/y</tce 


.  Marx.Ml'li'i'  I)  ArluAvil  .    p  :i>'J. 


;i71 


MICROSCOPIC  ANATOMY  OV  \\\\^'S.\':\ 


PLATE    VI. 


Kejial    GloiiieriiluH  . 
a,Arterv  of  the  gLomeruhu'};  b, Branch  supplying  t/ie  afTcrcnr 
x'essel  of  the  glo/ncrulihs;  cAffcrcrU   \-csacI  of  the  glomefule : 
diAitery  qotn</  dircctiy  to  th/>  copiUrtrv  plcyus  of  the  cortuxU 
substance ;  e^,  C<xpiUa/y  plnriis /  f,  tyfornerutifs. 


Renal  Glomerulus  williits  afferent  N-essels  andefferenls. 

a  ,Br-anch  of  renal  artery;  b,  Afferent  vessel  oftJte 
gl(irncrulus ;  c  ,  (Jlonieriilns  -,  d,  Afferent  i-esset  qo- 
iny  into  corpuscl/?-  e ,of  Malptg/ii . 


MICROSCOPIC  ANATOMY  OF  KIDNEY. 


PI  ,  AT  !•:  V 


Phosp/ialir  ca/rtf/t/.v,  i//tr  (trifl  /iuc/ca.s. 


X  215 

('(i/riilii,s  o/' o.icilah-  ot'iaiu 


\ 


„-^S« 


/I'c'/u//  ru.s/.s-.   So/iir  (h/>ri\r'(/  (>/' 
rf>i(h(/i(ini .  Tun  iii-c  drc/)f'/-ro/ <!/•<'</ 
/ro//i  l/ir  p/-r,s-f/iir  o/'ufri/e  of'.so(/a . 


Sli-dif/iif  fofcep.v  ii.ycd 
i/i  /•rnit)\'iii</  rn/cii/i . 


I laiiu's.del  titter  Huiircl  IJAi-lxival 


CALCriJ    AXl)  LVSTRUMKX'r  FDR  F^KMON'AI. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS. 


By  W.  H.  HARBAUGH,  V.  S.,  Richmond,  Virginia. 


The  organs  pertaining  to  the  respiratory  function  may  be  popularly 
classed  as  follows:  The  nasal  openings,  or  nostrils;  the  nasal  chambers, 
through  which  the  air  passes  in  the  head;  the  sinuses  in  the  head,  com- 
municating with  the  nasal  chambers;  the  pharynx,  common  to  the 
functions  of  respiration  and  alimentation;  the  larynx,  a  complicated 
structure  situated  at  the  top  of  the  windpipe;  the  trachea,  or  wind- 
pipe: the  bronchi  (into  which  the  wind-pipe  divides),  two  tubes  leading 
from  the  wind-pipe  to  the  right  and  left  lung,  respectively;  the  bron- 
chial tubes,  which  penetrate  and  convey  air  to  all  parts  of  the  lungs ; 
the  lungs. 

The  pleura  is  a  thin  membrane  that  envelops  the  lung  and  is  reflected 
against  the  walls  of  the  thoracic  cavity.  The  diaphragm  is  a  muscular 
structure,  completely  separating  the  contents  of  the  thoracic  cavity 
from  those  of  the  abdominal  cavity.  It  is  essentially  a  muscle  of  in- 
spiration, and  the  principal  one.  Other  muscles  aid  in  the  mechanism 
of  respiration,  but  the  diseases  or  injuries  of  them  have  nothing  to  do 
with  the  class  under  consideration. 

Just  within  the  nasal  openings  the  skin  becomes  gradually  but  per- 
ceptibly finer,  until  it  is  succeeded  by  the  mucous  membrane;  the  line 
of  demarkation  is  not  always  well  defined.  JS^ear  about  the  junction  of 
the  skin  and  membrane  is  a  small  hole,  presenting  the  appearance  of 
having  been  made  with  a  puucli ;  this  is  the  opening  of  the  nasal  duct, 
a  canal  that  conveys  the  tears  from  the  eyes.  Within  and  above  the 
nasal  openings  are  the  cavities  or  fissures  called  the  false  nostrils;  if 
the  finger  is  inserted  up  into  them  it  will  be  demonstrated  that  the 
superior  extremity  is  blind;  just  in  this  situation  there  is  often  found 
a  little  tumor,  to  be  described  hereafter.  The  nasal  chambers  are  com- 
pletely separated,  the  right  from  the  left,  by  a  cartilaginous  partition. 
Each  nasal  chamber  is  divided  into  three  continuous  compartments 
by  the  two  turbinated  bones. 

The  mucous  membrane  lining  the  nasal  chambers,  and  in  fact  the 
entire  respiratory  tract,  is  much  more  delicate  and  more  frequently 

87 


88 

diseased  than  the  mucous  membrane  of  any  other  part  of  the  body. 
The  sinuses  of  the  head  are  compartments  which  communicate  with  the 
nasal  chambers  and  are  lined  with  a  continuation  of  the  same  mem- 
brane that  lines  the  nasal  chambers;  their  presence  increases  the 
volume  and  modifies  the  form  of  the  head  without  increasing-  its  weight. 

The  horse,  in  a  normal  condition,  breathes  exclusively  through  the 
nostrils  ;  uo^air  passes  through  the  mouth  in  respiration.  This  is  one 
reason  why  horses  probably  are  affected  oftener  with  colds  than  other 
animals.  The  organs  of  respiration  are  more  liable  to  disease  than  the 
organs  connected  with  any  other  function  of  the  animal,  and,  as  many 
of  the  causes  can  be  prevented,  it  is  both  important  and  profitable  to 
know  and  study  the  causes.  The  respiratory  surface  iu  the  lungs  of 
the  horse  is  estimated  to  be  from  200  to  500  square  feet. 

The  cause  of  many  of  the  diseases  of  these  organs  may  be  given  under 
a  common  head,  because  even  a  simple  cold,  if  neglected  or  badly 
treated,  may  run  into  the  most  complicated  lung  disease  and  terminate 
fatally.  In  the  spring  aud  fall,  when  the  animals  are  changing  their 
coats,  there  is  a  marked  predisposition  to  contract  disease,  and  conse- 
quently care  should  be  taken  at  those  periods  to  prevent  other  exciting 
causes. 

Badly  ventilated  stables  are  a  frequent  source  of  disease.  It  is  a  great 
mistake  to  think  that  country  stables  necessarily  have  purer  air  than 
city  stables.  Stables  on  some  farms  are  so  faultily  constructed  that  it 
is  almost  impossible  for  the  foul  air  to  gain  an  exit.  All  stables  should 
have  an  unlimited  supply  of  jiure  air,  and  be  so  arranged  that  strong 
draughts  can  not  blow  directly  on  the  animals.  Hot  stables  are  almost 
always  illy  ventilated,  and  the  hot  stable  is  a  cause  of  disease  on  account 
of  the  extreme  change  of  temperature  a  horse  is  liable  to  when  taken 
out,  and  extreme  changes  of  temperature  are  to  bo  avoided  as  certain 
causes  of  disease.  A  horse  taken  from  pasture  and  kept  in  a  hot  stable 
is  almost  sure  to  contract  a  cold :  the  stable  should  be  thrown  open  and 
the  temperature  gradually  increased  in  such  cases,  when  practicable,  to 
avoid  the  sudden  change. 

A  cold,  close  stable  is  invariably  damp,  and  is  to  be  avoided  as  much 
as  the  hot,  close,  and  foul  stable.  Horses  changed  from  a  cold  to  a  warm 
stable  are  more  liable  to  contract  cold  than  when  changed  from  a  warm 
to  a  cold  stable.  Pure  air  is  more  essential  than  warmth,  and  this  fact 
should  be  especially  remembered  when  the  stable  is  made  close  and  foul 
to  gain  the  warmth.  It  is  more  economical  to  keep  the  horse  warm  with 
blankets  than  to  prevent  the  ingress  of  pure  air  in  order  to  make  the 
stable  warm. 

Stables  should  be  well  drained  and  kept  clean.  Some  farmers  allow 
dung  to  accumulate  in  the  stalls  until  there  is  hardly  sufficient  room  for 
the  horses.  This  is  a  pernicious  practice,  as  the  decomposing  organic 
matter  evolves  poisonous  gases  that  are  predisposing  or  exciting  causes 
of  disease.    "When  a  horse  is  overheated  it  is  not  safe  to  allow  him  to 


89 

dry  by  evaporation ;  rubbing  him  dry  and  gradually  cooling  bim  out  is 
the  wisest  treatment.  When  a  horse  is  hot — covered  with  sweat— it  is 
dangerous  to  allow  him  to  stand  in  a  draught;  it  is  the  best  plan  to  walk 
him  until  his  temperature  moderates.  In  such  cases  a  light  blanket 
thrown  over  the  animal  may  prevent  a  cold.  Overwork  or  overexertion 
often  causes  the  most  fatal  cases  of  congestion  of  the  lungs.  Avoid  pro- 
longed or  fast  work  when  the  horse  is  out  of  condition  or  unaccustomed 
to  it.  Animals  that  have  been  working  out  in  cold  rains  should  be  dried 
and  cooled  out,  and  not  left  to  dry  by  evaporation.  When  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  weather  is  at  the  extreme,  either  of  heat  or  cold,  diseases  ot 
the  organs  of  respiration  are  most  frequent. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  farmers  can  give  their  horses  the  par- 
ticular attention  given  to  valuable  racing  and  pleasure  horses,  but 
they  can  most  assuredly  give  them  common-sense  care,  and  this  will 
often  save  the  life  of  a  valuable  or  useful  animal.  ISTeglect  on  the  part 
of  the  owner  is  as  often  (perhaps  oftener)  the  cause  of  disease  in  the 
horse  as  neglect  on  the  part  of  the  servant.  If  the  owner  properly 
considers  his  interests  he  will  study  the  welfare  of  his  horses  so  that 
he  may  be  able  to  instruct  the  servant  in  details  of  stable  manage- 
ment, as  it  often  happens  that  the  fault  on  the  part  of  the  servant  is 
due  to  want  of  knowledge  more  than  to  willful  neglect. 

WOUNDS  ABOUT   THE   NOSTRILS. 

Wounds  in  this  neighborhood  are  common,  and  are  generally  caused 
by  getting  snagged  on  a  nail  or  splinter,  or  by  the  bite  of  another 
horse;  or  by  getting  "run  into,"  or  by  running  against  something. 
Occasionally  the  nostril  is  so  badly  torn  and  lacerated  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  effect  a  cure  without  leaving  the  animal  blemished  for 
life,  but  in  the  majority  of  instances  the  blemish  or  scar  is  due  to  the 
want  of  conservative  treatment  on  the  part  of  the  owner  or  attendant. 
As  soon  as  possible  after  the  accident  the  parts  should  be  brought 
together  and  held  there  by  stitches.  If  too  much  time  is  allowed  to 
elapse  the  swelling  of  the  parts  will  considerabl}^  interfere.  The  skin 
in  this  neighborhood  is  thin  and  delicate,  and  therefore  it  is  easy  to  in- 
sert sutures.  Never  cut  away  any  skin  that  may  be  loose  and  hang- 
ing, or  else  a  scar  will  certainly  remain.  Bring  the  parts  in  direct  ap- 
position and  place  the  stitches  from  a  quarter  to  a  half  inch  apart,  as 
circumstances  may  demand.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  special  sur- 
geons' silk  and  needles  for  this  operation ;  good  linen  thread  or  ordi- 
nary silk  thread  will  answer.  The  wound  afterwards  only  requires  to 
be  kept  clean.  For  this  purpose  it  should  be  cleansed  and  discharges 
washed  away  daily  with  a  soluticji  made  of  carbolic  acid  1  part,  in 
water  40  parts.  If  the  horse  is  inclined  to  rub  the  wound  against  some 
object  on  account  of  the  irritability,  his  head  should  be  tied  by  means 
of  two  halter  ropes  to  prevent  him  rubbing  the  wound  open.  The 
head  should  be  so  tied  about  ten  days,  excej)t  when  at  work  or  eating. 


90 

TUMORS  WITHIN   THE  NOSTRILS. 

As  before  mentioned,  a  small  globular  tumor  is  sometimes  found 
within  the  false  nostril,  under  that  part  of  the  skin  that  is  seen  to  puflp 
or  rise  and  fall  when  a  horse  is  exerted  and  breathing  hard.  These 
tumors  contain  matter  of  a  cheesy  consistency,  and  are  simple.  If  the 
tumor  is  well  opened  and  the  matter  squeezed  out  nature  will  do  the 
rest  to  perform  a  perfect  cure.  Jfthe  opening  is  made  from  the  out- 
side through  the  skin  it  should  be  at  the  most  dependent  part,  but 
much  the  best  way  to  open  the  tumor  is  from  the  inside.  Quiet  the 
animal,  gently  insert  your  finger  up  in  the  direction  of  the  tumor,  and 
you  will  soon  discover  that  it  is  much  larger  inside  than  it  appears 
to  be  on  the  outside.  If  necessary  put  a  twitch  on  the  ear  of  the 
horse  to  quiet  him  ;  run  the  index  finger  of  your  left  hand  against  the 
tumor ;  uow,  with  the  right  hand,  carefully  insert  the  knife  by  run- 
ning the  back  of  the  blade  along  the  index  finger  of  the  left  hand  until 
the  tumor  is  reached  5  with  the  left  index  finger  guide  the  point  of  the 
blade  quickly  and  surely  into  the  tumor  ;  make  the  opening  large  ;  there 
is  no  danger ;  a  little  blood  may  flow  out  for  awhile,  but  it  is  of  no  conse- 
quence.    Squeeze  out  the  matter  and  keep  the  part  clean. 

COLD   IN   THE   HEAD— CATARRH. 

Catarrh  means  a  discharge  of  fluid  from  the  mucous  membrane.  The 
form  of  catarrh  under  present  consideration  is  at  first  a  congestion, 
followed  by  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  nasal 
chambers — the  Schneiderian  or  pituitarj'  membrane,  as  it  is  specifically 
termed.  The  inflammation  usually  extends  to  the  membrane  of  the 
sinuses  of  the  head  and  often  to  the  membrane  of  the  larynx  and 
pharynx,  causing  the  complication  of  sore  throat.  Quite  frequently  the 
membrane  of  the  eyes  is  also  affected,  as  evidenced  by  its  congested 
condition  and  the  flow  of  tears  down  over  the  cheeks;  the  nasal  duct 
(spoken  of  before)  is  lined  with  a  continuation  of  the  same  membrane, 
and  hence  the  inflammation  of  the  membrane  of  the  eyes  is  only  an  ex- 
tension of  the  disease  over  a  continuous  tract,  and  not  a  specific  disease 
as  often  supposed.  The  membrane  of  the  nasal  duct  being  swollen,  the 
effect  of  the  congestion  or  inflammation,  the  tears  can  not  flow  freely 
through  it,  therefore  they  escape  from  the  eyes  and  flow  over  the  cheeks. 

Symptoms. — The  membrane  at  the  beginning  of  the  attack  is  dry,  con- 
gested and  irritable;  it  is  of  a  much  deeper  hue  than  natural,  pinkish- 
red  or  red.  Soon  a  watery  discharge  from  the  nostrils  makes  its  ap- 
pearance ;  the  eyes  may  also  be  more  or  less  aff"ected,  and  tears  flow 
over  the  cheeks.  The  animal  has  some  fever,  which  may  be  easily  de- 
tected by  placing  the  fiv^ger  in  the  mouth,  as  the  feeling  of  heat  conveyed 
to  the  finger  will  be  greater  than  natural. 

To  become  somewhat  expert  in  ascertaining  the  changes  of  tempera- 
ture in  the  horse,  it  is  only  necessary  to  place  the  finger  often  in  the 


mouths  of  horses  kuown  to  be  healthy.  After  you  have  become  accus- 
tomed to  the  warmth  of  the  mouth  of  the  healthy  animal  you  will  have 
no  difficulty  in  detecting  a  marked  increase  of  the  temperature.  Some 
veterinarians  become  so  expert  in  this  method  of  examination  that  they 
trust  to  it  in  preference  to  the  use  of  thermometers. 

The  animal  may  be  dull ;  he  frequently'  emits  a  sort  of  sneezing  snort, 
but  does  not  cough  unless  the  throat  is  affected;  he  expels  the  air 
forcibly  through  his  nostrils  very  often  in  a  manner  that  may  be  aptly 
called  "blowing  his  nose."  A  few  days  after  the  attack  begins  the  dis. 
charge  from  the  nostrils  changes  from  a  watery  to  that  of  a  thick  mu- 
ciliiginous  state,  of  a  yellowish-white  color,  and  may  be  more  or  less 
profuse.  Often  the  appetite  is  lost,  and  the  animal  becomes  debili- 
tated. 

Treatment. — This  disease  is  not  serious,  but  inasmuch  as  neglect  or 
bad  treatment  may  cause  it  to  run  into  a  dangerous  complication,  it 
should  receive  proper  attention.  The  animal  should  not  be  worked  for 
a  few  days.  A  few  days  of  quiet  rest,  with  pure  air  and  good  food, 
will  be  of  greater  benefit  than  medication  administered  while  the  horse 
is  excited  and  exposed  to  draughts  and  changes  of  temperature. 
Tbe  benefit  derived  from  the  inhalation  of  steam  can  not  be  overesti- 
mated. This  is  effected  by  holding  the  horse's  head  over  a  bucketful 
of  boiling  water  so  that  the  animal  will  be  compelled  to  inhale  steam 
with  every  inhalation  of  air.  Stirring  the  hot  water  with  a  wisp  of  hay 
causes  the  steam  to  aiise  in  greater  abundance.  By  no  means  adopt 
the  pernicious  method  of  steaming — advised  by  some  authors  and  prac- 
ticed by  many  people — by  putting  the  head  in  a  bag  with  hot  water  or 
scalded  bran.  Common  sense  would  be  sufficienttocondemn  the  method, 
if  those  who  practice  it  would  only  think.  With  the  head  so  closely 
confined  in  the  bag  the  horse  is  compelled  to  inhale  over  and  over  the 
foul  air  expelled  from  the  lungs.  This  is  malpractice  on  a  healthy 
horse,  and  much  worse  when  the  animal  is  ill,  for  then  it  has  a  greater 
necessity  for  pure  air. 

The  horse  should  be  made  to  inhale  steam  four  or  five  times  a  day, 
about  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  each  time. 

Particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  diet.  Give  bran  mashes, 
scalded  oats,  linseed  gruel,  and  grass  if  in  season.  If  the  horse  evinces 
no  desire  for  this  soft  diet,  it  is  well  to  allow  any  kind  of  food  he  will 
eat,  such  as  hay,  oats,  corn,  etc. 

If  the  animal  is  constipated,  relieve  this  symptom  by  injections 
(enemas)  of  warm  water  into  the  rectum  (last  gut)  three  or  four  times  a 
day,  but  under  no  circumstances  administer  purgative  medicines. 

For  simple  cases  the  foregoing  is  all  that  is  required,  but  if  the  ap- 
petite is  lost,  and  the  animal  api)ears  debilitated  and  dull,  give  3 
ounces  of  the  solution  of  acetate  of  ammonia  and  2  drams  of  powdered 
chlorate  of  potassium  diluted  with  a  pint  of  water  three  times  a  day  as 
a  drench.     Be  careful  when  giving  the  drench;  do  not  pound  the  horse 


92 

on  the  gullet  to  mate  him  swallow  ;  be  patient,  and  take  time,  and  do 
it  right. 

If  the  weather  be  cold,  blanket  the  animal  and  keep  him  in  a  com- 
fortable stall.  If  the  throat  is  sore,  treat  as  advised  for  that  ailment, 
to  be  described  hereafter. 

When  the  inflammatory  symptoms  subside  and  the  appetite  is  not  re- 
gained, give  2  ounces  each  of  the  tincture  of  gentian  and  spirits  of  nitrous 
ether  in  a  pint  of  water,  as  a  drench,  every  night  and  morning  for  sev- 
eral days.  If,  after  ten  days  or  two  weeks,  the  discharge  from  the  nos- 
trils continues,  give  1  dram  of  powdered  sulphate  of  iron  three  times  a 
day.  This  may  be  mixed  with  bran  and  oats,  if  the  horse  will  eat  it, 
but  if  he  will  not  eat  the  food  with  the  iron  in  it,  give  the  iron  as  a 
drench,  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water. 

It  may  be  objected  that  rather  more  space  than  necessary  is  devoted 
to  this  simple  affection  ;  but  when  it  is  known  that  there  is  a  tendency 
to  the  extension  of  the  trouble,  and  that  serious  complications  may  en- 
sue, the  fact  should  be  appreciated  that  there  is  every  reason  why  the 
common  cold  should  be  thoroughly  understood  and  intelligently  treated 
in  order  to  prevent  the  more  dangerous  diseases. 

CHRONIC    CATARRH — NASAL  GLEET. 

This  is  a  subacute  or  chronic  inflammation  of  some  part  of  the  mem- 
brane affected  in  common  cold,  the  disease  just  described.  It  is  mani- 
fested by  a  persistent  discharge  of  a  thick,  white,  or  yellowish- white 
matter  from  one  or  both  nostrils.  The  sinuses  of  the  head  are  the  usual 
seat  of  the  disease.  The  commonest  cause  is  a  neglected,  or  badly 
treated  cold,  and  it  usually  follows  those  cases  where  the  horse  has 
suffered  exposure,  been  overworked,  or  has  not  received  proper  food, 
and,  as  a  consequence,  has  become  debilitated. 

Other  but  less  frequent  causes  for  this  affection  are :  Fractures  of 
the  bones  that  involve  the  membrane  of  the  sinuses ;  and  even  blows 
on  the  head  over  the  sinuses,  of  suflQcient  force  to  rupture  blood-vessels 
within.  The  blood  thus  escaping  into  the  sinus  acts  as  an  irritant,  and 
sets  up  an  inflammation.  Diseased  teeth  often  involve  a  sinus,  and 
cause  a  fetid  discharge  from  the  nostril.  Violent  coughing  is  said  to 
have  forced  particles  of  food  into  the  sinus,  which  acted  as  a  cause  of 
the  disease.  Tumors  growing  in  the  sinuses  are  known  to  have  caused 
it.  It  is  also  attributed  to  matter  from  disease  of  the  turbinated  bones. 
Absorption  of  the  bones  forming  the  walls  of  the  sinuses  has  been 
caused  by  the  pressure  of  pus  collecting  in  them,  and  by  tumors  filling 
up  the  cavity. 

Symptoms. — The  long-continued  discharge,  which  varies  in  quantity 
according  to  the  attendant  circumstances — the  cause  of  the  trouble  and 
the  part  affected — will  invariably  indicate  the  disease.  Great  caution 
must  be  exercised  when  examining  these  cases,  as  horses  have  been 
condemned  as  glandered  when  really  there  was  nothing  more  ailing 


93 

them  than  nasal  gleet.  This  affection  is  not  contagious,  nor  is  it  dan- 
gerous, although  difficult  to  cure  in  some  instances.  In  most  cases  the 
discharge  is  from  one  nostril  only,  which  signifies  that  the  sinuses  on 
that  side  of  the  head  are  affected.  The  discharge  may  be  intermittent, 
that  is,  quantities  may  be  discharged  at  times,  and  again  little  or  none 
for  a  day  or  so.  The  glands  under  and  between  the  bones  of  the  lower 
jaw  may  be  enlarged.  The  peculiar  ragged-edged  ulcer  of  glanders  is 
not  to  be  found  on  the  membrane  within  the  nostrils,  but  occasionally 
sores  are  to  be  seen  there.  If  there  is  any  doubt  about  it,  you  should 
study  well  the  symptoms  of  glanders  to  enable  you  to  be  at  least  com- 
petent to  form  a  safe  opinion. 

The  eye  on  the  side  of  the  discharging  nostril  may  have  a  peculiar 
appearance  and  look  smaller  than  its  fellow.  There  may  be  an  enlarge- 
ment, having  the  appearance  of  a  bulging  out  of  the  bone  over  the 
part  affected,  between  or  below  the  eyes.  The  breath  may  be  offensive, 
which  indicates  decomposition  of  the  matter  or  bones,  or,  especially, 
disease  of  the  teeth.  A  diseased  tooth  is  further  indicated  by  the 
horse  holdiug  his  head  to  one  side  when  eating,  or  dropping  the  food 
from  the  mouth  after  partly  chewing  it.  When  you  tap  on  the  bones 
between  the  eyes,  below  the  eyes  and  above  the  back  teeth  of  the 
upper  jaw,  a  hollow  drum-like  sound  is  emitted,  but  if  the  sinus  is 
filled  with  pus  or  contains  a  large  tumor  the  souud  emitted  will  be  the 
same  as  if  a  solid  substance  were  struck;  by  this  means  the  sinus 
affected  may  be  located  in  some  instances.  The  hair  may  be  rough 
over  the  affected  part,  or  even  the  bone  may  be  soft  to  the  touch  and 
the  part  give  somewhat  to  pressure,  or  leave  an  impression  where  it  is 
pressed  upon  with  the  finger. 

Treatment. — The  cause  of  the  trouble  must  be  ascertained  before 
treatment  is  commenced.  In  the  many  cases  where  the  animal  is  in 
poor  condition  (in  fact  in  all  cases),  he  should  have  the  most  nutritive 
food  and  regular  exercise.  The  food,  or  box  containing  it,  should  be 
X)laced  on  the  ground,  as  the  dependent  position  of  the  head  favors  the 
discharge. 

The  cases  that  do  not  require  a  surgical  operation  must,  as  a  rule, 
have  persistent  medical  treatment.  Mineral  tonics  are  of  the  most 
value.  For  eight  days  give  the  following  mixture:  Suli)hate  of  iron,  3 
ounces;  powdered  nux  vomica,  1  ounce;  mix  and  make  into  sixteen 
powders.  Give  one  powder  mixed  with  the  food  twice  a  day.  When 
all  of  the  foregoing  has  been  administered  the  following  may  be  tried 
for  eight  days:  Sulphate  of  copper,  4  ounces;  powdered  gentian,  G  oun- 
ces; mix  and  divide  into  sixteen  powders.  Give  one  on  the  food  twice 
a  day.  If  the  animal  will  not  eat  the  powder  on  the  food,  put  the  medi- 
cine in  a  pint  of  water  in  a  bottle,  shake  well  and  give  as  a  drench. 
After  this  substitute  the  following:  One  dram  of  iodide  of  potassium 
dissolved  in  a  bucketful  of  drinking  water,  one  hour  before  each  meal. 
Much  benefit  is  often  derived  from  the  effect  of  a  blister  over  the  face. 


94 

The  ordinary  fly  blister  plaster  of  tbe  drug  store  mixed  with  one  third  its 
weight  of  lard  is  efficient.  Sulphur  burnt  iu  the  stable  while  the  ani- 
mal is  there  to  inhale  its  fumes  i^  also  a  valuatje  adjunct.  Care  should 
be  taken  that  the  fumes  of  the  burning  sulphur  are  suihciently  diluted 
with  air,  so  as  not  to  suffocate  the  horse.  Chloride  of  lime  sprinkled 
around  the  stall  is  good.  Also  keep  a  quantity"  of  the  chloride  under 
the  hay  in  the  manger  so  that  the  gases  will  be  inhaled  as  the  horse 
holds  his  head  over  the  hay  while  eating.  Keep  the  nostrils  wasbed; 
the  discharges  may  be  washed  away  for  appearance  sake,  but  squirting 
solutions  up  the  nose  is  worse  than  useless,  as  they  do  not  come  in  con- 
tact with  the  diseased  part. 

If  the  nasal  gleet  is  the  result  of  a  diseased  tooth  the  tooth  must  be  re- 
moved, and  the  subsequent  treatment  will  be  according  to  indications. 
The  operation  of  trephining  is  the  best  possible  way  to  remove  the 
tooth  in  such  cases,  as  it  immediately  opens  the  cavity  which  can  be  at- 
tended to  direct. 

In  all  those  cases  of  nasal  gleet  where  sinuses  contain  either  collec- 
tions of  pus  or  tumors,  the  only  relief  is  by  the  trephine;  and  it  is  a 
fact  that,  no  matter  how  thoroughly  described,  this  is  an  operation  that 
will  be  very  seldom  attempted  by  the  non-professional,  although  the 
operation  is  simple  and  attended  in  the  majority  of  instances  with  suc- 
cess. It  would  therefore  be  a  useless  waste  of  time  to  give  the  modus 
operandi. 

An  abscess  inv^olving  the  turbinated  bones  is  similar  to  the  collection 
of  pus  in  the  sinuses,  and  must  be  relieved  by  trephining. 

THJCKENINGr  OF   THE   MEMBRA.NE. 

This  is  sometimes  denoted  by  a  chronic  discharge,  a  snuffling  in  the 
breathing  and  a  contraction  of  the  nostril.  It  is  a  result  of  common 
cold  and  requires  the  same  treatment  as  prescribed  for  nasal  gleet,  viz, 
the  sulphate  of  iron,  sulphate  of  copper,  iodide  of  potassium,  etc.  The 
membranes  of  both  sides  may  be  affected,  but  one  side  only  is  the  rule; 
and  the  affected  side  may  be  easily  detected  by  holding  the  hand  tightly 
over  one  nostril  at  a  time.  When  the  healthy  side  is  closed  in  this 
manner,  the  breathing  through  the  affected  side  will  demonstrate  a 
decreased  caliber  or  an  obstruction. 

NASAl,  POLYPUS. 

Tumors  with  narrow  bases  (somewhat  pear-shaped)  are  occasionally 
found  attached  to  the  membrane  of  the  nasal  chambers,  and  are  ob- 
structions to  breathing  through  the  side  in  which  they  are  located. 
They  vary  much  in  size;  some  are  so  small  that  their  preseuce  is  not 
manifested,  while  others  almost  completely  fill  up  the  chamber,  thereby 
causing  a  serious  obstruction  to  the  passage  of  air.  The  pedicel  of  the 
tumor  is  generally  attached  high  up  iu  the  chamber,  and  usually  the 


95 

tumor  can  not  be  seen,  but  occasionally  it  increases  in  size  until  it  can 
be  observed  within  the  nostril.  Sometimes,  instead  of  haugiug  down 
towards  the  nasal  opening,  it  falls  back  into  the  i)harynx.  It  causes  a 
discharge  from  the  nostril,  a  more  or  less  noisy  snuffling  sound  in  breath- 
ing, according  to  its  size,  a  discharge  of  blood  (if  it  is  injured),  and 
sneezing. 

The  side  that  it  occupies  can  be  detected  in  the  same  way  as  described 
for  the  detection  of  the  affected  side  when  the  breathing  is  obstructed 
by  a  thickened  membrane. 

The  only  relief  is  removal  of  the  polypus,  which,  like  all  other  opera- 
tions, should  be  done  by  an  expert  when  it  is  possible  to  secure  one. 
The  operation  is  performed  by  grasi)ing  the  base  of  the  tumor  with  suit- 
able forceps  and  twisting  it  round  and  round  until  it  is  torn  from  its 
attachment.  The  resulting  hemorrhage  is  checked  by  the  use  of  an 
astringent  lotion,  such  as  a  solution  of  the  tincture  of  iron,  etc. 

PIIARYlvrGEAL  POLYPUS. 

This  is  exactly  the  same  kind  of  tumor  described  as  nasal  polypus, 
the  only  difference  being  in  the  situation.  Indeed,  the  pedicel  of  the 
tumor  may  be  attached  to  the  membrane  of  the  nasal  chamber  as  before 
explained,  or  it  may  be  attached  in  the  fauces  (opening  of  the  back  part 
of  the  mouth)  which  is  often  the  case,  and  by  the  body  of  the  tumor 
falling  into  the  pharynx  it  gets  the  name  of  pharyngeal  polypus.  In 
this  situation  it  may  seriously  interfere  with  breathing.  Sometimes  it 
drops  into  the  larynx,  causing  the  most  alarming  symptoms.  The  ani- 
mal coughs  or  tries  to  cough,  saliva  flows  from  the  mouth,  the  breath- 
ing is  performed  with  the  greatest  diiSculty  and  accompanied  by  a  loud 
noise;  the  animal  appears  as  if  strangled  and  often  falls  exhausted. 
When  the  tumor  is  coughed  out  of  the  larynx  the  animal  regains  quickly 
and  soon  appears  as  if  nothing  was  ailing.  These  sudden  attacks  and 
quick  recoveries  should  lead  to  a  detection  of  the  trouble.  The  exami- 
nation  must  be  made  by  holding  the  animal's  mouth  open  with  a  balling 
iron  or  speculum  and  running  the  hand  back  into  the  mouth.  If  the 
tumor  is  within  reach  it  must  be  removed  with  forceps  by  torsion,  and 
the  hemorrhage  controlled  as  before  advised. 

BLEEDINa  FROM   THE  NOSE. 

This  often  occurs  during  the  course  of  certain  diseases,  viz.,  influenza, 
bronchitis,  purpura  hemorrhagica,  glanders,  etc.  But  it  also  occurs 
independent  of  other  affections;  and,  as  before  mentioned,  is  a  symptom 
of  polypus  or  tumor  in  the  nose. 

Injuries  to  the  head,  exertion,  violent  sneezing — causing  a  rupture 
of  a  small  blood-vessel — also  induce  it.  The  bleeding  is  almost  inva- 
riably from  one  nostril  only,  and  is  never  very  serious.  The  blood 
escapes  in  drops  (very  seldom  in  a  stream),  and  is  never  frothy  as  when 


96 

the  heinorrliage  is  from  the  lungs.  (See  Bleeding  from  the  lungs.)  In 
most  cases,  bathing  the  head  and  washing  out  the  nostril  with  cold 
water  is  all  that  is  necessary.  If  the  cause  is  known  you  will  be  guided 
according  to  circumstances.  If  the  bleeding  continues,  pour  ice-cold 
water  over  the  face,  between  the  eyes  and  down  over  the  nasal  cham- 
bers. A  bag  containing  ice  in  small  pieces  applied  to  the  head  is  often 
efiQcient.  If  in  spite  of  these  measures  the  hemorrhage  continues,  try 
plugging  the  nostrils  with  cotton,  tow,  or  oakum.  Tie  a  string  around 
the  plug  before  it  is  pushed  up  into  the  nostril,  so  that  it  can  be  safely 
withdrawn  after  four  or  five  hours.  If  both  nostrils  are  bleeding  plug 
only  one  nostril  at  a  time.  If  the  hemorrhage  is  profuse  and  persist- 
ent give  a  drench  composed  of  1  dram  of  acetate  of  lead  dissolved  in  a 
pint  of  water;  or  1  dram  gallic  acid  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water  may  bo 
tried. 

INFLAMMATION   OF   THE   PHARYNX. 

As  already  stated,  the  pharynx  is  common  to  the  functions  of  both 
respiration  and  alimentation.  From  this  organ  the  air  passes  into  the 
larynx  and  thence  onward  to  the  lungs.  In  the  posterior  part  of  the 
pharynx  is  the  sup  erior  extremity  of  the  gullet,  the  canal  through 
which  the  food  and  water  pass  to  the  stomach.  Inflammation  of  the 
pharynx  is  a  complication  of  other  diseases,  viz.,  influenza,  strangles, 
etc.,  and  is  probably  always,  more  or  less,  complicated  with  inflamma- 
tion of  the  larynx.  That  it  may  exist  as  an  independent  afiection  there 
is  no  reason  to  doubt,  but  so  closely  do  the  symptoms  resemble  those 
of  laryngitis,  and  as  the  treatment  is  the  same  as  for  the  latter  disease, 
it  is  unnecessary  to  give  it  further  consideration  in  a  separate  article. 

SOKE   THROAT — LARYNGITIS. 

The  larynx  is  situated  in  the  space  between  the  lower  jawbones  just 
back  of  the  root  of  the  tongue,  and  is  retained  in  this  position  by  the 
windpipe,  muscles,  and  bones  to  which  it  is  attached.  It  may  be  con- 
sidered as  a  box  (somewhat  depressed  on  each  side),  composed  princi- 
pally of  cartilages  and  small  muscles,  and  lined  on  the  inside  with  a 
continuation  of  the  respiratory  mucous  membrane.  Posteriorly  it  opens 
into  and  is  continuous  with  the  windpipe.  It  is  the  organ  of  the  voice, 
the  vocal  cords  being  situated  within  it;  but  in  the  horse  this  function 
is  of  little  or  no  consequence.  It  dilates  and  contracts  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent like  the  nostrils,  thus  regulating  the  volume  of  air  passing  through 
it.  The  mucous  membrane  lining  it  internally  is  so  highly  sensitive 
that  if  the  smallest  particle  of  food  happens  to  drop  into  it  from  the 
pharynx  the  muscles  instantly  contract  and  violent  coughing  ensues, 
which  is  continued  until  the  source  of  irritation  is  ejected.  This  is  a 
wise  provision  of  nature  to  prevent  foreign  substances  gaining  access 
to  the  lungs.  That  projection  called  Adam's  apple  in  the  neck  of  man 
is  the  prominent  part  of  one  of  the  cartilages  forming  the  larynx. 


97 

Inflammation  of  the  larynx  is  a  serious  and  sometimes  a  fatal  disease, 
and,  as  before  stated,  is  usually  complicated  with  inflammation  of  the 
pharynx,  constituting  what  is  popularly  known  as  "sore  throat." 

Symptoms. — About  the  first  symptom  noticed  is  the  cough,  followed 
by  a  difiiculty  in  swallowing,  which  may  be  due  to  the  soreness  of  the 
membrane  of  the  pharynx,  over  which  the  food  or  water  must  pass,  or 
to  the  pain  caused  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  necessary  to  impel 
the  food  or  water  onward  to  the  gullet;  or  this  same  contraction  of  the 
muscles  mity  cause  a  pressure  on  the  larynx  and  produce  the  pain.  lu 
many  instances  the  difiiculty  in  swallowing  is  so  great  that  the  water, 
and  in  some  cases  the  food,  is  returned  through  the  nose.  The  mouth 
is  hot,  and  saliva  dribbles  from  it.  The  glands  between  the  lower  jaw 
bones  and  below  the  ears  may  be  swollen.  Pressure  on  the  larynx 
induces  a  violent  fit  of  coughing.  The  cough  is  very  characteristic;  it 
is  easily  seen  that  the  animal  is  "coughing  at  his  throat."  The  head 
is  more  or  less  "poked  out,"  and  has  the  appearance  of  being  stiffly 
carried.  The  membrane  in  the  nose  becomes  red.  A  discharge  from 
the  nostrils  soon  appears.  As  the  disease  advances,  the  breathing  may 
assume  a  more  or  less  noisy  character;  sometimes  a  harsh  rasping  snore 
is  emitted  with  every  respiration,  the  breathing  becomes  hurried,  and 
occasionally  the  animal  seems  threatened  with  suffocation. 

Treatment.— In  all  cases  steam  the  nostrils  as  advised  for  cold  in  the 
head.  In  bad  cases  cause  the  steam  to  be  inhaled  continuously  for 
hours,  until  relief  is  afl'orded.  Have  a  fresh  bucketful  of  boiling  water 
ever}'  fifteen  or  twent}'  minutes.  In  each  bucketful  of  water  put  a  table- 
spoonful  of  oil  of  turpentine,  which  will  be  carried  along  with  the  steam 
to  the  affected  parts  and  have  a  beneficial  effect.  In  mild  cases  steam- 
ing the  nostrils  five,  six,  or  seven  times  a  day  will  sufiQce. 

The  animal  should  be  placed  in  a  comfortable,  dry  stall  (a  box-stall 
preferred),  but  should  have  a  pure  atmosphere  to  breathe.  The  body 
should  be  blanketed,  and  bandages  applied  to  the  legs.  The  diet  should 
consist  of  soft  food — bran  mashes,  scalded  oats,  linseed  gruel,  and,  best 
of  all,  grass,  if  in  season,  which  should  be  carried  to  him  as  soon  as  cut, 
and  a  fresh  supply  offered  often.  The  manger  or  trough  should  not  be 
too  high  nor  too  low,  but  a  temporary  one  should  be  constructed  at 
about  the  height  he  carries  his  head.  Having  to  reach  too  high  or  too 
low  may  cause  so  much  pa  n  that  the  animal  would  rather  forego  satis- 
fying what  little  appetite  he  might  have,  than  inflict  pain  by  craning 
his  head  for  food  or  water.  A  supply  of  fresh  water  should  be  before 
him  all  the  time;  he  will  not  drink  too  much,  nor  will  the  cold  water 
hurt  him.  Constipation  (if  present)  must  be  relieved  by  enemas  of 
warm  water,  administered  three  or  four  times  during  the  twenty-four 
hours. 

A  liniment  composed  of  2  ounces  of  olive  oil  and  1  ounce  each  of  solu- 
tion of  ammonia  and  tincture  of  cantharides,  well  shaken  together^ 
should  be  thoroughly  rubbed  in  about  the  throat  from  ear  to  ear,  and 
11035 7 


98 

about  6  inches  down  over  the  windpipe  and  in  the  space  between  the 
lower  jaws.  This  liniment  should  be  applied  once  a  day  for  two  or 
three  days. 

-   When  the  animal  can  swallow  without  much  difficulty,  give  the  fol- 
lowing preparation  :  Fluid  extract  hyoscyamus  1  dram,  powdered  chlo- 
rate potassium  2  drams,  simple  sirup  or  molasses  2  ounces.      Mix  all. 
together  and  drench  very  carefully.     Repeat  the  dose  every  six  hours. 

If  the  animal  is  breathing  with  great  difficulty  do  not  attempt  to 
drench  him,  but  persevere  in  steaming  the  nostrils,  and  dissolve  2 
drams  of  chlorate  of  potassium  in  every  gallon  of  water  he  will  drink ; 
even  if  he  can  not  swallow  much  of  it  (and  even  if  it  is  returned  through 
the  nostrils),  it  will  be  of  some  benefit  as  a  gargle  to  the  pharynx. 

When  the  breathing  begins  to  be  loud  great  relief  isaftbrded  in  some 
cases  by  giving  a  drench  composed  of  2  drams  of  fluid  extract  of  jab- 
orandi  in  half  a  pint  of  water.  If  benefit  is  derived,  this  drench  may 
be  repeated  four  or  five  hours  after  the  first  dose  is  given.  It  will 
cause  a  free  flow  of  saliva  from  the  mouth  within  thirty  minutes. 

In  urgent  cases,  when  suffocation  seems  inevitable,  the  operation  of 
tracheotomy  must  be  performed.  It  must  be  admitted  that  this  oper- 
ation appears  to  be  (to  the  non-professional)  a  verj^  formidable  one,  but 
as  it  is  certainly  a  means  of  saving  life  where  all  other  measures  have 
failed,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  writer  to  describe  it.  To  describe  this 
operation  in  words  that  would  make  it  comprehensible  to  the  general 
reader  is  a  much  more  difficult  task  than  performing  the  operation,  which 
in  the  hands  of  the  expert  is  one  of  the  simplest,  and  attended  with 
less  danger  (from  the  operation  itself)  than  any  of  the  special  operations 
on  organs. 

The  operator  should  be  provided  with  a  tracheotomy  tube  (to  be 
purchased  from  any  veterinary  instrument  maker)  and  a  sharp  knife,  a 
sponge,  and  a  bucket  of  clean  cold  water.  The  place  to  be  selected  for 
opening  the  windpipe  is  that  part  which  is  found,  upon  examination, 
to  be  least  covered  with  muscles.  Run  your  hand  down  the  front  part 
of  the  windpipe  and  you  may  easily  detect  the  rings  of  cartilage  of 
which  it  is  composed  ;  about  5  or  6  inches  below  the  throat  it  will  be 
the  most  plainly  felt.  Right  here,  then,  is  the  place  to  cut  through. 
Have  an  assistant  hold  the  animal's  head  still ;  no  necessity  of  putting 
a  twitch  on  the  nose.  Grasp  youj-  knife  firmly  in  the  right  hand,  select 
the  spot  to  cut,  and  cut.  Make  the  cut  from  above  to  below  directly  on 
the  median  line  on  the  anterior  surface  of  the  windpipe.  Do  not 
attemi^t  to  dissect  your  way  in,  that  is  too  slow,  it  annoys  the  horse 
and  makes  him  restless,  and  besides  it  gives  a  novice  time  to  become 
nervous.  Make  the  cut  about  2  inches  long  in  the  icindpipe ;  this 
necessitates  cutting  three  or  four  rings.  One  bold,  nervy  stroke  is 
usually  sufficient,. but  if  it  is  necessary  to  make  several  other  cuts  to 
finish  the  operation  do  not  hesitate.  Your  intention. must  be  to  make 
a  hole  in  the  windpipe  sufficiently  large  to  admit  the  tracheotomy  tube, 


99 

and  you  have  not  accomplished  your  purpose  until  you  have  done  so. 
It  is  quickly  manifested  when  the  windpipe  is  severed,  the  hot  air 
rushes  out,  and  when  air  is  taken  in  it  is  sucked  in  with  a  noise.  A 
slight  hemorrhage  may  result  (it  never  amounts  to  much),  which  is 
easily  controlled  by  washing  the  wound  with  a  sponge  and  cold  water; 
do  not  get  any  of  the  water  in  the  windpipe.  Do  not  neglect  to  instruct 
your  assistant  to  hold  the  head  down  immediately  after  the  operation, 
so  that  the  neck  will  he  in  a  horizontal  line.  This  will  prevent  the 
blood  getting  into  the  windpipe  and  allow  it  to  drop  directly  on  the 
ground.  If  you  have  the  self- adjustable  tube,  it  retains  its  place  in 
the  wound  without  further  trouble  after  it  is  inserted.  The  other  kind 
requires  to  be  secured  in  position  by  means  of  two  tapes  or  strings 
tied  around  the  neck.  After  the  hemorrhage  is  somewhat  abated 
sponge  the  blood  away  and  see  that  the  tube  is  thoroughly  clean,  then 
insert  it,  directing  the  tube  downwards  towards  the  lungs.  To  insure 
the  tube  being  clean,  it  is  best  to  keep  it  immersed  in  a  solution  of  1 
on nc% of  carbolic  acid  in  20  ounces  of  water  for  about  thirty  minutes 
previous  to  inserting  it  in  the  windpipe. 

The  immediate  relief  this  operation  affords  is  wonderful  to  behold. 
The  animal,  a  few  minutes  before  on  the  verge  of  death  from  sufl'oca- 
tion,  emitting  a  loud  wheezing  sound  with  every  breath;  with  haggard 
countenance,  body  swaying,  pawing,  gasping,  fighting  for  breath,  is 
now  breathing  tranquilly,  and  ten  to  one  is  nosing  about  the  stall  in 
search  of  something  to  eat. 

The  tube  should  be  removed  once  a  day  and  cleaned  with  the  carbolic 
acid  solution  (1  to  20),  and  the  discharge  washed  away  from  the  wound 
with  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  1  part  to  40  parts  water.  Several  times 
a  day  the  hand  should  be  held  over  the  opening  in  the  tube  to  test  the 
animal's  ability  to  breathe  through  the  nostrils,  and  as  soon  as  it  is 
demonstrated  that  breathing  can  be  performed  in  the  natural  way  the 
tube  should  be  removed,  the  wound  thoroughly  cleansed  with  the  car- 
bolic acid  solution  (1  to  40),  and  closed  by  inserting  four  or  five  stitches 
through  the  skin  and  muscle.  Do  not  include  the  cartilages  of  the  wind- 
pipe in  the  stitches.  Apply  the  carbolic  acid  solution  to  the  wound 
three  or  four  times  a  day  until  healed.  When  the  tube  is  removed  to 
clean  it  the  lips  of  the  wound  may  be  pressed  together  to  ascertain 
whether  or  not  the  horse  can  breathe  through  the  larynx.  The  use  of 
the  tube  should  be  discontinued  as  soon  as  possible. 

It  is  true  that  tracheotomy  tubes  are  seldom  to  be  found  on  farms, 
and  especially  when  most  urgently  required.  In  such  instances  there 
is  nothing  left  to  be  done  but,  with  a  strong  needle,  pass  a  wax  end  or 
other  strong  string  through  each  side  of  the  wound,  including  the  car- 
tilage of  the  wind-pipe,  and  keep  the  wound  opeu  by  tying  the  strings 
over  the  neck.  The  operation  of  tracheotomy  is  not  always  successful 
in  saving  the  animal's  life,  and  the  principal  reason  of  this  is,  that  it  is 
deferred  too  long  and  the  animal  is  beyond  recovery  before  it  is  at- 
tempted. 


400 

During  the  time  the  tube  is  used  the  other  treatment  advised  must 
not  be  neglected.  After  a  few  days  the  discharge  from  the  nostrils  be- 
comes thicker  and  more  profuse.  This  is  a  good  symptom  and  signi- 
fies that  the  acute  stage  has  passed.  At  any  time  during  the  attack, 
if  the  horse  becomes  weak,  give  the  following  drench  every  four  or  five 
hours:  Spirits  of  nitrous  ether,  2  ounces;  rectified  spirits,  2  ounces; 
water,  1  pint.  When  the  power  of  swallowing  is  regained  and  the  pro- 
fuse discharge  of  thick,  yellowish-white  matter  from  the  nostrils  an- 
nounces the  fact  of  the  convalescing  stage,  administer  the  following: 
Tincture  of  theperchlorideof  iron,  1  ounce;  tiucture  of  gentian,  2  ounces; 
water,  1  pint.  This  should  be  given  every  morning  and  evening  for 
about  a  week  or  ten  days.  Good  nutritive  food  must  now  be  given — 
hay,  oats,  and  corn.  Do  not  be  in  a  hurry  to  put  the  animal  back  to 
work,  but  give  plenty  of  time  for  a  complete  recovery.  Gentle  and 
gradually  increasing  exercise  may  be  given  as  soon  as  the  horse  is  able 
to  stand  it. 

If  abscesses  form  in  connection  with  the  disease  they  must  be  opened 
to  allow  the  escape  of  pus,  but  do  not  rashly  plunge  a  knife  into  swol- 
len glands  ;  wait  until  you  are  certain  the  swelling  contains  pus.  The 
formation  of  pus  may  be  encouraged  by  the  constant  application  of 
poultices  for  hours  at  a  time.  The  best  poultice  for  the  purpose  is 
made  of  linseed  meal,  with  sufficient  hot  water  to  make  a  thick  paste. 
If  the  glands  remain  swollen  for  some  time  after  the  attack,  rub  well 
over  them  an  application  of  the  following :  Biniodide  of  mercury,  1 
dram ;  lard,  1  ounce ;  mix  well.  This  may  be  applied  once  every  day 
until  the  part  is  blistered. 

Sore  throat  is  also  a  symptom  of  other  diseases,  such  as  influenza, 
strangles,  purpura  hemorrhagica,  etc.,  which  diseases  may  be  consulted 
under  their  proper  headings. 

After  a  severe  attack  of  inflammation  of  the  larynx  the  mucous  mem- 
brane may  be  left  in  a  thickened  condition,  or  an  ulceration  of  the  part 
may  ensue,  either  of  which  are  liable  to  produce  a  chronic  cough.  For 
the  ulceration  it  is  useless  to  prescribe,  because  it  can  neither  be  diag- 
nosed nor  topically  treated  by  the  non-professional. 

If  a  chronic  cough  remains  after  all  the  other  symptoms  have  disap- 
peared, it  is  advisable  to  give  1  dram  of  iodide  of  potassium  dissolved 
in  a  bucketful  of  drinking  water  one  hour  before  feeding,  three  times  a 
day,  for  a  month  if  necessary.  Also  rub  in  well  the  preparation  of 
iodide  of  mercury  (as  advised  for  the  swollen  glands)  about  the  throat, 
from  ear  to  ear,  and  in  the  space  between  the  lower  jaw  bones.  The 
application  may  be  repeated  every  third  day  until  the  part  is  blistered. 

SPASM  OF  THE  LARYNX. 

This  has  been  described  by  some  authorities.  The  symptoms  given 
are  :  Sudden  seizure  by  a  violent  fit  of  coughing ;  the  horse  may  reel 
and  fall;,  and  after  a  few  minutes  recover,  and  be  as  well  as  ever.    The 


101 

treatment  recommended  is  :  Give  a  pint  of  linseed  oil  and  after  it  has 
operated  administers  drams  of  bromide  of  potassium  three  times  a  day, 
dissolved  in  the  drinking  water,  or  give  as  a  drench  in  about  a  half 
pint  of  water,  for  a  week.  Then  give  a  dram  of  powdered  nux  vomica 
(either  on  the  food  or  skaken  with  water  as  a  drench)  once  a  day  for 
a  few  weeks. 

CROUP  AND  DIPHTHERIA. 

Both  of  these  diseases,  it  is  claimed,  aflfecfc  the  horse.  But  such 
cases  must  be  rare,  as  veterinarians  of  extended  experience  have  failed 
to  recognize  a  single  case  in  their  practice.  The  symptoms  are  so  much 
like  those  of  inflammation  of  the  larynx  that  it  would  be  imjjossible 
for  the  general  reader  to  discriminate  between  them. 

ROARING. 

Horses  that  are  affected  with  a  chronic  disease  that  causes  a  loud 
unnatural  noise  in  breathing  are  called  "  roarers."  This  class  does  not 
include  those  affected  with  severe  sore  throat,  as  in  these  cases  the 
breathing  is  noisy  only  during  the  attack  of  the  acute  disease. 

Eoaring  is  caused  by  an  obstruction  to  the  free  passage  of  the  air  in 
some  part  of  the  respiratory  tract.  Nasal  polypi,  thickening  of  the 
membrane,  pharyngeal  polypi,  deformed  bones,  paralysis  of  the  wing 
of  the  nostril,  etc.,  are  occasional  causes.  The  noisy  breathing  of  horses 
after  having  been  idle  and  put  to  sudden  exertion  is  not  due  to  any  dis- 
ease, and  is  only  temporary.  Very  often  a  nervous,  excitable  horse  will 
make  a  noise  for  a  short  time  when  started  off,  generally  caused  by  the 
cramped  position  in  which  the  head  and  neck  are  forced,  in  order  to  hold 
him  back. 

Many  other  causes  may  occasion  temporary,  intermitting  or  perma- 
nent noisy  respiration,  but  after  all  other  causes  are  enumerated  it  will 
be  found  that  more  than  nine  out  of  ten  cases  of  chronic  roaring  are 
caused  by  paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  the  larynx ;  and  almost  invariably 
it  is  the  muscles  of  the  left  side  of  the  larynx  that  are  affected. 

In  chronic  roaring  the  noise  is  made  when  the  air  is  drawn  into  the  . 
lungs;  and  only  when  the  disease  is  far  advanced  is  a  sound  i)roduced 
when  the  air  is  expelled,  and  even  then  it  is  not  near  so  loud  as  during 
inspiration. 

In  a  normal  condition  the  muscles  dilate  the  aperture  of  the  larynx 
by  moving  outward  the  cartilage  and  vocal  cord,  allowing  a  sufficient 
volume  of  air  to  rush  through.  But  when  the  muscles  are  paralyzed, 
the  cartilage  and  vocal  cord  that  are  normally  controlled  by  the  af- 
fected muscles  remain  stationary ;  therefore  when  the  air  rushes  in  it 
meets  this  obstruction,  and  the  noise  is  produced.  When  the  air  is  ex- 
pelled from  the  lungs  its  very  force  pushes  the  cartilage  and  vocal  cords 
out,  and  consequently  noise  is  not  always  produced  in  the  expiratory 
act. 


102 

The  paralysis  of  the  muscles  is  due  to  derangement  of  the  nerve  that 
supplies  them  with  energy.  The  muscles  of  both  sides  are  not  supplied 
by  the  same  nerve;  there  is  a  right  and  a  left  nerve,  each  supplying  its 
respective  side.  The  reason  why  the  muscles  on  the  left  side  are  the 
ones  usually  paralyzed  is  owing  to  the  difference  in  the  anatomical 
arrangement  of  the  nerves.  The  left  nerve  is  much  longer  and  more 
exposed  to  interference  than  the  right  nerve.  This  pair  of  nerves  is 
given  off  from  its  parent  trunks  (the  pneumogastrics)  after  the  latter 
enter  the  chest,  and  consequently  they  are  called  the  recurrent  laryngeal 
nerves,  on  account  of  having  to  recur  to  the  laryux. 

In  chronic  roaring  there  is  no  evidence  of  any  disease  of  the  larynx, 
other  than  the  wasted  condition  of  the  muscles  in  question.  The  dis- 
ease of  the  nerve  is  generally  located  far  from  the  larynx.  Disease  of 
parts  contiguous  to  the  nerve  along  any  part  of  its  course  may  interfere 
with  its  proper  function.  It  is  not  really  necessary  for  the  nerve  itself 
to  be  the  seat  of  disease ;  pressure  upon  it  is  sufScient;  the  pressure  of 
a  tumor  on  the  nerve  is  a  common  cause.  Disease  of  lymphatic  glands 
within  the  chest  through  which  the  nerve  passes  on  its  way  back  to  the 
larynx  is  the  most  frequent  interruption  of  nervous  supply,  and  conse- 
quently roaring.  When  roaring  becomes  confirmed  medical  treatment 
is  entirely  useless,  as  it  is  imjiossible  to  restore  the  wasted  muscle  and 
at  the  same  time  remove  the  cause  of  the  interruption  of  the  nervous 
supply.  Before  the  disease  becomes  permanent  it  may  be  benefited  by 
a  course  of  iodide  of  potassium,  when  it  is  caused  by  disease  of  the 
lymphatic  glands.  Electricity  has  been  used  with  indifferent  success. 
Blistering  or  firing  over  the  larynx  is  of  course  not  worthy  of  trial  if 
the  disease  is  due  to  interference  with  the  nerve  supply.  The  adminis- 
tration of  strychnia  (nux  vomica)  on  the  ground  that  it  is  a  nerve  tonic, 
with  the  view  of  stimulating  the  affected  muscles,  is  treating  only  the 
result  of  the  disease  without  considering  the  cause,  "and  is  therefore  use- 
less. The  operation  of  extirpating  the  collapsed  cartilage  and  vocal  cord 
is  believed  to  be  the  only  relief,  and  as  this  operation  is  critical  and  can 
only  be  performed  by  the  skillful  veterinarian,  it  will  not  be  described 
here. 

From  the  foregoing  description  of  the  disease  it  Avill  be  seen  that  the 
name  "roaring,"  by  which  the  disease  is  generally  known,  is  only  a 
symptom  and  not  the  disease.  Chronic  roaring  is  also  in  many  cases 
accompanied  by  a  cough.  The  best  way  to  test  whether  a  horse  is  a 
"roarer"  is  to  either  make  him  pull  a  load  rapidly  up  a  hill  or  over  a 
sandy  road  or  soft  ground;  or  if  he  is  a  saddle  horse  gallop  him  up  a 
hill.  The  object  is  to  make  him  exert  himself.  Some  horses  require  a 
great  deal  more  exertion  than  others  before  the  characteristic  sound  is 
emitted.  The  greater  the  distance  he  is  forced  the  more  he  will  appear 
exhausted  if  he  is  a  roarer;  in  bad  cases  the  animal  becomes  utterly 
exhausted,  the  breathing  is  rapid  and  difficult,  the  nostrils  dilate  to  the 
fullest  extent,  and  the  animal  appears  as  if  suffocation  was  iuimineut. 


103 

An  animal  that  is  a  roarer  should  not  be  used  for  breeding  purposes, 
no  matter  bow  valuable  the  stock.  The  taint  is  transmissible  in  many 
instances,  and  tbere  is  not  the  least  doubt  in  tbe  minds  of  those  who 
know  best  that  the  offspring  whose  sire  or  dam  is  a  roarer  is  born  with 
an  hereditary  predisposition  to  the  affection. 

Grunting. — A  common  test  used  by  veterinarians  when  examining 
"the  wind"  of  a  horse  is  to  see  if  he  is  a  "grunter."  This  is  a  sound 
emitted  during  expiration  when  the  animal  is  suddenly  moved,  or  start- 
led, or  struck  at.  If  he  grunts  he  is  further  tested  for  roaring.  Grunters 
are  not  always  roarers,  but  as  it  is  a  common  thing  for  a  roarer  to  grunt 
such  an  animal  must  be  looked  upon  with  suspicion  until  he  is  thor- 
oughly tried  by  pulling  a  load  or  galloped  up  a  hill.  The  test  should 
be  a  severe  one.  Horses  suffering  with  pleurisy,  pleurodynia,  or  rheu- 
matism, and  other  affections  accompanied  with  much  pain,  will  grunt 
when  moved,  or  when  the  pain  is  aggravated,  but  grunting  under  these 
circumstances  does  not  justify  the  term  of  "grunter"  being  applied  to 
the  horse,  as  the  grunting  ceases  when  the  animal  recovers  from  tlie 
disease  that  causes  the  pain. 

High  blowing. — This  term  is  applied  to  a  noisy  breathing  made  by 
some  horses.  It  is  distinctly  a  nasal  sound,  and  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  "roaring."  The  sound  is  produced  by  the  action  of  the 
nostrils.  It  is  a  habit  and  not  an  unsoundness.  Contrary  to  roaring, 
when  the  animal  is  put  to  severe  exertion  the  sound  ceases.  An  animal 
that  emits  this  sound  is  called  a  "  high-blower."  Some  horses  have, 
naturally,  very  narrow  nasal  openings,  and  they  may  emit  sounds 
louder  than  usual  in  their  breathing  when  exercised. 

Whistling  is  only  one  of  the  variations  of  the  sound  emitted  by  a 
horse  called  a  "  roarer,"  and  therefore  needs  no  further  notice,  except 
to  remiuel  the  reader  that  a  whistling  sound  may  be  produced  during 
an  attack  of  severe  sore  throat  or  inflammation  of  the  larynx,  which 
passes  away  with  the  disease  that  causes  it. 

Tliiclc  iBind. — This  is  another  superfluous  term  applied  to  a  symptom. 
The  great  majority  of  horses  called  "  thick-winded  "  belong  either  in  the 
class  called  "  roarers,"  or  are  affected  with  "  heaves,"  and  therefore  no 
separate  classification  is  needed.  Mares  heavy  with  foal,  horses  exces- 
sively fat,  and  those  that  have  not  been  exercised  for  so  long  that  the 
muscular  system  has  become  unfit  for  work  5  horses  with  large  bellies, 
and,  especially,  when  the  stomach  is  loaded  with  coarse,  fibrous,  or 
bulky  food,  emit  a  louder  sound  than  natural  in  their  breathing,  and 
are  called  "thick-winded."  The  treatment  in  such  cases  is  obvious: 
"  Kemove  the  cause  and  the  effect  will  cease."  While  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  "  thickening  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  finer  bronchial 
tubes  and  air  cells  may  cause  the  breathing  called  thick-winded,"  it 
must  at  the  same  time  be  admitted  that  there  is  no  symptom  by  which 
the  condition  can  be  distinguished  from  what  will  hereafter  be  described 
as  "  heaves,"  by  the  general  reader,  at  least. 


104 

THE  WINDPIPE. 

The  windpipe,  or  trachea,  as  it  is  technically  called,  is  the  flexible 
tube  that  extends  from  the  larynx  which  it  succeeds  at  the  throat 
to  above  the  base  of  the  heart  in  the  chest,  where  it  terminates  by 
dividing  into  the  right  and  left  bronchi,  the  tubes  going  to  the  right 
and  left  lung  respectively.  The  windpipe  is  composed  of  about  fifty 
incomplete  rings  of  cartilage  united  by  ligaments.  A  muscular  layer 
is  situated  on  the  superior  surface  of  the  rings.  Internally  the  tube 
is  lined  with  a  continuation  of  the  mucous  membrane  that  lines  the 
entire  respiratory  tract,  which  here  has  very  little  sensibility  in 
contrast  to  that  lining  the  larynx,  which  is  endowed  with  exquisite 
sensitiveness. 

The  windpipe  is  not  subject  to  any  special  disease,  but  is  more  or 
less  affected  during  laryngitis  (sore  throat),  influenza,  bronchitis,  etc., 
and  requires  no  special  treatment.  The  membrane  may  be  left  in  a 
thickened  condition  after  these  attacks.  One  or  more  of  the  rings 
may  be  accidentally  fractured,  or  the  tube  may  be  distorted  or  mal- 
formed, the  result  of  violent  injury.  After  the  operation  of  trache- 
otomy it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  a  tumor  or  malformation  as  a  re- 
sult or  sequel  of  the  operation.  In  passing  over  this  section  atten- 
tion is  merely  called  to  these  defects,  as  they  require  no  particular 
attention  in  the  way  of  treatment.  However,  it  may  be  stated  that 
any  one  of  the  before-mentioned  conditions  may  constitute  one  of  the 
causes  of  noisy  respiration  described  as  "  roaring." 

GUTTURAL  POUCHES. 

These  two  sacks  are  not  included  in  the  organs  of  respiration,  but 
sometimes  pus  collects  in  them  to  an  extent  that  considerably  inter- 
feres with  respiration.  They  are  in  close  proximity  to  the  pharynx  and 
larynx,  and  when  filled  with  matter  the  functions  of  the  last-named  or- 
gans can  not  be  properly  performed.  They  are  situated  above  the 
throat,  and  communicate  with  the  pharynx,  as  well  as  with  the  cavity 
of  the  tympanum  of  the  ear.  They  are  peculiar  "to  solipeds.  They 
contain  air,  except  when  filled  with  pus.     Their  function  is  unknown. 

One  or  both  guttural  pouches  may  contain  pus.  The  symptoms  are: 
Swelling  on  the  side  below  the  ear  and  an -intermittent  discharge  of 
matter  from  one  or  both  nostrils,  especially  when  the  head  is  depressed. 

The  swelling  is  soft,  and,  if  pressed  upon,  matter  will  escape  from 
the  nose  if  the  head  is  depressed.  As  before  mentioned,  these  pouches 
communicate  with  the  pharynx,  and  through  this  small  opening  matter 
may  escape.  A  recovery  is  probable  if  the  animal  is  turned  out  to 
graze,  or  if  he  is  fed  from  the  ground,  as  the  dependent  position  of  the 
head  favors  the  escape  of  matter  from  the  pouches.  In  addition  to 
this,  give  the  tonics  recommended  for  nasal  gleet.  If  this  treatment 
fails  an  operation  must  be  performed,  which  should  not  be  attempted 
by  any  one  unacquainted  with  the  anatomy  of  the  part. 


105 

METHODS    OF     EXAMINATION    FOR     DISEASES     HAVING    THEIR    SEAT 

WITHIN   THE   CHEST. 

To  lay  down  a  set  of  rules  for  the  guidance  of  the  general  reader  in 
discriminating  between  the  different  affections  of  the  organs  of  respira- 
tion situated  in  the  thoracic  cavity,  is  a  task  hard  to  accomplish.  In 
the  first  place,  it  is  presumed  that  the  reader  has  no  knowledge  what- 
ever of  the  anatomical  arrangement,  and  probably  but  a  meager  idea 
of  the  physiology  of  the  organs,  therefore  the  use  of  technical  language, 
which  would  make  the  task  a  simple  one,  is  out  of  the  question.  And, 
to  one  who  scarcely  understands  the  signs  and  laws  of  health,  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  convey  in  comprehensive  language,  in  an  article  like  this,  an 
adequate  idea  of  the  great  importance  attached  to  signs  or  symptoms 
of  disease.  Then,  again,  the  methods  used  for  the  detection  of  symp- 
toms not  visible  are  such  as  require  special  cultivation  of  the  particu- 
lar senses  brought  into  play.  It  will  be  the  endeavor  of  the  writer, 
when  describing  the  symptoms  of  each  particular  disease,  to  do  so  in 
such  manner  that  a  serious  mistake  should  not  be  made;  but  for  the 
benefit  of  those  who  may  desire  a  more  thorough  understanding  of  the 
subject  a  brief  review  of  the  various  methods  employed  and  an  ex- 
planation of  certain  sj-mptoms  will  be  given  here. 

Pulse. — By  the  pulse  is  meant  the  beating  of  the  arteries,  which  fol- 
lows each  contraction  of  the  heart.  The  artery  usually  selected  in  the 
horse  for  "  taking  the  pulse"  is  the  submaxillary  where  it  winds  around 
the  lower  jaw-bone.  On  the  inner  side  of  the  jaw-bone  the  artery  may 
b^  readily  felt  and  pressed  against  the  bone,  hence  its  adaptability  for 
the  purpose  of  detecting  each  peculiarity.  The  number  of  beats  in  a 
minute,  the  regularity,  the  irregularity,  the  strength  or  feebleness,  and 
othei  peculiarities  are  principally  due  to  the  action  of  the  heart. 

In  the  healthy  horse  the  average  number  of  beats  in  a  minute  is 
about  forty;  but  in  different  horses  the  number  may  vary  from  thirty- 
five  to  forty -five  and  still  be  consistent  w4th  health.  The  breed  and 
temperament  of  an  animal  has  much  to  do  with  the  number  of  pulsa- 
tions. In  a  thoroughbred  the  number  of  beats  in  a  given  time  is  gen- 
erally greater  than  in  a  coarse-bred  horse.  The  pulse  is  less  frequent 
in  a  dull  plethoric  animal  than  in  an  excitable  one.  The  state  of  the 
pulse  should  be  taken  when  the  animal  is  quiet  and  at  rest.  Work, 
exercise,  and  excitement  increase  the  number  of  pulsations.  If  the 
pulse  of  a  horse  be  taken  while  standing  quietly  in  the  stable  it  will  be 
found  less  frequent  than  when  he  is  at  pasture. 

It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  a  work  of  this  kind  to  give  all  the  pecu- 
liarities of  the  pulse;  only  a  few  of  the  most  important  will  be  noticed. 
It  should,  however,  be  stated  that  if  the  reader  would  learn  something 
of  the  pulse  in  disease  he  must  first  become  acquainted  with  the  pulse 
in  health;  he  must  know  the  natural  peculiarities  before  he  can  detect 
the  deviations  caused  by  disease. 


106 

By  2k  frequent  pulse  is  meani  an  increased  number  of  beats  in  a  given 
time.  An  infrequent  imlse  means  the  reverse.  A  quklc  pulse  refers  to 
the  time  occupied  by  the  individual  pulsation.  The  beat  may  strike 
the  finger  either  quicMy  or  sloicly.  Hence  the  pulse  may  beat  forty 
quick  pulsations  or  forty  sloiv  pulsations  in  a  minute. 

The  pulse  is  called  intermUting  when  the  beat  now  and  then  is  omitted. 
The  omission  of  the  beat  may  be  at  the  end  of  a  given  number  of  pulsa- 
tions, when  it  is  termed  regularly  intermittent,  or  it  may  be  irregularly 
intermittent. 

A  large  pulse  means  that  the  volume  is  larger  than  usual,  and  a  small 
pulse  means  the  opposite.  When  the  artery  is  easily  compressed  and 
conveys  the  feeling  of  emptiness  it  is  called  a,  feeble  pulse.  When  a  feel- 
ing of  hardness  and  resistance  is  conveyed  to  the  finger  it  is  termed  a 
hard  pulse.  A  double  pulse  is  when  the  be-at  seems  to  give  two  rapid 
beats  at  once.  Besides  other  peculiarities  the  pulse  may  include  the 
character  of  two  or  more  of  the  foregoing  classes. 

In  fever  the  pulse  is  modified,  both  as  regards  frequency  and  other 
deviations  from  the  normal  standard.  When  a  horse  is  quietly  stand- 
ing at  rest,  if  the  pulse  beats  fifty-five  or  more  in  a  minute,  fever  is 
present. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  of  the  healthy  horse  ranges  from 
ab(mt  99^0  to  101  JO  F.  The  average  may  be  placed  at  about  lOOo  F. 
The  temperature  is  subject  to  slight  alterations  by  certain  influences. 
A  high  surrounding  temperature  increases  the  animal  temperature,  and 
cold  the  reverse.  Exercise  increases  it.  Mares  have  a  higher  tempera- 
ture than  males.  Drinking  cold  water  lowers  the  animal  temperature. 
It  is  higher  in  the  young  than  in  the  old.  The  process  of  digestion  in- 
creases the  temperature. 

The  most  accurate  method  of  taking  the  temperature  is  by  introduc- 
ing a  registered  clinical  thermometer  into  Che  rectum.  This  instrument 
can  be  purchased  from  any  dealer  in  surgical  instruments.  Even  the 
best  made  may  vary  somewhat  from  being  exact,  but  one  sufiiciently 
true  for  the  purpose  is  easily  obtained.  It  should  be  self-registering. 
The  thermometer  should  remain  in  the  gut  for  about  three  or  four 
minutes.  Before  inserting  it  you  should  be  sure  the  mercury  is  below 
the  minimum  temperature.  The  end  containing  the  mercury  should  be 
pushed  in  gently,  leaving  only  sufficient  outside  to  take  hold  of  when 
you  desire  to  withdraw  it. 

In  describing  the  symptoms  of  "cold  in  the  head"  the  method  of  avi- 
certaining  an  increase  of  temperature  by  placing  the  finger  in  the  mouth 
is  referred  to.  The  method  requires  considerable  practice  and  a  deli- 
cacy of  touch  to  become  expert,  but,  when  a  thermometer  is  not  at 
hand,  a  little  practice  will  enable  a  person  of  ordinary  intelligence  to 
detect  the  existence  or  absence  of  fever. 

Respiration. — In  health,  standing  still,  the  horse  breathes  from  twelve 
to  fifteen  times  a  minute  j  work  or  excitement  increases  the  number  of 
respirations. 


107 

The  character  of  the  breathing  is  changed  by  disease.  Quick  breath- 
ing refers  to  an  incpeased  number  of  respirations,  which  may  be  due  to 
disease  or  to  simple  exercise.  Difficult  breatlnng  is  always  associated 
with  something  abnormal,  and  is  often  a  perfect  guide  to  the  trouble. 
Stertorous  breathing  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  difiQcult  breath- 
ing or  noisy  respiration  of  sore  throat,  roaring,  etc.  By  stertorous 
breathing  is  meant  what,  in  the  human  being,  is  called  snoring,  which 
is  due  to  a  relaxation  of  the  palate  and  not  to  disease  of  the  part.  In 
the  horse  it  is  generally  associated  with  brain  disease,  when  the  con- 
sequent derangement  of  the  nervous  fuuctix)ns  causes  the  relaxation  of 
the  soft  palate.  Abdominal  breathing  is  when  the  ril>s  are  kept  as 
nearly  stationary  as  possible,  and  the  abdominal  muscles  assist  to  a 
much  greater  extent  than  natural  in  respiration ;  the  abdomen  is  seen 
to  work  like  a  bellows.  In  pleurisy,  owing  to  the  pain  caused  by  mov- 
ing  the  ribs',  this  kind  of  breathing  is  always  present.  Thoracic  breath- 
ing is  the  opposite  of  abdominal  breathing — that  is,  the  ribs  rise  and 
fall  more  than  usual,  while  the  abdominal  muscles  remain  fixed ;  this 
is  due  to  abdominal  pain,  such  as  peritonitis,  etc.  Irregular  breathing 
is  exemplified  in  "heaves,"  and  often  during  the  critical  stages  of  acute 
diseases. 

Secretions. — In  the  first  stages  of  inflammatory  disease  these  functions 
are  noticed  with  benefit.  For  instance,  in  the  common  cold  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  attack  the  membrane  within  the  nostrils  is  dry  and  con- 
gested, which  state  gradually  gives  way  to  a  watery  discharge,  soon 
followed  by  a  thick  mucus.  In  pleurisy  the  surfaces  are  at  first  dry, 
which  can  be  easily  ascertained  by  placing  the  ear  against  the  chest 
over  the  aflected  part,  when  the  dry  surfaces  of  the  pleurae  will  be  heard 
ruljbing  against  each  other,  producing  a  sound  likened  to  that  of  rub- 
bing two  pieces  of  paper  one  against  the  other.  In  diseases  of  the 
respiratory  organs  the  bowels  are  usually  constipated,  and  the  urine 
becomes  less  in  quantity  and  of  a  higher  color.  The  skin  is  usually  hot 
and  dry,  but  there  are  instances  when  perspiration  is  profuse.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  attack  there  is  generally  a  chill  (in  most  instances 
unnoticed  by  the  attendant),  caused  by  the  contraction  of  the  blood- 
vessels in  the  skin  driving  the  blood  internally. 

Cough. — This  is  usually  a  violent  effort  to  remove  some  source  of  ir- 
ritation in  the  respiratory  tract.  The  dry  cough  is  heard  during  the 
first  stages  of  disease  of  the  respiratory  organs.  In  pleurisy  the  cough 
is  a  dry  one.  The  cough  in  pleurisy  is  noticeable  on  account  of  the 
apparent  effort  of  the  animal  to  suppress  it.  The  moist  cough  is  heard 
when  the  secretions  (following  a  dry  stage)  are  re-established.  Cough 
is  but  a  symptom — the  effect  of  a  disease.  Roaring,  heaves,  pleurisy, 
pneumonia,  etc.,  have  a  cough  peculiar  to  each  affection. 

Auscnltatio7i. — This  term  is  applied  to  the  method  of  detecting  dis- 
eases of  the  organs  within  the  chest  by  listening  to  the  sounds. 
Generally'  the  ear  is  placed  directly  against  the  part,  but  occasionally 


108 

an  instrument  called  tbe  stethoscope  is  employed.  The  former  is  the 
best  mode  for  horses.  In  order  to  gain  any  satisfaction  or  knowledge 
by  the  practice  of  this  method  the  reader  must  first  become  familiar 
with  the  sounds  in  a  healthy  horse,  which  can  only  be  learned  by  prac- 
tice. Much  more  practice  and  knowledge  are  then  required  to  discrimi- 
nate properly  between  abnormal  sounds  and  their  significance. 

Percussion. — As  applied  to  the  practice  of  medicine  this  term  refers 
to  the  act  of  striking  on  some  part  of  the  body  to  determine  the  condi- 
tion of  the  internal  organs  by  the  sound  elicited.  If  a  wall  of  a  cavity  is 
struck  the  sound  is  easily  distinguished  from  that  emitted  when  a  solid 
substance  is  knocked  on.  When  percussing  the  chest,  the  ribs  are 
struck  with  the  tips  of  the  fingers  and  thumb  held  together,  or  with 
the  knuckles.  An  instrument  called  the  pleximeter  is  sometimes  laid 
against  the  part,  to  strike  on.  If  the  surface  is  soft  over  the  part  to  be 
percussed,  the  left  hand  is  pressed  against  it  firmly,  and  the  middle  fin- 
ger of  it  struck  with  the  ends  of  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  to  bring 
out  the  sound.  This  method  of  examination  also  requires  much  prac- 
tice on  the  healthy  as  well  as  the  unhealthy  animal. 

BRONCHITIS. 

As  previously  described,  the  windpipe  terminates  by  dividing  into 
the  right  and  left  bronchi,  running  to  the  right  and  left  lung,  respect- 
ively. After  reaching  the  lungs  these  tubes  divide  into  innumerable 
branches,  gradully  decreasing  in  size,  which  penetrate  all  parts  of  the 
lungs,  ultimately  terminating  in  the  air-cells.  Tbe  bronchial  tubes  are 
formed  much  the  same  as  the  windpipe,  consisting  of  a  base  of  carti- 
laginous rings  with  a  layer  of  fibrous  and  muscular  tissue,  and  lined  in- 
ternally with  a  continuation  of  the  respiratory  mucous  membrane. 

Bronchitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  bronchial  tubes.  The  mucous 
membrane  alone  may  be  afiected,  or  the  inflammation  may  involve  the 
whole  tube.  Bronchitis  aifecting  the  larger  tubes  is  less  serious  than 
when  the  smaller  are  involved.  The  disease  may  be  either  acute  or 
chronic.  The  causes  are  generally  much  the  same  as  for  other  diseases 
of  the  respiratory  organs,  noticed  in  the  beginning  of  this  article.  The 
special  causes  are:  The  inhalation  of  irritating  gases  and  smoke,  and 
fluids  or  solids  gaining  access  to  the  parts.  Bronchitis  is  occasionally 
associated  with  influenza  and  other  specific  fevers.  It  also  supervenes 
on  common  cold  or  sore  throat. 

Synqytoms. — The  animal  appears  dull ;  the  appetite  is  partially  or 
wholly  lost;  the  head  hangs;  the  breathing  is  very  much  quickened; 
the  cough,  at  first  dry,  and  having  somewhat  the  character  of  a  "bark- 
ing cough,"  is  succeeded  in  a  few  days  by  a  moist  rattling  cough  ;  the 
mouth  is  hot;  the  visible  membranes  in  the  nose  are  red;  the  pulse  is 
frequent,  and  during  the  first  stage  is  hard  and  quick,  but  as  the  dis- 
ease advances  becomes  smaller  and  more  frequent.  After  a  few  days  a 
whitish  discharge  from  the  nostrils  ensues ;  sometimes  this  discharge 


109 

is  tinged  with  blood,  and  occasionally  it  may  be  of  a  brownish  or  rusty 
color.  By  auscultation  or  placing  the  ear  to  the  sides  of  the  chest  un- 
natural sounds  can  now  be  heard.  The  air  passing  over  the  inflamed 
surface  causes  a  hissing  or  wheezing  sound  when  the  small  tubes  are 
affected,  and  a  hoarse,  cooing,  or  snoring  sound  when  the  larger  tube? 
are  involved.  After  one  or  two  days  the  dry  stage  of  the  disease  is 
succeeded  by  a  moist  state  of  the  membrane.  The  ear  now  detects  a 
different  sound,  caused  by  the  bursting  of  the  bubbles  as  the  air  passes 
through  the  fluid,  which  is  the  exudate  of  inflammation  and  the  aug- 
mented mucous  secretions  of  the  membrane.  The  mucus  may  be  secreted 
in  great  abundance,  which,  by  blocking  up  the  tubes,  may  cause  a  col- 
lapse of  a  large  extent  of  breathing  surface.  Usuall}^  the  mucus  is  ex- 
pectorated, that  is,  discharged  through  the  nose.  The  matter  is  coughed 
up,  and  when  it  reaches  the  larynx  much  of  it  may  be  swallowed,  or,  as 
the  case  may  be,  discharged  from  the  nostrils.  The  horse  can  not  spit 
like  the  human  being,  nor  does  the  matter  coughed  up  gain  access  to 
the  mouth.  In  serious  cases  all  the  symptoms  become  aggravated. 
The  breathing  is  labored,  short,  quick,  but  not  painful.  It  is  both 
thoracic  and  abdominal.  The  ribs  rise  and  fall  much  more  than  nat- 
ural. This  fact  alone  is  enough  to  exclude  the  idea  that  the  animal  may 
be  affected  with  pleurisy,  because,  in  pleurisj^  the  ribs  are  as  nearly 
fixed  as  in  the  power  of  the  animal  to  do  so,  and  the  breathing  accom- 
plished to  a  great  extent  bj'  aid  of  the  abdominal  muscles.  The  horse 
persists  in  standing  throughout  the  attack.  He  prefers  to  stand  with 
head  to  a  door  or  window  to  gain  all  the  fresh  air  possible,  but  may 
occasionally  wander  listlessly  about  the  stall  if  not  tied.  The  bowels 
most  likely  are  constipated;  the  dung  is  covered  with  slimy  mucus. 
This  appearance  of  the  dung  is  usually  defined  by  stablemen  to  be 
"cold  on  the  bowels,"  or  "dung  covered  with  cold."  The  urine  is 
decreased  in  quantity  and  darker  in  color  than  usual.  The  animal 
shows  more  or  less  thirst;  in  some  cases  the  mouth  is  full  of  saliva. 
The  discharge  from  the  nose  increases  in  quantity  as  the  disease  ad- 
vances and  inflammation  subsides.  This  is  rather  a  good  symptom,  as  it 
shows  one  stage  has  passed.  The  discharge  then  gradually  decreases, 
the  cough  becomes  less  rasping  but  of  more  frequent  occurrence  until 
it  gradually  disappears  with  the  return  of  health. 

Bronchitis,  affecting  the  smaller  tubes,  is  one  of  the  most  fatal 
diseases,  while  that  of  the  larger  tubes  is  never  very  serious.  It  must 
be  stated,  however,  that  it  is  an  exceedingly  difficult  matter  for  a  non- 
expert to  discriminate  between  the  two  forms,  and  further,^it  may  as 
well  be  said  here  that  the  non-expert  will  have  difficulty  in  discrimi- 
nating between  bronchitis  and  j)neumonia.  Therefore  the  writer  will 
endeavor  to  point  out  a  course  of  treatment  in  each  disease  that  will 
positively  benefit  either  affection  if  the  reader  happens  to  be  mistaken 
in  his  diagnosis.  The  critic  may  say  that  this  plan  is  not  a  truly  scien- 
tific method  of  treating  disease.    The  only  reply  necessary  to  be  made 


110 

is  that  this  series  of  articles  is  intended  to  be  of  practical  value  to  the 
borse-ow^uing  public,  aud  is  in  no  manner  intended  as  a  text-book  for 
experts  and  those  already  acquainted  with  the  technical  literature  on 
the  subject.  Scientific  terms  which  would  make  the  work  easy  for  the 
author  would  only  tend  to  make  it  valueless  to  the  general  reader. 
Likewise  a  different  prescription  for  each  form  and  stage  of  the  affec- 
tion would  only  confuse  a  person  who  is  unable  to  appreciate  the  various 
phases  of  the  disease. 

Treatment.— Oi  first  importance  is  to  insure  a  pure  atmosphere  to 
breathe,  and  next  to  make  the  patient's  quarters  as  comfortable  as  pos- 
sible. A  well  ventilated  box-stall  serves  best  for  all  purposes.  Cover 
the  body  with  a  blanket,  light  or  heavy  as  the  season  of  the  year  de- 
mands. Hand  rub  the  legs  until  they  are  warm,  then  apply  flannel  or 
Derby  bandages  from  the  hoofs  to  the  knees  and  hocks.  If  the  legs 
can  not  be  made  warm  with  hand  rubbing  alone,  apply  the  liniment 
recommended  in  the  treatment  of  sore  throat.  Rub  in  thoroughly  and 
then  put  on  the  bandages.  Also,  rub  the  same  liniment  well  over  the 
side  of  the  chest,  behind  the  elbow  and  shoulder-blade,  covering  the 
space  beginning  immediately  behind  the  elbow  and  shoulder-blade  and 
running  back  about  18  inches,  and  from  the  elbow  below  to  within  5  or 
6  inches  of  the  ridge  of  the  backbone  above.  Repeat  the  application 
to  the  side  of  the  chest  about  5  days  after  the  first  one  is  applied. 

Compel  the  animal  to  inhale  steam  as  advised  for  cold  in  the  head. 
In  each  bucketful  of  boiling  water  put  a  tablespoouful  of  oil  of  turpen- 
tine. This  medicated  vapor  coming  in  direct  contact  with  the  inflamed 
bronchial  tubes  is  of  much  greater  benefit  than  can  be  imagined  by  one 
who  has  not  experienced  its  good  effect.  In  serious  cases  the  steam 
should  be  inhaled  every  hour,  and  in  any  case  the  oftener  it  is  done  the 
greater  will  be  the  beneficial  results.  Three  times  a  day  administer 
the  following  drench:  Solution  of  the  acetate  of  ammonia,  Bounces; 
spiiits  of  nitrous  ether,  2  ounces;  bicarbonate  of  potassium,  one-half 
ounce;  water,  1  pint.  Care  must  be  used  in  drenching.  If  it  greatly 
excites  the  horse  it  is  best  not  to  push  it.  If  you  see  that  it  does  harm 
do  not  persist  in  making  the  animal  worse.  Be  satisfied  with  dissolv- 
ing one-half  ounce  of  bicarbonate  of  potassium  in  every  bucketful 
of  water  the  animal  will  drink.  It  is  well  to  keep  a  bucketful  of 
cold  water  before  the  animal  all  the  time.  If  the  horse  is  prostrated 
and  has  no  appetite  give  the  following  drench :  Spirits  of  nitrous  ether, 

2  ounces;  rectified  spirits,  3  ounces;  water,  1  pint.  Repeat  the  dose 
every  four  or  five  hours  if  it  appears  to  benefit.  When  the  horse  is 
hard  to  drench,  and  if  you  have  some  one  about  who  is  expert  in  ad- 
ministering balls,  give  the  following:  Pulverized  carbonate  of  ammonia, 

3  drams;  linseed  meal  and  molasses  sufficient  to  make  the  whole  into 
a  stiff  mass  ;  wrap  it  with  a  small  piece  of  tissue  paper  and  it  is  ready 
to  administer.  This  ball  may  be  repeated  ievery  four  or  five  hours. 
When  giving  the  ball  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  its  breaking  in 


Ill 

the  mouth,  as  in  case  of  such  accident  it  will  make  the  mouth  sore, 
which  may  prevent  the  animal  from  eating.  If  the  bowels  are  consti- 
pated give  enemas  of  warm  water..  Do  not  give  purgative  medicines. 
Do  not  Weed  the  animal.  Depressing  treatment  only  helps  to  bring  on 
a  fatal  termination. 

If  the  animal  retains  an  appetite  a  soft  diet  is  preferable,  such  as 
scalded  oats,  bran  mashes,  and  grass  if  in  season.  If  he  refuses  cooked 
food  allow  in  small  quantities  anything  he  will  eat.  Hay,  corn,  oats, 
bread,  apples,  carrots  may  all  be  tried  in  turn.  Some  horses  will  drink 
sweet  milk  when  they  refuse  all  other  kinds  of  food,  and  especially  is 
this  the  case  if  the  drinking  water  is  withheld  for  awhile.  One  or  two 
gallons  at  a  time,  four  or  five  times  a  day,  will  support  life.  Bear  in 
mind  that  when  tlie  disease  is  established  it  will  run  its  course,  which 
may  be  from  two  to  three  weeks,  or  even  longer.  Good  nursing  and 
patience  are  required. 

When  the  symptoms  have  abated  and  nothing  remains  of  the  disease 
except  the  cough  and  a  white  discharge  from  the  nostrils,  all  other 
medicines  should  be  discontinued  and  a  course  of  tonic  treatment  pur- 
sued. Give  the  following  mixture:  Pulverized  sulphate  of  iron,  3 
ounces;  powdered  gentian,  8  ounces;  mix  well  together  and  divide  into 
sixteen  powders.  Give  a  powder  every  night  and  morning  mixed  with 
bran  and  oats,  if  the  animal  will  eat  it,  or  shaken  with  about  a  pint  of 
water  and  administered  as  a  drench. 

If  the  cough  remains  for  a  length  of  time  that  leads  you  to  think  it 
will  become  chronic,  say  three  or  four  weeks  after  the  horse  is  appar- 
ently well,  apply  the  liniment  to  the  throat  and  down  over  the  wind- 
pipe and  over  the  breast.  Rub  it  in  thoroughly  once  a  day  until  three 
or  four  applications  are  made.  Also  give  1  dram  of  iodide  of  potassium 
dissolved  in  a  bucketful  of  drinking  water,  one  hour  before  each  meal 
for  two  or  three  weeks  if  necessary.  Do  not  put  the  animal  at  work  too 
soon  after  recovery.  Allow  ample  time  to  regain  strength.  This  dis- 
ease is  prone  to  become  chronic  and  may  run  into  an  incurable  case  of 
thick  wind. 

It  has  been  stated  that  it  will  be  a  difficult  matter  for  the  non-pro- 
fessional to  discriminate  between  bronchitis  and  pneumonia.  In  fact 
the  two  diseases  are  often  associated,  constituting  broncho-pneumonia; 
therefore,  the  reader  should  carefully  study  the  symptoms  and  treat- 
ment of  pneumonia. 

CHRONIC  BRONCHITIS. 

This  may  be  due  to  the  same  causes  as  acute  bronchitis,  or  it  may 
follow  the  latter  disease.  An  attack  of  the  chronic  form  is  liable  to  be 
converted  into  acute  bronchitis  by  a  very  slight  cause.  This  chronic 
affection  in  most  instances  is  associated  with  thickening  of  the  walls  of 
the  tubes.  Its  course  is  slower,  it  is  less  severe,  and  is  not  accom- 
panied with  as  much  fever  as  the  acute  form.     If  the  animal  is  exerted 


112 

the  breathing  becomes  quickened  and  he  soon  shows  signs  of  exhaus- 
tion. In  many  instances  the  animal  keeps  up  strength  and  appearances 
moderately  well,  but  in  other  cases  the  appetite  is  lost,  flesh  gradually 
disappears,  and  the  horse  becomes  emaciated  and  debilitated.  It  is  ac- 
companied by  a  cough,  which  in  some  cases  is  a  husk^',  smothered,  or 
muffled  excuse  for  a  cough,  while  in  other  cases  the  cough  is  hard  and 
clear.  A  whitish  matter  is  discharged  from  the  nose,  which  may  be 
curdled  in  some  instances.  If  the  ear  is  placed  against  the  chest  be- 
hind the  shoulder  blade,  the  rattle  of  the  air  passing  through  themucus 
can  be  heard  within.  It  is  stated  that  the  right  side  of  the  heart  may 
become  enlarged  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  easily  felt  beating  by  plac- 
ing the  hand  against  the  chest  behind  the  right  elbow. 

Treatment. — Generally  the  horse  is  kept  at  work  when  he  is  affected 
with  this  form  of  bronchial  trouble,  as  the  owner  says  "he  has  only  a 
deep  cold.  "  It  is  true  that  some  authorities  express  the  opinion  that 
work  does  no  harm,  but  they  are  mistaken.  Rest  is  necessary,  if  a  cure 
is  desired,  as  even  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  a  cure  is 
difficult  to  effect.  The  animal  can  not  stand  exertion,  and  should  not 
be  compelled  to  undergo  it.  Besides,  there  is  a  great  probability  of 
acute  bronchitis  supervening  at  any  time. 

The  animal  should  have  much  the  same  general  care  and  medical 
treatment  prescribed  for  the  acute  form ;  if  material  benefit  has  not 
been  derived  give  the  following :  Powdered  nux  vomica,  3  ounces ; 
powdered  arsenic,  70  grains;  powdered  sulphate  of  copper,  3  ounces; 
mix  together  and  divide  into  thirty-four  powders.  Give  a  i)owder  mixed 
with  bran  and  oats  every  nigbt  and  morning.  An  application  of 
mustard  ap])lied  to  the  breast  is  a  beneficial  adjunct.  If  all  other  treat- 
ment fails,  try  the  following  combination,  recommended  by  a  good  au- 
thority: Hydrocyanic  acid  (Scheele's  strength),  20  minims;  nitrate  of 
potassium,  3  drams  ;  bicarbonate  of  soda,  1  ounce ;  water,  1  pint.  This 
dose  should  be  given  every  morning  and  evening  for  one  or  two  weeks, 
if  necessary. 

The  diet  should  be  the  most  nourishing.  Bad  food  is  harmful  at 
any  time,  but  especially  in  this  disease.  Avoid  bulky  food.  Linseed 
mashes,  scalded  oats,  grass  and  green-blade  fodder,  if  in  season,  is  the 
best  diet. 

THE  LUNGS. 


The  lungs  are  the  essential  organs  of  respiration.  They  consist  of 
two  (right  and  left)  spongy  masses,  commonly  called  the  "  lights," 
situated  entirely  within  the  thoracic  cavity.  On  account  of  the  space 
taken  up  by  the  heart,  the  left  lung  is  the  smaller.  Externally,  they 
are  completely  covered  by  the  pleura.  The  structure  of  the  lung  con- 
sists of  a  light,  soft,  but  very  strong  and  remarkably  elastic  tissue, 
which  can  only  be  torn  with  difficulty.  The  lung  of  the  foetus 
which  has  never  respired  will  sink  if  placed  in  water,  but  after  the 


113 

iuii<'  has  been  inflated  with  air  it  will  float  on  water  so  long  as  healthy. 
This  fact  is  made  useful  iu  deciding  whether  or  not  an  animal  was  born 
dead  or  died  after  its  birth.  Each  lung  is  divided  into  a  certain  num- 
ber of  lobes,  which  are  subdivided  into  numberless  lobules  (little  lobes). 
A  little  bronchial  tube  terminates  in  every  one  of  these  small  lobules. 
The  little  tube  then  divides  into  minute  branches  which  open  into  the 
air-cells  (pulmonary  vesicles)  of  the  lungs.  The  air-cells  are  little  sacs 
having  a  diameter  varying  from  one-seventieth  to  one-two-huudredth 
of  an  inch ;  they  have  but  one  opening,  the  communication  with  the 
branches  of  the  little  bronchial  tubes.  Small  blood-vessels  ramify- 
in  the  walls  of  the  air-cells.  The  walls  of  the  air-cells  are  extremely 
thin  and  consist  of  two  layers ;  the  blood-vessels,  being  between  the 
layers,  thus  expose  a  surface  to  the  air  in  two  different  cells.  The 
air-cells  are  the  consummation  of  the  intricate  structures  forming  the 
respiratory  apjiaratus.  They  are  of  prime  importance,  all  the  rest  be- 
ing complementary.  It  is  within  these  cells  that  is  accomplished  all  that 
constitutes  the  ultimate  result  of  the  function  of  respiration.  It  is  here 
the  exchange  of  gases  takes  place.  As  before  stated,  the  walls  of  the 
cells  arc  very  thin  ;  so,  also,  are  the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels.  Through 
these  walls  escapes  from  the  blood  the  carbonic-acid  gas  that  has  been 
absorbed  by  the  blood  in  its  circulation  through  the  different  parts  of 
the  body ;  and  through  these  walls  is  absorbed  by  the  blood,  from  the 
air  iu  the  air-cells,  the  oxygen  gas  which  is  the  life-giving  element  of 
the  atmosphere. 

Throughout  the  substance  of  the  lungs  the  bronchial  tubes  terminate 
in  the  air-cells.  Blood-vessels  are  in  every  part ;  likewise  lymphatic 
vessels  and  nerves,  which  require  no  more  than  mention  iu  this  paper. 

To  give  a  rude  idea  of  the  arrangement  of  the  respiratory  apparatus 
as  a  whole,  we  may  profitably  compare  it  to  a  tree,  for  the  want  of  a 
better  illustration.  Say  that  all  the  respiratory  tract  from  the  nasal 
openings  back  to  the  pharynx  are  the  roots  in  the  ground  ;  the  larynx 
may  be  compared  to  the  large  part  of  the  trunk  just  above  the  earth  ; 
the  windpipe  will  represent  the  body  or  the  bole  of  the  tree ;  the  right 
and  left  bronchi  may  be  considered  the  first  two  or  largest  limbs ; 
the  bronchial  tubes  are  then  comparable  to  all  the  rest  of  the  limbs, 
branches  and  twigs,  gradually  becoming  smaller  and  branching  out 
more  frequently,  until  the  smallest  twigs  terminate  by  having  a  leaf 
appended;  and  to  complete  the  comparison  we  may  as  well  say  the 
leaf  will  do  to  represent  the  air-cells.  Now,  imagine  all  parts  in  and 
around  the  limbs,  branches,  twigs,  and  leaves  filled  in  with  some  ma- 
terial (say  cotton  or  tow)  and  the  whole  covered  over  with  silk  or  satin 
to  about  the  beginning  of  the  branches  on  each  of  the  first  two  large 
limbs.  The  cotton  or  tow  represents  the  lung-tissue  and  the  silk  or 
satin  covering  will  represent  the  pleura.  It  must  be  admitted  that  this 
is  rather  a  rough  way  to  handle  such  delicate  structures,  but  if  the 
reader  is  possessed  of  a  good  imagination  he  may  gain,  at  least,  a  com- 
11035 8 


114 

"prehension  of  the  subject  that  will  sufiSce  for  the  purpose  of  being  bet- 
ter able  to  lucate  the  various  diseases  and  appreciate  the  mechanism  of 
the  respiratory  organs  in  their  relations  to  each  other. 

CONGESTION   OF   THE   LUNGS. 

Inflammation  of  the  lungs  is  always  preceded  by  congestion,  or,  to 
make  it  plainer,  congestion  may  be  considered  as  the  first  stage  of  in- 
flammation. Congestion  is  essentially  an  excess  of  blootl  in  the  vessels 
of  the  parts  affected.  Congestion  of  the  lungs  in  the  horse,  when  it 
exists  as  an  independent  affection,  is  generally  caused  by  overexertion 
when  the  animal  is  not  in  a  fit  condition  to  undergo  more  than  moder- 
ate exercise. 

The  methods  practiced  by  the  trainers  of  running  and  trotting  horses 
will  give  an  idea  of  what  is  termed  "  putting  a  horse  in  condition"  to 
stand  severe  exertion.  The  animal  at  first  gets  walking  exercises,  then 
after  some  time  he  is  made  to  go  faster  and  farther  each  day;  the 
amount  of  work  is  daily  increased  until  the  horse  is  said  to  be  "  in  condi- 
tion." An  animal  so  prepared  runs  no  risk  of  being  afiFected  with  con- 
gestion of  the  lungs  if  he  is  otherwise  healthy.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
the  horse  is  kept  in  the  stable  for  the  purpose  of  laying  on  fat  or  for 
want  of  something  to  do,  the  muscular  system  becomes  soft,  and  the 
horse  is  not  in  condition  to  stand  the  severe  exertion  of  going  fast  or 
far,  no  matter  how  healthy  he  may  be  in  other  respects.  If  such  a 
horse  be  given  a  hard  ride  or  drive,  he  may  start  off  in  high  spirits, 
but  soon  becomes  exhausted,  and  if  he  is  pushed  he  will  slacken  his 
pace,  show  a  desire  to  stop,  and  may  stagger  or  even  fall.  Examina- 
tion will  show  the  nostrils  dilated,  the  flanks  heaving,  the  countenance 
haggard,  and  every  other  appearance  of  sufibcation.  How  was  this 
brought  about!  The  heart  and  muscles  were  not  accustomed  to  the 
sudden  and  severe  strain  put  upon  them;  the  heart  became  unable  to 
perform  its  work;  the  blood  accumulated  in  the  vessels  of  the  lungs, 
which  eventually  became  engorged  with  the  stagnated  blood,  consti- 
tuting congestion  of  the  lungs. 

The  animal,  after  having  undergone  severe  exertion,  may  not  exhibit 
any  alarming  symptoms  until  returned  to  the  stable;  then  he  will  be 
noticed  standing  with  his  head  down,  legs  spread  out,  the  eyes  wildly 
staring  or  dull  and  sunken.  The  breathing  is  very  rapid  and  almost 
gasping,  the  body  is  covered  with  perspiration  in  most  cases,  which, 
however,  may  soon  evaporate,  leaving  the  surface  of  the  body  and  the 
legs  and  ears  cold;  the  breathing  is  both  abdominal  and  thoracic;  the 
chest  rises  and  falls  and  the  flanks  are  powerfully  brought  into  action. 
If  the  pulse  can  be  felt  at  all  it  will  be  found  beating  very  frequently, 
one  hundred  or  more  to  a  minute.  The  heart  may  be  felt  tumultuously 
thumping  if  the  hand  is  placed  against  the  chest  behind  the  left  elbow, 
or  it  may  be  scarcely  perceptible.  The  animal  may  tremble  all  over  the 
body.  If  the  ear  is  placed  against  the  side  of  the  chest  a  loud  murmur 
will  be  heard,  and  perhaps  a  fine  crackling  sound. 


115 

No  intelligent  person  should  fail  to  recognize  a  case  of  congestion  of 
the  lungs  when  brought  on  by  overexertion,  as  the  history  oi  the  case  is 
sufficient  to  point  out  the  ailment.  The  disease  may  also  arise  from 
want  of  sufficient  pure  air  in  stables  that  are  badly  ventilated.  In  all 
cases  of  suflbcation  the  lungs  are  congested.  It  is  also  seen  in  connec- 
tion with  other  diseases. 

Treatment.— If  the  animal  is  attacked  by  the  disease  while  on  the  road 
stop  him  immediately.  Do  not  attempt  to  return  to  the  stables.  If  he 
is  in  the  stable  make  arrangements  at  once  to  insure  an  unlimited  sup- 
ply of  pure  air.  If  the  weather  is  warm,  out  in  the  open  g,ir  is  the  best 
place,  but  if  too  cold  kt  him  stand  with  head  to  the  door.  By  no  means 
have  him  walked,  as  is  sometimes  done.  Let  him  stand  still  j  he  has  all 
he  can  do  if  he  obtains  sufficient  pure  air  to  sustain  life.  If  he  is  en- 
cumbered with  harness  or  saddle  remove  it  at  once  and  begin  rub- 
bing the  body  with  cloths  or  wisps  of  hay  or  straw.  This  stimulates 
the  circulation  in  the  skin,  and  thus  aids  in  relieving  the  lungs  of  the 
extra  quantity  of  blood  that  is  stagnated  there.  If  you  have  three  or 
four  assistants  let  them  go  to  work  with  enthusiasm,  rub  the  body  and 
legs  well,  until  the  skin  feels  natural;  rub  the  legs  until  they  are  warm, 
if  possible;  rub  in  over  the  cold  part  of  the  legs  an  application  of  the 
liniment  recommended  for  the  same  purpose  in  the  treatment  of  bron- 
chitis, but  do  not  apply  it  to  the  chest.  When  the  circulation  is  re-es- 
tablished, put  bandages  on  the  legs  from  the  hoofs  up  as  far  as  possible. 
Throw  a  blanket  over  the  body  and  let  the  rubbing  be  done  under  the 
blanket.  Diffusible  stimulants  are  tHe  medicines  indicated.  Brandy, 
whisky  (or  even  ale  or  beer  if  nothing  else  is  at  hand),  ether,  and  tinct- 
ure of  arnica  are  all  useful.  Two  ounces  each  of  spirits  of  nitrous  ether 
and  alcohol,  given  as  a  drench,  diluted  with  a  pint  of  water,  every  hour 
until  relief  is  afforded,  is  among  the  best  of  remedies.  But  if  it  takes  too 
long  to  obtain  this  mixture,  give  a  quarter  of  a  pint  of  whisky  in  a  pint 
of  water  every  hour,  or  the  same  quantity  of  brandy  as  often,  or  a  quart 
of  ale  every  hour,  or  an  ounce  of  tincture  of  arnica  in  a  pint  of  water 
every  hour  until  five  or  six  doses  have  been  given.  If  none  of  these 
remedies  are  at  hand,  3  ounces  of  oil  of  turpentine,  shaken  with  a  half 
pint  of  milk,  may  be  given.  This  will  have  a  beneficial  effect  until  more 
applicable  remedies  are  obtained.  A  tablespoonful  of  aqua  ammonia 
(hartshorn),  diluted  with  a  pint  of  water  and  given  as  a  drench  every 
hour,  has  undoubtedly  been  of  great  service  in  saving  life  when  noth- 
ing else  could  be  obtained  in  time  to  be  used  with  benefit.  If  the  fore- 
going treatment  fails  to  be  followed  by  a  marked  improvement  after 
seven  or  eight  hours'  perseverance,  the  animal  may  be  bled  from  the 
jugular  vein.  Do  not  take  more  than  5  or  6  quarts  from  the  vein,  and 
do  not  repeat  the  bleeding.  The  blood  thus  drawn  will  have  a  tarry 
appearance. 

When  the  alarming  symptoms  have  subsided  active  measures  may 
be  stopped,  but  care  must  be  used  in  the  general  treatment  of  the  ani- 


116 

mal  for  several  days,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  congestion  may 
be  followed  by  pneumonia.  The  animal  should  have  a  comfortable 
stall,  where  he  will  not  be  subjected  to  draughts  or  sudden  changes  of 
temperature  ;  he  should  be  blanketed  and  the  legs  kept  bandaged.  The 
air  should  be  pure,  a  plentiful  supply  of  fresh  cold  water  always  before 
him,  and  a  diet  composed  principally  of  bran  mashes,  scalded  oats,  and 
grass,  if  in  season.  When  ready  for  use  again  he  should  at  first  receive 
moderate  exercise  only,  which  may  be  daily  increased  until  he  may 
safely  be  put  at  regular  work. 

APOPLEXY   OF   THE   LUNGS. 

This  is  but  another  term  for  congestion  of  the  lungs,  and  for  practi- 
cal purposes  needs  no  special  description,  except  to  remark  that  when  a 
hemorrhage  occurs  during  the  congested  state  of  the  lungs  the  blood 
escapes  from  the  ruptured  vessels  and  extravasates  into  the  lung  tissue. 
Such  cases  are  called  pulmonary  apoplexy,  and  usually  occur  during 
the  course  of  some  specific  disease. 

PNEUMONIA — LUNG  FEVER. 

Pneumonia  may  attack  both  lungs,  but  as  a  general  rule  one  lung 
only  is  affected,  and  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  it  is  the  right  lung. 
The  air-cells  are  the  parts  affected  principally,  but  the  minute  branches 
of  the  bronchial  tubes  always,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  are  involved 
in  the  inflammation.  Inflaoimation  of  the  lungs  occurs  in  three  princi- 
pal varieties,  but  in  a  work  of  this  kind  there  is  no  necessity  to  dis- 
crimiuate,  and  therefore  the  disease  will  be  described  under  a  common 
head.  It  already  has  been  mentioned  that  pneumonia  may  be  compli- 
cated  with  bronchitis,  and  it  will  hereafter  be  pointed  out  that  it  is  very 
commonly  complicated  with  pleurisy.  In  this  article  the  disease  will 
be  considered  mainly  as  an  independent  affection,  and  its  complications 
will  be  more  fully  described  under  separate  heads. 

The  inflammation  usually  begins  in  the  lower  part  of  the  lung  and 
extends  upwards.     The  first  stage  of  the  disease  consists  of  congestion 
or  engorgement  of  the  blood-vessels,  and  if  this  condition  continues  the 
blood  exudes  from  the  vessels  into  the  adjacent  lung  tissue;  if  rupture 
of  small  blood  vessels  occurs  there  will  be  extravasations  of  blood  in 
the  contiguous  parts.     The  fluids  thus  escaping  collect  in  the  air-cells 
and  in  the  minute  branches  of  the  little  bronchial  tubes,  and,  becoming 
coagulated  there,  completely  block  up  the  cells  and  exclude  the  air. 
In  this  condition  the  lung  is  increased  in  volume  and  is  much  heavier, 
and  will  sink  in  water.     The  pleura  covering  the  affected  parts  is  al- 
ways more  or  less  inflamed.     A  continuance  of  the  foregoing  phenom- 
ena is  marked  by  a  further  escape  of  the  constituents  of  the  blood,  and 
a  change  in  the  membrane  of  the  cells,  which  become  swollen.     The 
exudate  that  fills  the  air-cells  and  minute  bronchial  branches  undergoes 
disintegration,  and  is  converted  into  a  fatty  material.     The  walls  of  the 
cells  almost  invariably  remain  unaltered. 

It  must  not  be  imagined  that  the  foregoing  changes  take  place  in 


117 

a  uniform  manner.  While  one  portion  is  only  congested  another  part 
may  be  undergoing  disintegration,  while  still  another  part  may  be 
involved  in  the  exudative  stage. 

The  usual  termination  of  iineumonia  is  in  resolution,  that  is,  a  res- 
toration to  health.  This  is  gradually  brought  about  by  the  exuded 
material  contained  in  the  air-cells  and  lung  tissues  becoming  degen- 
erated into  fatty  and  a  mucus-like  substance  which  are  removed  by 
absorption.  The  blood  vessels  return  to  their  natural  state  and  the 
blood  circulates  iu  them  as  before.  Much  material,  the  result  of  the 
inflammatory  process,  is  also  gotten  rid  of  by  expectoration,  or  rather 
(in  the  horse)  by  discharge  from  the  nostrils.  In  the  cases  that  do 
not  terminate  so  happily  the  lung  may  become  gangrenous  (or  mor- 
tified), or  an  abscess  may  form,  or  the  disease  may  be  merged  into 
the  chronic  variety. 

Pneumonia  may  be  directly  induced  by  any  of  the  influences  named 
as  general  causes  for  diseases  of  the  organs  of  respiration,  but  in 
many  instances  it  is  due  to  either  willful  neglect  or  ignorance.  A 
common  cold  or  sore  throat  may  run  into  a  fatal  case  of  pneumonia  if 
neglected  or  improperly  treated.  An  animal  may  be  debilitated  by  a 
cold,  and  when  iu  this  weakened  state  may  be  compelled  to  undergo 
exertion  beyond  his  strength ;  or  he  may  be  kept  in  bad  quarters,  such 
as  a  badly  ventilated  stable,  where  the  foul  gases  are  shut  in  and  the 
pure  air  is  shut  out;  or  the  stable  may  be  so  open  that  i)art8  of  the 
body  are  exposed  to  draughts  of  cold  air.  Either  of  the  foregoing 
causes  may  induce  congestion  of  the  lungs  in  an  animal  predisposed  to 
it  on  account  of  having  already  a  disease  of  the  respiratory  organs. 
The  congestion  is  soon  followed  by  the  other  stages  of  inflammation, 
and  a  case  of  pneumonia  is  established  with  a  tendency  to  a  fatal  ter- 
mination, as  it  is  altogether  likely  the  animal  will  be  so  much  reduced 
iu  constitution  as  to  be  unable  to  fight  off  a  collapse.  An  animal  is 
predisposed  to  pneumonia  when  debilitated  by  any  constitutional  dis- 
ease, and  especially  during  convalescence  if  exposed  to  any  of  the  ex- 
citing causes.  Foreign  bodies,  such  as  food,  accidentally  getting  in 
the  lungs  by  way  of  the  windpipe,  as  well  as  the  inhalation  of  irritating 
gases  and  smoke,  ofttimes  produce  fatal  attacks  of  inflammation  of  the 
lung  and  bronchial  tubes.  Pneumonia  is  frequently  seen  in  connection 
with  other  diseases,  such  as  influenza,  purpura  hemorrhagica,  strangles, 
glanders,  etc.  An  abnormal  state  of  the  blood  predisposes  to  it. 
Pneumonia  and  pleurisy  are  most  common  during  cold,  damp  weather, 
and  especially  during  the  prevalence  of  the  cold  north  and  northeast- 
erly winds.     Wounds  puncturing  the  thoracic  cavity  may  induce  it. 

Symptoms. — Pneumonia,  when  a  primary  disease,  is  ushered  in  by  a 
chill,  more  or  less  prolonged,  which  in  most  cases  is  seen  neither  by  the 
owner  nor  the  attendant,  but  is  overlooked.  The  breathing  becomes 
accelerated,  and  the  animal  hangs  its  head  and  has  a  very  dull  appear- 
ance. The  mouth  is  hot  and  has  a  sticky  feeling  to  the  touch;  the  heat 
conveyed  to  the  finger  iu  the  mouth  demonstrates  a  fever;  if  the  ther- 


118 

moraeter  is  placed  in  the  rectnm  the  temperature  will  be  found  to  have 
risen  to  103°  F.,  or  higher.  The  i)ulse  is  very  frequent,  beating  from 
seventy  or  eighty  to  one  hundred  or  more  a  minute;  the  character  of 
the  pulse  varies  very  much;  it  may  be  hard  or  feeble,  large  or  small, 
intermitting,  etc.  There  is  usually  a  dry  cough  from  the  beginning, 
which,  however,  changes  in  character  as  the  disease  advances;  for  in- 
stance it  may  become  moist,  or  if  pleurisy  sets  in  the  cough  will  be 
peculiar  to  the  latter  affection,  that  is,  cut  short  in  the  endeavor  to  sup- 
press it.  In  some  cases  the  discharge  from  the  nostrils  is  tinged  with 
blood,  while  in  other  cases  it  has  the  appearance  of  matter.  The  ap- 
petite is  lost  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  but  the  desire  for  water  is 
increased,  particularly  during  the  onset  of  the  fever.  The  membrane 
within  the  nostrils  is  red  and  at  first  dry,  but  sooner  or  later  becomes 
moist.  The  legs  are  cold.  The  bowels  are  more  or  less  constipated, 
and  what  dung  is  passed  is  usually  covered  with  a  slimy  mucus.  The 
uriue  is  passed  in  smaller  quantities  than  usual  and  is  of  a  darker  color. 

The  animal  prefers  to  have  the  head  where  the  freshest  air  can  be 
obtained.  When  affected  with  pnenmonia  a  horse  does  not  lie  down, 
but  persists  in  standing  from  the  beginning  of  the  attack.  However, 
if  pneumonia  is  complicated  with  pleurisy  the  horse  may  appear  restless 
and  lie  down  for  a  few  moments  to  gain  relief  from  the  pleuritic  pains, 
but  he  soon  rises.  In  pneumonia  the  breathing  is  very  rapid,  and  some- 
times even  the  most  negligent  observer  will  notice  that  it  is  difficult,  but 
when  the  pneumonia  is  complicated  with  pleurisy  the  ribs  are  kept  as 
still  as  possible  and  the  breathing  is  abdominal,  that  is,  the  abdominal 
muscles  are  now  made  to  do  as  much  of  the  work  as  they  can  perform. 
Remember  if  pleurisy  is  not  present  there  is  no  pain.  To  the  ordinary 
observer  the  animal  may  not  appear  dangerously  ill,  as  he  does  not  show 
the  seriousness  of  the  ailment  by  violence,  as  in  colic,  but  a  careful  ob- 
server will  discover  at  a  glance  that  the  trouble  is  something  more 
serious  than  a  cold. 

If  the  reader  has  practiced  auscultation  and  percussion  sufficiently  to 
discriminate  the  sounds,  or  absence  of  sounds,  of  the  diseased  lung  from 
the  sounds  of  the  normal  lung,  he  may  still  further  satisfy  himself  in 
diagnosing  the  ailment.  When  the  lung  is  healthy,  if  the  chest  is 
knocked  on,  a  more  or  less  resonant  sound  is  emitted,  according  to  the 
part  struck  ;  but  when  the  air  cells  are  filled  with  the  exudate  of  in- 
tlamraation,  and  the  surrounding  lung  tissue  contains  the  exudate  and 
extravasated  blood,  the  air  is  excluded,  and  the  part  of  the  lung  thus 
affected  is  solidified ;  now,  if  the  chest  is  struck  over  this  solidified  part, 
a  dull  sound  is  obtained.  Therefore,  percussion  not  only  shows  that 
the  lung  is  affected  with  pneumonia,  but  it  points  to  the  spot  affected. 
Moreover,  if  pleurisy  exists  in  conjunction  with  pneumonia,  and  the 
walls  of  the  chest  are  knocked  on  with  a  view  of  gaining  information 
from  the  sounds  elicited,  when  that  part  immediately  over  the  affected 
pleura  is  struck,  the  animal  flinches,  as  the  blowsj  even  if  they  are  but 
moderate,  cause  severe  pain. 


119 

By  auscultation,  listening  to  the  sounds  within  the  cbest,  we  gain 
much  ittformation.  When  the  ear  is  placed  against  the  chest  of  a 
healthy  horse  the  resjjiratory  murmur  is  heard  more  or  less  distinctly, 
according  to  the  part  of  the  chest  that  is  beneath  the  ear.  In  the  very 
first  stag-e  of  pneumonia  this  murmur  is  louder au'd  hoarser;  and,  also, 
there  is  heard  a  fine  crackling  sound  something  similar  to  that  produced 
when  salt  is  thrown  in  a  fire.  After  the  affected  part  becomes  solid 
there  is  an  absence  of  sound  over  that  particular  part.  After  absorp- 
tian  begins,  you  will  again  hear  sounds,  which  gradually  change  until 
the  natural  sound  is  heard  announcing  the  return  of  health. 

When  a  fatal  termination  is  approaching  all  the  symptoms  become  in- 
tensified. The  breathing  becomes  still  more  rapid  and  difficult;  the 
flanks  heave;  the  poor  animal  stares  wildly  about  as  if  imploring  aid  to 
drive  off  the  terrible  feeling  of  suffocation ;  the  body  is  bathed  with  the 
sweat  of  death;  he  staggers,  but  quickly  recovers  his  balance ;  he  may 
now,  for  the  first  time  during  the  attack,  lie  down ;  he  does  so,  how. 
ever,  in  the  hope  of  relief,  which  he  fails  to  find,  and  with  difficulty 
straggles  to  his  feet;  he  pants;  he  heaves  ;  the  nostrils  flap;  he  stag- 
gers and  sways  from  side  to  side  and  backwards  and  forwards,  but  still 
tries  to  retain  the  standing  position,  even  by  propping  himself  against 
the  stall.  Ic  is  no  use,  as  tifter  a  fearful  and  agonizing  fight  for  breath, 
he  goes  down  ;  still  instinct  with  the  desire  to  live  he  makes  a  few  in- 
effectual efforts  to  breathe,  which  only  result  in  a  horrible  wheezing,, 
gasping  noise  ;  the  limbs  stretch  out  and  become  rigid,  and — he  rises  no 
more.  A  bystander  breaks  the  silence  with  the  remark,  "  He  died 
hard."  Such  is  the  usual  death  scene  when  caused  by  pneumonia.  It 
amounts  to  a  veritable  struggle  against  suflbcation.  Death  ensues  usu- 
ally in  from  teu  to  twenty  days  after  the  beginning  of  the  attack.  On 
the  other  hand  when  the  disease  is  terminating  favorably  the  signs  are 
obvious.  When  the  fever  abates  the  animal  gradually  improves  in 
appetite;  he  takes  more  notice  of  things  around  him;  his  spirits  im- 
prove ;  he  has  a  general  appearance  of  returning  health,  and  he  lies 
down  and  rests  easy.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases  pneumonia,  if 
properly  treated,  is  by  no  means  a  fatal  disease. 

Treatment. — The  general  outline  of  the  treatment  is  much  the  same 
as  advised  for  bronchitis.  The  comfort  and  surroundings  of  the  patient 
must  be  attended  to  first.  The  quarters  should  be  the  best  that  can  be 
provided.  Pure  air  is  essential.  Avoid  placing  the  animal  in  a  stall 
where  he  may  be  exposed  to  draughts  of  cold  air  and  sudden  changes 
of  temperature.  Some  authorities  state  that  such  exposure  is  not 
harmful  after  pneumonia  has  set  in,  but  nevertheless  the  reader  is  ad- 
vised to  iiursue  the  conservative  course  and  not  to  experiment.  When 
making  the  stable  comfortably  warm  do  not  prevent  the  access  of  pure 
air.  It  is  much  better  for  the  animal  if  the  air  is  cold  and  pure  than  if 
it  is  warm  and  foul.  It  is  better  to  make  the  animal  comfortable  with 
warm  clothing  than  to  make  the  stable  warm  by  shutting  off  the  ven- 
tilation.    The  animal  should  have  an  unlimited  supply  of  fresh  cold 


120 

drinking  water  from  the  start.  I^lanket  the  body.  Eub  the  legs  until 
they  are  warm  and  then  put  bandages  on  them  from  the  hoofs  up  as 
far  as  they  are  cold.  If  warmth  can  not  be  re-established  in  the  legs 
by  hand-rubbing  alone,  apply  the  liniment  as  recommended  in  the  treat- 
ment of  bronchitis. 

The  bandages  should  be  removed  once  or  twice  every  day,  the  legs 
well  rubbed,  and  the  bandages  re-applied.  Hub  well  over  the  affected 
side  an  application  of  the  liniment  mentioned  in  the  treatment  of  sore 
throat.  The  application  may  be  repeated  in  four  or  five  days.  Do  not 
use  mustard ;  no  doubt  about  its  acting,  and  acting  quickly,  too,  but 
experience  teaches  that  it  is  not  so  good  as  something  less  irritating 
and  more  prolonged  in  its  beneficial  effects.  Much  harm  is  often  done 
by  clipping  off  hair  and  rubbing  in  powerful  escharotic  blistering  com- 
pounds. They  do  positive  injury  and  retard  recovery,  and  should  not 
be  allowed.  Much  benefit  may  be  derived  from  hot  applications  to  the 
sides  of  the  chest  if  the  facilities  are  at  hand  to  app]3"  them.  If  the 
weather  be  not  too  cold,  and  if  the  animal  is  in  a  comfortable  stable,  the 
following  method  may  be  tried  :  Have  a  tub  of  hot  water  handy  to  the 
stable  door  ;  soak  a  woolen  blanket  in  the  water,  then  quickly  wring  as 
much  water  as  possible  out  of  it  and  wrap  it  around  the  chest.  See 
that  it  fits  closely  to  the  skin  ;  do  not  allow  it  to  sag  down  so  that  air 
may  get  between  it  and  the  skin.  Now  wrap  a  dry  blanket  over  the 
wet  hot  one.  The  hot  blanket  should  be  renewed  every  half  hour,  and 
while  it  is  off  being  wetted  and  wrung,  the  dry  one  should  remain  over 
the  wet  part  of  the  chest  to  prevent  reaction.  The  hot  applications 
should  be  kept  up  for  three  or  four  hours,  and  when  stopped,  the  skin 
should  be  quickly  rubbed  as  dry  as  possible,  an  application  of  liniment 
rabbed  over  the  wet  part,  and  a  dry  blanket  snugly  fitted  over  the 
animal ;  and  especial  care  should  be  taken  to  cover  with  it  the  wet  part 
of  the  skin.  If  the  hot  applications  appear  to  benefit,  they  may  be 
tried  on  three  or  four  consecutive  days.  Unless  every  facility  and  cir- 
cumstance favors  the  application  of  heat  in  the  foregoing  manner  do 
not  attempt  it.  If  the  weather  is  very  cold,  or  any  of  the  details  are 
omitted,  more  harm  than  good  may  result.  In  the  majority  of  cases, 
warm  clothing  to  the  body,  bandages  to  the  legs,  and  the  liniment  ap- 
plied to  legs  and  chest  will  suffice. 

It  is  iiossible  that  cases  occur  that  may  be  slightly  benefited  by  bleed- 
ing, but  the  non-expert  is  certainly  unable  to  discriminate  in  such  in- 
stances, and  therefore  blood-letting  should  never  be  practiced.  Indeed, 
many  veterinary  practitioners  of  great  experience  wholly  condemn  the 
practice  of  bleeding  in  pneumonia,  as  positively  hurtful.  When  pneu- 
monia follows  another  disease  the  system  is  always  more  or  less  debili- 
tated, and  requires  the  careful  use  of  stinuilants  from  the  beginning; 
to  still  further  weaken  the  animal  by  tapping  him  (if  the  expression 
may  be  used),  and  letting  escape  in  a  stream  the  very  source  of  his 
remaining  strength,  is  one  of  the  most  effectual  methods  of  retarding 
recovery,  even  if  it  does  not  hasten  a  fatal  termination. 


121 

Another  and  oftentimes  a  fatal  mistake  made  by  the  non-professional 
is  the  indiscriminate  and  reckless  use  of  aconite.  This  drug  is  one  of 
the  most  active  poisons,  and  should  not  be  handled  by  any  one  who 
does  not  thoroughly  understand  its  action  and  uses.  It  is  only  less 
active  than  j^russic  acid  in  its  poisonous  effects.  It  is  a  common  opinion, 
often  expressed  by  non- professionals,  that  aconite  is  a  stimulant;  noth- 
ing could  be  more  erroneous.  In  fact,  it  is  just  Ihe  reverse;  it  is  one 
of  the  most  powerful  sedatives  used  in  the  practice  of  medicine.  In 
fatal  doses  it  kills  by  paralyzing  the  very  muscles  used  in  breathing;  it 
weakens  the  action  of  the  heart,  and  should  not  be  used  in  any  but 
strong  or  sthenic  types  of  inflammation,  and  then  only  by  the  expert. 
After  an  extensive  experience  in  the  treatment  of  pneumonia  in  various 
sections,  from  the  cold  northern  regions  of  Canada  to  the  temperate 
climate  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  the  writer  has  discarded  aconite 
entirely  from  the  list  of  medicines  he  uses  in  the  treatment  of  this  affec- 
tion. Do  not  give  purgative  medicines.  If  constipation  exists,  over- 
come it  by  an  allowance  of  laxative  diet,  such  as  scalded  oats,  bran  and 
linseed  mashes,  and  grass  if  in  season. 

A  careful  observer  will  notice  that  the  dung  passed  by  the  animal  is 
coated  with  mucus  ;  this  is  an  indication  that  (he  bowels  are  in  an  irri- 
table condition  ;  in  fact  they  are  affected  to  a  small  extent  by  the  dis- 
ease. Now,  if  a  purgative  dose  is  administered  the  irritable  state  is 
aggravated ;  they  become  inordinately  active  and  a  diarrhea  or  super- 
purgation  is  established  that  proves  a  most  difficult  matter  to  check. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  the  animal  is  already  weakened  by  an  ex- 
haustive disease,  and  the  "running  oi3f  at  the  bowels"  not  only  still 
further  weakens  the  animal,  but  may  cause  the  bowels  to  become  in- 
flamed, and  thus  insure  a  fatal  termination.  It  is  a  common  practice 
among  non-professionals  to  give  aloes  and  oil  to  a  horse  with  pneu- 
monia, and,  considering  this  fact,  it  is  no  wonder  that  it  proves  such  a 
fatal  disease  in  their  hands.  If  the  costiveness  is  not  relieved  by  the 
laxative  diet,  give  an  enema  of  about  a  quart  of  warm  water  three  or 
four  times  a  day. 

A  diet  consisting  principally  of  bran  mashes,  scalded  oats,  grass  or 
blade  fodder,  when  in  season,  is  preferable  if  the  animal  retains  an 
appetite ;  but  if  no  desire  is  evinced  for  food  of  this  particular  descrip- 
tion, then  the  animal  must  be  allowed  to  eat  anything  that  will  be 
taken  spontaneously.  Hay  tea,  made  by  pouring  boiling  water  over 
good  hay  in  a  large  bucket,  and  allowing  it  to  stand  until  cool,  then 
straining  off  the  liquid,  will  sometimes  create  a  desire  for  food.  The 
animal  may  be  allowed  to  drink  as  much  of  it  as  he  desires.  Corn  on 
the  cob  is  often  eaten  when  everything  else  is  refused.  Bread  may  be 
tried,  also  apples  or  carrots.  If  the  animal  can  be  persuaded  to  drink 
milk  it  may  be  supported  by  it  for  days.  Three  or  four  gallons  of  sweet 
milk  may  be  given  during  the  day,  in  which  may  be  stirred  three  or 
four  fresh  eggs  to  each  gallon  of  milk.  Some  horses  will  drink  milk, 
while  others  will  refuse  to  touch  it.     It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 


122 

all  food  must  be  taken  by  the  liorse  as  lie  desires  it.  No  food  should 
be  forced  down  him.  If  the  animal  will  not  eat,  you  will  only  have  to 
wait  until  a  desire  is  shown  for  food.  All  kinds  may  be  offered,  first 
one  thing  and  then  another,  but  food  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain 
long  in  trough  or  manger ;  the  very  fact  of  it  constantly  being  before 
him  will  cause  him  to  loathe  it.  When  the  animal  has  no  appetite  for 
anything,  the  stomach  is  not  in  a  proper  state  to  digest  food,  and  if  it 
is  poured  or  drenched  into  him  it  will  only  cause  indigestion  and  aggra- 
vate the  case.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  do  nothing  when  there  is  noth- 
ing to  be  done  that  will  benefit.  This  refers  to  medicine  as  well  as 
food.  Nothing  is  well  done  that  is  over  done.  The  following  drench 
should  be  administered  every  six  hours :  Solution  of  the  acetate  of 
ammonia,  3  ounces ;  spirits  of  nitrous  ether,  1  ounce  ;  bicarbonate  of 
potassium,  3  drams ;  water,  1  pint.  Care  should  be  used  in  drenching; 
no  recklessness  such  as  filling  the  mouth  with  medicines,  then  holding 
the  hand  tightly  over  the  nostrils  and  pounding  on  the  throat  and 
wiudi)ipe,  kicking  the  horse  in  the  belly  or  ribs,  or  other  like  conduct, 
should  be  practiced.  If  the  animal  coughs  or  attempts  to  cough  while 
the  head  is  up,  let  the  head  down  immediately.  Better  to  lose  the 
medicine  than  to  cause  it  to  get  into  the  lungs. 

There  are  many  valuable  medicines  used  for  the  different  stages  and 
different  types  of  pneumonia,  but  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer  it  is  use- 
less to  refer  to  them  here,  as  this  work  is  intended  for  the  use  of  those 
who  are  not  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  disease  to  recognize  its 
various  types  and  stages;  therefore  they  would  only  confuse.  If  you 
can  administer  a  ball  or  capsule,  or  have  any  one  at  hand  who  is  capable 
of  doing  it,  a  dram  of  sulphate  of  quinine  in  a  capsule,  or  made  into  a 
ball,  with  sufficient  linseed  meal  and  molasses,  given  every  three  hours 
during  the  height  of  the  fever,  will  do  good  in  many  cases.  The  ball  of 
carbonate  of  ammonia,  as  advised  in  the  treatment  of  bronchitis,  may 
be  tried  if  the  animal  is  hard  to  drench. 

If  the  horse  becomes  very  much  debilitated,  stimulants  of  a  more  pro- 
nounced character  are  required.  The  following  drench  is  useful :  liectl- 
fied  spirits,  3  ounces;  spirits  of  nitrous  ether,  2  ounces;  water,  1  pint. 
This  may  be  repeated  every  four  or  five  hours  if  it  seems  to  benefit.  Or 
6  ounces  of  good  whisky,  diluted  with  a  pint  of  water,  may  be  given  as 
often,  instead  of  the  foregoing. 

There  are  cases  where  sedatives  are  undoubtedly  beneficial,  but  a 
knowledge  both  of  disease  and  medicine  is  required  to  discriminate  in 
such  cases;  therefore  the  only  rational  course  to  pursue  in  a  work  of 
this  kind  is  to  map  out  a  line  of  treatment  that  will  do  good  in  all  cases 
and  harm  in  none,  and  at  the  same  time  be  within  the  understanding  of 
those  who  have  not  made  a  special  study  of  disease. 

During  the  period  of  convalescence  good  nutritive  food  should  be  al- 
lowed in  a  moderate  quantity.  Tonic  medicines  should  be  substituted 
for  those  used  during  the  fever.    The  same  medicines  advised  for  the 


123 

convalescing  period  of  bronchitis  are  equally  efficient  in  this  case. 
Likewise,  the  same  general  instructions  apply  here. 

Death  may  occur  during  the  first  stage  of  the  disease,  owing  to  the 
severity  of  the  fever,  or  it  may  occur  during  the  period  when  the  lungs 
are  solidified  by  the  exudate  of  the  inflammation  filling  up  the  air  cells 
and  bronchial  tubes,  or  it  may  take  place  later,  when  the  exudate  fails 
to  liquify  and  undergo  absorption,  and  is  then  due  t©  suppuration,  the 
formation  of  an  abscess,  or  gangrene  or  mortification.  As  a  matter  of 
course  pneumonia  is  most  often  fatal  when  both  lungs  are  involved  in 
the  inflammation. 

In  concluding,  it  may  be  well  to  remind  you  that  if  pneumonia  is 
properly  treated  the  great  majority  of  cases  will  terminate  in  a  complete 
restoration  to  health.  In  all  cases  much  will  depend  on  the  good  judg- 
ment of  the  person  directing  the  treatment  of  the  case.  If  it  is  seen 
that  any  one  thing  is  doing  harm,  then  that  particular  thing  should  be 
omitted.  For  instance,  if  drenching  the  animal  is  attended  with  harm, 
that  is,  if  it  unnecessarily  excites  him,  or  if  he  obstinately  refuses  to 
swallow  the  medicine,  then  do  not  further  annoy  him  by  persistently 
trying  to  do  what  you  are  able  to  see  only  makes  matters  worse.  Omit 
the  drenching,  aud  dissolve  3  drams  of  bicarbonate  of  potassium  in  every 
bucketful  of  water  he  will  drink  of  his  own  free  will.  Give  the  quinine 
in  capsules  or  balls,  and  also  the  carbonate  of  ammonia  balls.  A  ball- 
ing iron  (or  mouth  speculum)  may  be  obtained  from  any  veterinary  in- 
strument dealer.  A  little  practice  with  it  will  enable  you  to  become 
somewhat  expert  in  giving  medicines  in  the  latter  form.  Do  not  give 
quinine  and  ammonia  together;  let  at  least  an  hour  intervene  between 
the  administration  of  the  two  different  medicines. 

PLEURISY. 

The  thoracic  cavity  is  divided  into  two  lateral  compartments,  each 
containing  one  lung,  besides  other  organs.  Each  lung  has  its  separate 
pleural  membrane  or  covering.  The  anatomical  arrangement  of  the 
Ijleura  is  simple  to  the  anatomist,  but  a  detailed  description  of  it  would 
be  beyond  the  comprehension  of  the  average  reader.  Suffice  it  to  say 
that  the  pleura  is  the  thin,  glistening  membrane  that  covers  the  lung, 
and  also  completely  covers  the  internal  walls  of  the  chest.  It  is  very 
thin,  and  to  the  ordinary  observer  appears  to  be  part  of  the  lung,  which, 
in  fact,  it  is  for  all  practical  purposes.  The  smooth,  shiny  surface  of 
the  lung,  as  well  as  the  smooth,  shiny  surface  so  familiar  on  the  rib,  is 
the  pleura.  In  health  this  surface  is  always  moist.  A  fluid  (called 
serum)  is  thrown  off  (secreted)  by  the  pleura,  which  causes  the  surface 
to  be  constantly  moist.  This  is  to  prevent  the  effects  of  friction  between 
the  lungs  and  the  walls  of  the  chest  and  other  contiguous  parts  which 
come  in  contact.  It  must  be  remembered  the  lungs  are  constantly  di- 
lating each  time  a  breath  is  taken  in,  and  contracting  each  time  a 
breath  of  air  is  expelled.  It  may  be  readily  seen  that  if  it  were  not  for 
the  moistened  state  of  the  surface  of  the  pleura  the  continual  dilation 


124 

and  contraction  and  the  consequent  riiboing  of  the  parts  against  each 
other  would  cause  a  serious  friction.  This,  then,  is  the  office  of  the 
l^leura— to  secrete  or  moisten  its  surface  with  a  fluid  to  prevent  the  ill 
effects  of  friction. 

Inflammation  of  this  membrane  is  called  pleurisy.  Being  so  closely- 
united  with  the  lung,  it  can  not  always  escape  participation  in  the  dis- 
ease when  the  latter  is  inflamed.  Pleurisy  may  be  due  to  the  same 
predisposing  and  exciting  causes  as  mentioned  in  the  beginning  of  this 
work  as  general  causes  for  diseases  of  the  organs  of  respiration,  such 
as  exposure  to  sudden  changes  of  temperature,  couflnement  in  damp 
stables,  etc.  It  may  be  caused  by  wounds  that  penetrate  the  chest,  for 
it  must  be  remembered  that  such  wounds  must  necessarily  pierce  the 
pleura.  A  fractured  rib  may  involve  the  pleura.  The  inflammation 
following  such  wounds  may  be  circumscribed,  that  is,  coufiued  to  a 
small  area  surrounding  the  wound,  or  it  may  spread  from  the  wound 
and  involve  a  large  portion  of  the  pleura.  The  pleura  may  be  involved 
secondarily  when  the  heart  or  its  meuibrane  is  the  primary  seat  of  the 
disease.  It  may  occur  in  conjunction  with  bronchitis,  influenza,  and 
other  diseases.  It  is  commonly  seen  in  connection  with  rheumatism. 
Diseased  growths  that  interfere  with  the  pleura  may  induce  pleurisy, 
but  it  is  most  frequently  met  with  in  connection  with  pneumonia,  for 
the  reason  given  heretofore.  Pleurisy  will  be  described  here  as  an 
independent  afi'ection,  although  it  should  be  remembered  that  it  is  very 
often  associated  with  the  foregoing  diseases. 

When  the  animal  is  affected  with  pleurisy  an  ordinary  observer  should 
have  no  difficulty  in  detecting  the  disease,  provided  the  diagnostic 
symptoms  are  studied  beforehand.  The  very  first  stage  is  a  congested 
state  of  the  blood  vessels  in  the  parts  affected;  the  surface  of  the  mem- 
brane becomes  dry  and  roughened  (this  fact  will  be  again  referred  to 
when  the  symptoms  are  described).  This  dry  condition  is  followed,  after 
a  certain  period,  by  an  effusion  of  fluid,  that  is,  more  fluid  than  usual  is 
thrown  off"  by  the  membrane  when  in  a  diseased  condition.  This  fluid 
accumulates  in  the  space  between  the  lungs  and  the  walls  of  the  chest, 
constituting  hydro-thorax,  or  dropsy  of  the  chest.  This  fluid  may 
undergo  certain  changes;  in  it  float  coagulated  masses  called  fibrin. 
The  surface  of  the  lung  may  adhere  to  the  internal  surface  of  the  ribs. 
The  quantity  of  exuded  fluid  varies  to  a  great  extent.  In  some  cases 
the  chest  contains  an  enormous  amount,  and  when  it  is  not  absorbed 
pus  may  be  generated  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 

Symptoms. — When  the  disease  exists  as  an  independent  affection  it  is 
ushered  in  by  a  chill,  but  this  is  usually  overlooked.  About  the  first 
thing  noticed  is  the  disinclination  of  the  animal  to  move  or  turn  round. 
When  made  to  do  so  he  grunts  or  groans  with  pain.  He  stands  stiff; 
the  ribs  are  fixed,  that  is,  the  ribs  move  very  little  in  the  act  of  breath- 
ing, but  the  abdomen  works  more  than  natural;  both  the  fore  feet  and 
elbows  may  be  turned  out;  during  the  onset  of  the  attack  the  animal 
may  be  restless,  and  act  as  if  he  had  a  slight  colic;  he  may  even  lie 


125 

down,  but  does  not  remain  long  down,  for  when  he  finds  no  relief  he  soou 
gets  uj).  After  eflusiou  begins  these  signs  of  restlessness  disappear. 
If  the  observer  looks  for  it,  a  furrow  will  be  found  running  along  the 
lower  part  of  the  chest  from  behind  the  elbow  back  to  the  flank ;  this  is 
due  to  the  endeavor  of  the  animal  to  keep  the  ribs  fixed  in  as  near  as 
possible  an  immovable  position.  Every  movement  of  the  chest  causes 
excruciating  paiu,  therefore  the  cough  is  peculiar;  it  is  short  and  sup- 
pressed, and  comes  as  near  being  no  cough  as  the  animal  can  make  it 
in  his  desire  to  suppress  it.  The  breathing  is  hurried,  the  mouth  is  hot, 
the  temperature  being  elevated  from  102"^  or  103°  to  105°  F.  The  usual 
symptoms  that  accompany  fever  are  present,  such  as  costiveness,  scanty, 
dark-colored  urine,  etc.  The  pulse  is  frequent,  i:)erhai)s  seventy  or  more 
a  minute,  and  is  hard  and  wiry.     The  legs  and  ears  are  cold. 

Percussion  is  of  valuable  service  in  this  affection.  The  ribs  may  be 
struck  with  the  knuckles.  By  striking  different  parts  you  will  come  to 
a  spot  of  greater  or  less  extent  where  the  blows  cause  much  pain  to  be 
evinced.  The  animal  may  grunt  or  groan  every  time  it  is  struck. 
Another  method  of  detecting  the  affected  part  is  to  press  the  fingers 
between  the  ribs,  each  space  in  succession,  beginning  behind  the  elbow, 
until  you  arrive  at  a  place  where  the  pressure  causes  more  flinching 
than  at  any  other  part.  Auscultation  is  also  useful.  In  the  first 
stage,  when  the  surfaces  are  dry  and  rough,  if  the  ear  is  placed  against 
different,  parts  of  the  chest  you  will  eventually  come  to  the  affected 
part,  which  will  be  readily  manifested  by  a  friction  sound  very  much 
like  that  produced  by  rubbing  two  pieces  of  coarse  paper  together. 
The  sound  appears  immediately  under  the  ear,  and  is  distinct.  No  such 
friction  sound  occurs  when  the  membrane  is  healthy,  as  the  natural 
moisture,  heretofore  mentioned,  prevents  the  friction.  In  many  cases 
this  friction  is  so  pronounced  that  it  may  be  felt  by  placing  the  hand 
over  the  affected  part.  When  the  dry  stage  is  succeeded  by  the  exu- 
dation of  fluid,  this  friction  sound  disappears.  After  the  effusion  into 
the  cavity  takes  place  there  sometimes  is  heard  a  tinkling  or  metallic 
sound,  due  to  dropping  of  the  exudate  from  above  into  the  collected 
fluid  in  the  bottom  of  the  cavity,  as  the  collected  fluid  more  or  less 
separates  the  lung  from  the  chest  walls. 

Within  two  or  three  days  the  urgent  symptoms  are  abated,  owing  to 
the  exudation  of  the  fluid  and  the  subsidence  of  the  paiu.  The  fluid 
may  now  undergo  absorption,  and  the  case  terminate  favorably  within 
a  week  or  ten  days. 

If  the  quantity  of  the  effusion  is  large,  its  own  volume  retaras  the  ' 
process  of  absorption  to  a  great  extent,  and  consequently  convales- 
cence is  delayed.  In  some  cases  the  symptoms  manifest  a  serious  state. 
The  pulse  becomes  more  frequent,  the  breathing  more  hurried  and 
labored,  the  flanks  work  like  bellows,  the  nostrils  flap,  the  eyes  stare 
wildly,  the  countenance  expresses  much  anxiety,  and  general  signs  of 
dissolution  are  plain.  After  a  time  swellings  appear  under  the  chest 
and  abdomen  and  down  the  legs.    These  swellings  are  due  to  trans- 


126 

fusion  of  the  fluid  from  within  the  chest  into  the  surrounding  tissues. 
The  accumulation  iu  the  chest  is  called  hydro-thorax  or  dropsy  of  the 
chest.  When  this  fluid  coutaius  pus  the  case  usually  proves  fatal.  The 
condition  of  pus  within  the  cavity  is  called  empyiema. 

Pleurisy  may  affect  only  a  small  area  of  one  side,  or  it  may  alfect 
both  sides.     It  is  oftener  confined  to  the  right  side. 

Treatment. — This  varies  very  little  from  the  treatment  of  bronchitis 
and  pneumonia,  but  as  frequently  stated  heretofore,  pleurisy  is  so  lia- 
ble to  be  complicated  with  either  of  the  diseases  named,  the  variation 
iu  the  treatment  may  be  considered  as  merely  adjunct  treatment  of  the 
pleuritic  complication. 

The  instructions  in  regard  to  the  general  management  of  bronchitis 
and  pneumonia  must  be  adhered  to  in  the  treatment  of  pleurisy.  Com- 
fortable quarters,  pure  air,  warm  clothing  to  the  body  and  bandages  to 
the  legs,  a  plentiful  supply  of  pure  cold  water,  the  laxative  food,  etc., 
in  this  case  are  equally  necessary  and  efficacious.  The  hot  applica- 
tions applied  to  the  chest  as  directed  in  the  teeatment  of  pneumonia 
are  very  beneficial  in  pleuri-sy,  and  should  be  kept  up  while  the  symp- 
toms show  the  animal  to  be  in  pain. 

During  the  first  few  days,  wh«u  pain  is  mamfes,ted  by  restlessness, 
do  not  apply  the  liniment  to  the  sides  of  the  chest,  as  it  will  not  only 
irritate  the  animal  and  increase  the  restlessness  but  will  heighten  the 
fever  as  well.  After  four  or  fiTe  days,  when  the  symptoms  show  that 
the  acute  stage  has  somewhat  subsided,  the  liniment  may  be  well 
rubbed  over  the  affected  part  with  benefit,  as  it  will  greatly  promote 
the  absorption  of  the  effusion.  The  application  may  be  repeated  on  al- 
ternate days  until  several  applications  have  been  made.  From  the  be- 
giuning  the  following  drench  should  be  given  every  six  hours :  Solu- 
tion of  the  acetate  of  ammonia,  3  ounces ;  spirits  of  nitrous  ether,  1 
ounce;  bicarbonate  of  potassium,  3  drams;  water,  1  pint. 

If  the  patient  becomes  debilitated  the  stimulants  as  prescribed  ibr 
pneumonia  should  be  used  according  to  the  same  directions.  The  same 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  diet.  If  the  animal  will  partake  of 
the  bran  mashes,  scalded  oats,  and  grass,  it  is  the  best,  but  if  he  re- 
fuses the  laxative  diet  then  he  should  be  tried  with  different  kinds  of 
food,  and  allowed  whichever  kind  he  desires. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  attack,  if  the  pain  is  severe,  causing  the  ani- 
mal to  lie  down  or  paw,  the  following  drench  should  be  given:  Tinct- 
ure of  opium,  2  ounces;  raw  linseed  oil,  12  ounces.  If  the  pain  con- 
tinues, the  tincture  of  opium  may  be  repeated  within  four  or  five  hours. 

If  the  case  is  not  i^rogressing  favorably  in  ten  or  twelve  days  after 
the  beginning  of  the  attack,  convalescence  is  delayed  by  the  fluid  iu  the 
chest  failiug  to  be  absorbed.  The  animal  becomes  dull  and  weak,  and 
evinces  little  or  no  desire  for  food.  The  breathing  becomes  still  more 
rapid  and  difiicult.  An  effort  must  now  be  made  to  excite  the  absorp- 
tion of  the  effusion.  An  application  of  the  liniment  should  be  rubbed 
over  the  lower  part  of  both  sides  and  the  bottom  of  the  chest.     The 


127 

following  drench  should  be  given  three  times  a  day,  for  seven  or  eight 
days  if  it  is  necessary  and  appears  to  benefit:  Tincture  of  the  per- 
chloride  of  iron,  1  ounce;  tincture  of  gentian,  2  ounces;  water,  1  pint. 
Also  give  1  dram  of  iodide  of  potassium  dissolved  in  the  drinking-water 
an  hour  before  feeding,  every  night  and  morning  for  a  week  or  two. 

Hydro-thorax  is  sometimes  difficult  to  overcome  by  means  of  the  use 
of  medicines  alone,  when  an  operation  called  paracentesis  tlioracis  is 
performed.  In  plain  language  this  means  tapping  the  chest  to  allow  an 
escape  for  the  accumulated  fluid.  The  operation  is  performed  with 
a  combined  instrument  called  the  trocar  and  canula.  The  punctnre  is 
made  in  the  lower  part  of  the  chest,  in  the  space  between  the  eighth 
and  ninth  ribs.  Wounding  of  the  intercostal  artery  is  avoided  by  in- 
serting the  instrument  as  near  as  possible  to  the  anterior  edge  of  the 
rib.  If  the  operation  is  of  benefit  it  is  only  so  when  performed  before 
the  strength  is  lowered  beyond  recovery.  The  operation  merely  re- 
ceives a  passing  notice  here,  as  it  is  not  presumed  that  the  non-profes- 
sional will  attempt  it,  although  it  is  attended  with  little  danger  or  diffi- 
culty in  the  hands  of  the  expert. 

We  have  described  bronchitis,  pneumonia,  and  pleurisy  mainly  as 
they  occur  as  independent  diseases,  and  have  treated  them  in  a  way 
that  an  intelligent  person  can  not  possibly  do  harm.  While  it  is  true 
much  more  might  have  been  said  in  regard  to  the  different  stages  and 
types  of  the  affections,  and  also  in  regard  to  the  treatment  of  each  stage 
and  each  particular  type,  the  plan  adopted  is  considered  the  wisest  on 
account  of  simplifying  as  much  as  possible  a  subject  of  which  the  reader 
is  supposed  to  know  very  little,  if  anything. 

A  few  words  will  now  be  devoted  to  these  affections  as  they  occur, 
when  two  or  more  exist  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same  animal. 

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 

The  disease  is  so  called  when  the  animal  is  affected  with  pleurisy  and 
pneumonia  combined,  which  is  most  frequently  the  case.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  attack  only  one  of  the  affections  may  be  present,  but  the 
other  soon  follows.  It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  pleura  is  closely 
adherent  to  the  lung.  The  pleura  on  this  account  is  frequently  more  or 
less  affected  by  the  spreading  of  the  inflammation  from  the  lung  tissue. 
There  is  a  combination  of  the  symptoms  of  both  diseases,  but  to  the  or- 
dinary observer  the  symptoms  of  pleurisy  are  the  most  obvious.  The 
course  of  treatment  to  be  pursued  differs  in  no  manner  from  that  given 
for  the  affections  when  they  occur  independently.  The  symptoms  will 
be  your  guide  as  to  the  advisability  of  giving  oil  and  laudanum  for  the 
pain  if  the  pleurisy  is  very  severe.  Do  not  resort  to  it  unless  it  is  nec- 
essary to  allay  the  pain. 

BRONCHO-PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 

This  is  the  term  or  terms  applied  when  bronchitis,  pleurisy,  and  pneu- 
monia all  exist  at  once.     This  is  by  no  means  a  common  occurrence. 


128 

However,  it  is  impossible  for  one  who  is  not  an  expert  to  diagnose  the 
state  with  certainty.  The  apparent  sj^mptoms  are  the  same  as  when 
the  animal  is  aifected  with  pleuro  pneumonia. 

BRONCHO-PNEUMONIA. 

This  is  also  a  common  complication.  Either  one  or  the  other  may  be 
first  in  operation.  When  bronchitis  affects  the  smaller  bronchial  tubes 
the  inflammation  readily  extends  to  the  air-cells  and  thence  to  the  lung 
tissue,  constituting  pneumonia.  Or  the  bronchial  tube  may  be  second- 
arily involved  by  the  extension  of  the  inflammation  from  the  air-cells. 
Nothing  in  regard  to  the  treatment  of  this  condition  requires  to  be  said 
here,  as  it  has  been  fully  described  when  speaking  of  bronchitis  and 
pneumonia  as  separate  diseases.  A  brief  review  of  some  of  the  unfa- 
vorable results  of  pleurisy  and  pneumonia  will  not  be  out  of  place  here; 

SUPPURATION   AND   ABSCESS   IN   THE   LUNG. 

There  are  instances,  and  especially  when  the  surroundings  of  the  pa- 
tient have  been  bad,  when  the  inflammation  terminates  in  an  abscess 
in  the  lung.  Sometimes,  when  the  inflammation  has  been  extreme, 
suppuration  in  a  large  portion  of  the  lung  takes  place.  Impure  air,  the 
result  of  improper  ventilation,  is  the  most  frequent  cause  of  this  termi- 
nation. The  symptoms  of  suppuration  in  the  lung  are  an  exceedingly 
offensive  smell  of  the  breath,  and  the  discharge  of  the  matter  from  the 
nostrils. 

MORTIFICATION. 

Gangrene  or  mortification  means  a  death  of  the  part  affected.  Oc- 
casionallj',  owing  to  the  intensity  of  the  inflammation  or  bad  treatment, 
pneumonia  and  pleuro-pneumonia  terminate  in  mortification,  which  is 
soon  followed  by  the  death  of  the  animal. 

ABSCESS   IN   THE   SPACES   BETWEEN   THE   RIBS. 

Abscess  of  the  intercostal  spaces  has  been  recorded  as  a  result  of 
pleurisy.  Following  the  attack  of  i)leurisy  an  enlargement  appears  on 
some  part  of  the  chest,  which  may  burst  of  its  own  accord.  When  it 
makes  its  appearance  it  is  advisable  to  apply  poultices  of  linseed  meal 
and  hot  water,  or  bathe  it  continuously  for  hours  at  a  time  with  water 
as  hot  as  can  be  comfortably  borne.  This  treatment  will  hasten  the 
formation  of  matter.  When  it  is  soft  in  the  center  it  should  be  lanced 
and  the  matter  allowed  to  escape.  The  course  of  tonic  treatment  and 
nutritive  food  advised  in  the  treatment  of  pleurisy  should  be  kept  up. 

HEMOPTYSIS — BLEEDING   FROM   THE   LUNGS. 

Bleeding  from  the  lungs  may  occur  during  the  course  of  congestion 
of  the  lungs,  bronchitis,  j^neumonia,  influenza,  purpura  hemorrhagica, 
or  glanders.  An  accident  or  exertion  may  cause  a  rupture  of  a  vessel. 
Plethora  predisposes  to  it.  Following  the  rupture  of  a  Vessel  the  blood 
may  escape  into  the  lung  tissue  and  cause  a  serious  attack  of  pneu- 
monia^ or  it  maj  fill  up  the  bronchial  tubes  and  prove  fatal  by  sufifocat- 


129 

ing  the  auimal.  When  the  hemorrhage  is  from  the  lungs  it  is  accom- 
panied  by  coughing ;  the  blood  is  frothy  and  comes  from  both  nostrils. 
Whereas  when  the  bleeding  is  merely  from  a  rupture  of  a  vessel  in 
some  part  of  the  head  (heretofore  described  as  bleeding  from  the  nose) 
the  blood  is  most  likely  to  issue  from  one  nostril  only,  and  the  discharge 
is  not  accompanied  by  coughing.  The  ear  may  be  placed  against  the 
windpipe  along  its  course,  and  if  the  blood  is  from  the  lungs  a  gurg- 
ling or  rattling  sound  will  be  heard.  When  it  occurs  in  connection  with 
another  disease  it  seldom  requires  special  treatment.  When  caused  by 
accident  or  overexertion  the  animal  should  be  kept  quiet.  If  the  cougli 
is  frequent  or  paroxysmal  a  dose  composed  of  2  ounces  of  tincture  of 
opium  in  8  ounces  of  raw  linseed  oil  may  be  given  to  allay  the  irrita- 
bility, which  may  stop  the  hemorrhage  by  checking  the  cough.  If  the 
hemorrhage  is  profuse  and  continues  for  several  hours  1  dram  of  the 
acetate  of  lead  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water  may  be  given  as  a  drench, 
or  1  ounce  of  the  tincture  of  the  perchloride  of  iron,  diluted  with  a 
pint  of  water,  may  be  given  instead  of  the  lead.  It  is  rare  that  the 
hemorrhage  is  so  profuse  as  to  require  internal  remedies.  But  hem- 
orrhage into  the  lung  may  occur  and  cause  death  by  suffocation  without 
the  least  manifestation  of  it  by  the  discharge  of  blood  from  the  nose. 

CONSUMPTION. 

Pulmonary  consumption,  "  the  same  as  phthisis  or  consumption  in 
man,"  has  been  described  by  European  authors  as  affecting  the  horse.  It 
is  mentioned  here  merely  to  give  the  writer  an  opportunity  to  say  that 
he  never  saw  a  case  of  it,  and  never  conversed  with  a  veterinarian  on 
the  subject  who  has  met  with  a  case  in  the  horse.  This  fact  does  not 
prove  that  the  horse  is  exempt  from  the  disease,  but  it  at  least  proves 
that  it  must  be  rare  indeed. 

DROPSY  OF   THE   LUNG. 

This  condition  has  been  noticed  as  a  result  of  heart  disease,  and  as  it 
is  said,  almost  invariably  to  terminate  fatally,  no  further  notice  of  it 
is  necessary  here. 

HEAVES — BROKEN  WIND— ASTHMA. 

Much  confusion  exists  in  the  popular  mind  in  regard  to  the  nature  of 
broken  wind.  Many  horsemen  apply  the  term  to  all  ailments  where 
the  breathing  is  difncult  or  noisy.  Scientific  veterinarians  are  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  phenomena  and  locality  of  the  affection,  but  there  is 
a  great  diversity  of  opinion  as  regards  the  exact  cause.  Asthma  is 
generally  thought  to  be  due  to  spasm  of  the  small  circular  muscles  that 
surround  the  bronchial  tubes.  The  continued  existence  of  this  affec- 
tion of  the  muscles  leads  to  a  paralysis  of  them,  and  is  considered  one 
of  the  primary  stages  of  broken  wind. 

Some  eminent  veterinarians  maintain  that  the  exciting  cause  of  broken 
wind  is  due  to  a  lesion  of  the  pneumogastric  nerve.  That  there  is  good 
foundation  for  this  opinion  there  can  be  no  doubt.  The  pneumogastric 
11035 9 


130 

nerves  send  branches  to  tlie  bronchial  tubes,  lungs,  heart,  stomach,  etc. 
All  the  orgaus  just  mentioned  may  sooner  or  later  become  involved  in 
connection  with  broken  wind.  It  may  be  said  that  broken  wind  is  always 
associated  with  disorder  of  the  function  of  digestion.  It  is  claimed  that 
coarse  or  indigestible  food  irritates  the  branches  of  the  pneumogastric 
nerves  which  supply  the  walls  of  the  stomach,  and  this  irritation  is  re- 
flected or  extended  to  the  branches  of  the  same  nerve  which  supply 
the  lungs,  when  the  lesions  constituting  broken  wind  follow. 

In  itself  broken  wind  is  not  a  fatal  disease,  but  death  is  generally 
caused  by  an  affection  closely  connected  with  it.  After  death,  if  the 
organs  are  examined,  the  lesions  found  depend  much  upon  the  length 
of  time  broken  wind  has  affected  the  animal.  In  recent  cases  very  few 
changes  are  noticeable,  but  in  animals  that  have  been  broken-winded 
for  a  long  time  the  changes  are  well  marked.  The  lungs  are  paler  than 
natural,  and  of  much  less  weight  in  proportion  to  the  volume,  as  evi- 
denced by  floating  them  in  water.  The  walls  of  the  small  bronchial 
tubes  and  the  membrane  of  the  larger  tubes  are  thickened.  The  right 
side  of  the  heart  is  enlarged  and  its  cavities  dilated.  The  stomach  is 
enlarged  and  its  walls  stretched.  And  in  many  old  cases  the  intestinal 
walls  undergo  the  same  changes.  The  important  change  found  in  the 
lungs  is  a  condition  technically  called  pulmonary  emphysema.  This 
is  of  two  varieties:  First,  what  is  termed  vesicular  emphysema,  which 
consists  of  an  enlargement  of  the  capacity  of  the  air-cells  (air  vesicles) 
by  dilation  of  their  walls ;  the  walls  after  a  time  degenerate,  and  finally 
give  way,  and  thus  form  a  communication  with  other  air-cells.  The 
second  form  is  called  interlobular  emphysema,  and  follows  the  first. 
In  this  variety  the  air  finds  its  way  into  the  lung  tissue  between  the 
air-cells,  or,  as  its  name  indicates,  in  the  tissue  between  the  small 
lobules. 

Symjifoms. — Almost  every  experienced  horseman  is  able  to  detect 
"heaves."  The  peculiar  movement  of  the  flanks  and  abdomen  point 
out  the  ailment  at  once.  But  in  recent  eases  the  affected  animal  does 
not  always  exhibit  the  characteristic  breathing  unless  exerted  to  a  cer- 
tain extent.  The  cough  which  accompanies  this  disease  is  peculiar  to 
it.  It  is  difdcult  to  describe,  but  the  sound  is  short,  and  something  like 
a  grunt. 

When  air  is  inspired,  that  is,  taken  in,  it  appears  to  be  done  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  health;  it  may  possibly  be  done  a  little  quicker  than 
natural,  but  not  enough  to  attract  any  notice.  It  is  when  the  act  of 
expiration  (or  expelling  the  air  from  the  lungs)  is  performed  that  the 
great  change  in  the  breathing  is  perceptible.  It  must  now  be  remem- 
bered that  the  lungs  have  lost  much  of  their  power  of  contracting  on 
account  of  the  degeneration  of  the  walls  of  the  air-cells,  and  also  on 
account  of  the  paralysis  of  muscular  tissue  before  mentioned.  The  air 
passes  into  them  freely,  but  the  power  to  expel  it  is  lost  to  a  great 
extent  by  the  lungs:  therefore  the  abdominal  muscles  are  brought  into 
play.     These  muscles,  especially  in  the  region  of  the  flank,  are  seen  to 


131 

contract,  then  pause  for  a  moment,  then  complete  the  act  of  contracting, 
thus  making  a  double  bellows-like  movement  at  each  expiration,  a  sort 
of  jerky  motion  with  every  breath.  When  the  animal  is  exerted  a 
wheezing  noise  accomiianies  the  breathing.  This  noise  may  be  heard 
to  a  less  extent  when  the  animal  is  at  rest  if  the  ear  be  applied  to  the 
chest. 

As  before  remarked,  indigestion  is  always  present  in  these  cases. 
The  animal  has  a  depraved  appetite,  as  shown  by  a  desire  to  eat  dirt 
and  soiled  bedding,  which  he  often  devours  in  preference  to  the  clean 
food  in  the  trough  or  manger.  The  stomach  is  liable  to  be  overloaded 
with  indigestible  food.  The  abdomen  may  assume  that  form  called 
"pot-bellied."  The  animal  frequently  passes  wind,  which  is  of  a  very 
offensive  odor.  Attacks  of  colic  may  occur,  which  in  some  cases  are 
fatal.  When  first  put  to  work  dung  is  passed  frequently ;  the  bowels 
are  often  loose.  The  animal  can  not  stand  much  work,  as  the  muscular 
system  is  soft.  Eound  chested  horses  are  said  to  be  predisposed  to  the 
disease,  and  it  is  certain  that  in  cases  of  long  standing  the  chest  usually 
becomes  rounder  than  natural. 

Certain  "smart"  individuals  become  very  expert  in  managing  a  horse 
affected  with  "  heaves"  in  suppressing  the  symptoms  for  a  short  time. 
They  take  advantage  of  the  fact  that  the  breathing  is  much  easier  when 
the  stomach  and  intestines  are  empty.  They  also  resort  to  the  use  of 
medicines  that  have  a  depressing  effect.  When  the  veterinarian  is  ex- 
amining a  horse  for  soundness,  and  he  suspects  that  the  animal  has 
been  "  fixed,"  he  usually  gives  the  horse  as  much  water  as  he  will  drink 
and  then  has  him  ridden  or  driven  rapidly  up  a  hill  or  on  a  heavy  road. 
This  will  bring  out  the  characteristic  breathing  of  "  heaves."  All 
broken- winded  horses  have  the  cough  peculia,r  to  the  affection,  but  it  is 
not  regular.  A  considerable  time  may  elapse  before  it  is  heard  and 
then  it  may  come  on  in  i)aroxysms,  especially  when  first  brought  out  of 
the  stable  into  the  cold  air,  or  when  excited  by  work,  or  after  a  drink  of 
cold  water.     The  cough  is  usually  the  first  symptom  of  the  disease. 

Treatment. — When  the  disease  is  established  there  is  no  cure  for  it. 
Proper  attention  paid  to  the  diet  will  relieve  the  distressing  symptoms 
to  a  certain  extent,  but  they  will  undoubtedly  reappear  in  their  inten- 
sity the  first  time  the  animal  overloads  the  stomach  or  is  allowed  food 
of  bad  quality.  Putting  aside  all  theories  in  regard  to  the  primary 
cause  of  the  affection,  it  is  generally  admitted  that  it  is  closely  allied  to 
derangement  of  the  digestive  organs,  most  j)articularly  the  stomach. 
This  being  the  fact,  it  is  but  reasonable  to  infer  that  if  the  animal  is 
allowed  nothing  but  food  of  the  best  quality  the  predisposition  to 
"heaves"  is  lessened.  Clover  hay  and  bulky  food  generally,  which,  as 
a  rule,  contains  but  little  nutriment,  have  much  to  do  with  the  cause  of 
the  disease,  and  therefore  should  be  entirely  omitted  when  the  animal 
is  affected,  as  well  as  before.  A  high  authority  asserts  that  the  disease 
is  unknown  where  clover  hay  is  never  used.  The  diet  should  be  con- 
fined to  food  of  the  best  quality  and  in  the  tsmallest  quantity.     The  had 


132 

effect  of  moldy  or  dusty  liay,  fodder,  or  food  of  any  kind  can  not  bo 
overestimated.  A  small  quantity  of  the  best  bay  once  a  day  is  suffi- 
cient. The  animal  should  invariably  be  watered  before  feeding;  never 
directly  after  a  meal.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  slightly  dampen  the  food  to 
allay  the  dust.  The  animal  should  not  be  worked  immediately  after  a 
meal.  Exertion,  when  the  stomach  Is  full,  invariably  aggravates  the 
symptoms.  Turning  on  pasture  gives  relief.  Carrots,  potatoes,  or 
turnips  chopped  and  mixed  with  oats  or  corn  are  a  good  diet. 

Many  different  medicines  have  been  tried,  but  not  one  lias  yet  been 
discovered  that  gives  even  partial  satisfaction  in  the  treatment  of 
broken  wind.  Arsenic,  however,  is  about  the  only  remedy  that  retains 
any  reputation  of  being  efficacious  in  palliating  the  symptoms.  It  is 
best  administered  in  the  form  of  the  solution  of  arsenic  in  hydrochloric 
acid  (Liq.  Acidi.  Ars.),  which  should  be  obtained  from  the  drug  store, 
as  it  is  then  of  a  standard  preparation.  Each  ounce  of  the  solution  con- 
tains a  little  over  4^  grains  of  arsenic.  A  tablespoonful  mixed  with 
bran  and  oats  three  times  a  day  for  about  two  weeks,  then  about  twice 
a  day  for  about  two  weeks  longer,  then  once  a  day  for  several  weeks,  is 
a  good  way  to  give  this  remedy.  If  the  bowels  do  not  act  regularly,  a 
pint  of  raw  linseed  oil  may  be  given  once  or  twice  a  month.  It  must, 
however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  medical  treatment  is  of  secondary 
consideration;  careful  attention  paid  to  the  diet  is  of  greatest  impor- 
tance. Broken-winded  animals  should  not  bo  used  for  breeding  pur- 
poses.   A  predisposition  to  the  disease  is  likely  to  be  inherited. 

CHRONIC   COUGH. 

A  chronic  cough  may  succeed  the  acute  diseases  of  the  respiratory 
organs,  such  as  pneumonia,  bronchitis,  laryngitis,  etc.  It  accompanies 
chronic  roaring,  chronic  bronchitis,  broken  wind.  It  may  succeed  in- 
fluenza. As  previously  stated,  cough  is  but  a  symptom  and  not  a  dis- 
ease in  itself.  Chronic  cough  is  occasionally  associated  with  diseases 
other  than  those  of  the  organs  of  respiration.  It  may  be  a  symptom  of 
chronic  indigestion  or  of  worms.  In  such  cases  it  is  caused  by  a  reflex 
nervous  irritation.  The  proper  treatment  in  all  cases  of  chronic  cough 
is  to  ascertain  the  nature  of  the  disease  of  which  it  is  a  symptom,  and 
then  cure  the  disease  if  possible,  and  the  cough  will  cease. 

The  treatment  of  the  affections  will  be  found  under  their  appropriate 
heads,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred. 

PLEURODYNIA. 

This  is  a  form  of  rheumatism  that  affects  the  intercostal  muscles, 
that  is,  the  muscles  between  the  ribs.  The  apparent  symptoms  are  very 
similar  to  those  of  pleurisy.  The  animal  is  stiff  and  not  inclined  to 
turn  around ;  the  ribs  are  kept  in  a  fixed  state  as  much  as  possible.  If 
the  head  is  pulled  round  suddenly,  or  the  affected  side  struck  with  the 
hand,  or  if  the  spaces  between  the  ribs  are  pressed  with  the  fingers  the 
animal  will  flinch  and  perhaps  emit  a  grunt  or  groan  expressive  of 


133 

much  pain.  It  is  distingaished  from  pleurisy  by  the  absence  of  fever, 
cough,  the  friction-sound,  the  effusiou  into  the  chest,  aud  by  the  exist- 
ence of  rheumatism  in  other  parts.  The  treatment  for  this  affection  is 
the  same  as  for  rheumatism  affecting  other  parts. 

WOUNDS  PENETRATING  THE  WALLS  OF  THE  CHEST. 

According  to  the  theory  of  some  teachers  of  physiology,  when  an 
opening  is  made  in  the  wall  of  the  chest,  suflicient  for  the  admission  of 
air,  a  collapse  of  the  lung  should  occur.  But  in  practice  this  is  not  al- 
ways found  to  bo  the  case!  The  writer  has  attended  several  such  cases, 
and  one  in  particular  was  not  seen  until  about  twelve  hours  after  the 
wound  was  inflicted.  It  is  true  the  breathing  was  considerably  altered, 
but  no  bad  effect  followed  the  admission  of  air  into  the  thoracic  cav- 
ity. The  wound  was  closed  and  treated  according  to  the  method  of 
treating  wounds  generally,  and  a  speedy  and  perfect  recovery  was  made. 
The  wound  may  not  i)enetrate  the  i)leura  ;  in  such  cases  no  great  harm 
is  done,  but  if  the  pleura  is  penetrated  pleurisy  may  follow,  and  even 
pneumonia  if  the  wound  involves  the  lung. 

The  condition  called  pneumo-thorax  means  air  in  the  chest.  This 
may  be  due  to  a  wound  in  the  wall  of  the  chest,  or  it  may  be  due  to  a 
broken  rib,  the  sharp  edge  of  which  wounds  the  lung  sufficiently  to  allow 
air  to  escape  into  the  space  between  the  lung  and  ribs,  which  is  natu- 
rally a  vacuum.  Air  gaining  access  to  the  thoracic  cavity  through 
a  wound  may  have  a  peculiar  effect.  The  wound  may  be  so  made  that 
when  the  walls  of  the  chest  are  dilating  a  little  air  is  sucked  in,  but 
during  the  contraction  of  the  wall  the  contained  air  presses  against  the 
torn  part  in  such  a  manner  as  to  entirely  close  the  wound ;  thus  a  small 
quantity  of  air  gams  access  with  each  inspiration,  while  none  is  allowed 
to  escape  until  the  lung  is  pressed  into  a  very  small  compass  and  forced 
into  the  anterior  part  of  the  chest.  The  same  thing  may  occur  from  a 
broken  rib  inflicting  a  wound  in  the  lung.  In  this  form  the  air  gains 
access  from  the  lung,  and  there  may  not  even  bo  an  opening  in  the 
walls  of  the  chest.  Decomposition  of  the  fluid  in  hydro-thorax,  with 
consequent  generation  of  gases,  is  said  to  have  caused  the  same  con- 
dition. In  such  cases  the  air  is  generally  absorbed,  and  a  siiontaneous 
cure  is  the  result.  But  when  the  symptoms  are  urgent  it  is  recom- 
mended that  the  air  be  removed  by  a  trocar  and  canula  or  by  an 
aspirator. 

The  treatment  of  wounds  that  penetrate  the  thoracic  cavity  should, 
for  the  foregoing  reason,  be  prompt.  It  should  be  quickly  ascertained 
whether  or  not  a  foreign  body  remains  in  the  wound,  then  it  should  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  with  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid  one  part  in  water 
forty  parts.  The  wound  should  then  be  closed  immediately.  If  it  is  an 
incised  wound  it  should  be  closed  with  sutures ;  if  torn  or  lacerated,  a 
bandage  around  the  chest  over  the  dressing  is  the  best  plan.  At  all 
events,  air  must  be  prevented  from  getting  into  the  chest,  as  soon  and 
as  effectually  as  possible.    The  after  treatment  of  the  wound  should 


134 

principally  coTisist  in  keeping  the  parts  clean  with  the  solution  of  car- 
bolic acid,  and  applying  fresh  dressing  as  often  as  required  to  keep  the 
wound  in  a  healthy  condition.  Care  should  be  takeu  that  the  discharges 
from  the  wound  have  an  outlet  in  the  most  dependent  part.  (See 
wounds.)  If  the  wound  causes  much  pain  it  should  be  allayed  with  a 
dose  of  tincture  of  opium  in  raw  linseed  oil,  as  advised  in  the  treat- 
ment of  pleurisy.  If  pleurisy  supervenes,  it  should  be  treated  as  ad- 
vised under  that  head. 

THUMPS — SPASM   OF   THE   DIAPHRAGM. 

"  Thumps  "  is  generally  thought  to  be,  by  the  inexperienced,  a  pal- 
pitation of  the  heart.  While  it  is  true  that  palpitation  of  the  heart  is 
sometimes  called  ''thumps,"  it  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  affec- 
tion under  consideration. 

In  the  beginning  of  this  article  on  the  diseases  of  the  organs  of  res- 
piration the  diaphragm  was  briefly  referred  to  as  the  principal  and  es- 
sential muscle  of  respiration.  Spasmodic  or  irregular  contractions  of 
it  in  man  are  manifested  by  what  is  familiarly  known  as  hiccoughs. 
Thumps  in  the  horse  is  identical  with  hiccoughs  in  man,  although  the 
peculiar  noise  is  not  made  in  the  throat  of  the  horse  in  all  cases. 

There  should  be  no  difficulty  in  distinguishing  this  affection  from  pal- 
pitation of  the  heart.  The  jerky  motion  affects  the  whole  body,  and  is 
not  confined  to  the  region  of  the  heart.  If  one  hand  is  placed  on  the 
body  at  about  the  middle  of  the  last  rib,  while  the  other  hand  is  placed 
over  the  heart  behind  the  left  elbow  it  will  be  easily  demonstrated  that 
there  is  no  connection  between  the  thumping  or  jerking  of  the  dia- 
phragm and  the  beating  of  the  heart.  If  the  ear  is  placed  against  the 
body  it  will  be  discovered  that  the  sound  is  made  posterior  to  the  region 
of  the  heart.  In  fact,  when  the  animal  is  affected  with  spasms  of  the 
diaphragm  the  beating  of  the  heart  is  usually  much  weaker  and  less 
preceptible  than  natural.  Thumps  is  produced  by  the  same  causes 
which  produce  congestion  of  the  lungs,  and  is  often  seen  in  connection 
with  the  latter  disease.  If  not  relieved,  death  usually  results  from  con- 
gestion of  the  lungs,  as  the  breathing  is  interfered  with  by  the  inordi- 
nate action  of  this  the  principal  muscle  of  inspiration  so  much  that 
proper  aeration  of  the  blood  can  not  take  place.  The  treatment  should 
be  precisely  the  same  as  prescribed  for  congestion  of  the  lungs. 

RUPTURE   OF   THE  DIAPHRAGM. 

Post  mortem  examinations  reveal  a  great  many  instances  of  rupture 
of  the  diaphragm.  It  is  the  general  opinion  among  veterinarians  that 
this  takes  place  after  death,  and  is  due  to  the  generation  of  gases  in 
the  decomposing  carcass,  which  distend  the  intestines  so  that  the  dia- 
phragm is  ruptured  by  the  great  pressure  against  it.  Of  course  it  is 
possible  for  it  to  happen  before  death  and  by  strangulating  the  knuckle 
of  intestine  that  may  be  in  therui)ture  cause  death;  but  there  are  no 
symptoms  by  which  it  may  be  diagnosed. 


X 


0 


o 


DISEASES  OF  THE  GENERATIVE  ORGANS. 


By  Dr.  JAMES  LAW,  F.  R.  C.  V.  S., 
Professor  of  Veterinary  Science,  etc.,  in  Cornell  University. 


CONGESTION  AND   INFLAMMATION  OF   THE   TESTICLES — ORCHITIS. 

In  the  prime  of  life,  in  vigorous  health,  and  on  stimulating  food  stall- 
ions are  subject  to  congestion  of  the  testicles,  which  become  swollen, 
hot,  and  tender,  but  without  any  active  inflammation.  A  reduction  of 
the  grain  in  the  feed,  the  administration  of  1  or  2  ounces  of  Glauber 
salts  daily  in  the  food,  and  the  bathing  of  the  affected  organs  daily 
with  tepid  water  or  alum  water  will  usually  restore  them  to  a  healthy 
condition. 

When  the  factors  producing  congestion  are  extraordinarily  potent, 
when  there  has  been  frequent  copulation  and  heavy  grain  feeding, 
when  the  weather  is  warm  and  the  animal  has  had  little  exercise,  and 
when  the  j^roximity  of  other  horses  or  mares  excite  the  generative  in- 
stinct without  gratification,  this  congestion  may  grow  to  actual  inflam- 
mation. Among  the  other  causes  of  orchitis  are  blows  and  penetrating 
wounds  implicating  the  testicles,  abrasions  of  the  scrotum  by  a  chain 
or  rope  passing  inside  the  thigh,  contusions  and  frictions  on  the  gland 
under  rapid  paces  or  heavy  draught,  compression  of  the  blood-vessels  of 
the  spermatic  cord  by  the  inguinal  ring  under  the  same  circumstances, 
and  finally,  sympathetic  disturbance  in  cases  of  disease  of  the  kidneys, 
bladder,  or  urethra.  Stimulants  of  the  generative  functions,  like  rue, 
savin,  tansy,  cantharides,  and  damiana  may  also  be  accessory  causes  of 
congestion  and  inflammation.  Finally,  certain  specific  diseases  like 
mal  du  Go'it,  glanders,  and  tuberculosis,  localized  in  the  testicles,  will 
cause  inflammation.  Apart  from  actual  wounds  of  the  parts  the  symp- 
toms of  orchitis  are  swelling,  heat,  and  tenderness  of  the  testicles, 
straddling  with  the  hind  legs  alike  in  standing  and  walking,  stiffness 
and  dragging  of  the  hind  limbs  or  of  the  limb  on  the  affected  side, 
arching  of  the  loins,  abdominal  pain,  manifested  by  glancing  back  at 
the  flank,  with  more  or  less  fever,  elevated  body  temperature,  acceler. 
ated  pulse  and  breathing,  inappetence,  and  dullness.  In  bad  cases  the 
scanty  urine  may  be  reddish  and  the  swelling  may  extend  to  the  skin 
and  envelopes  of  the  testicle,  which  may  become  thickened  and  doughy, 
pitting  on  pressure.    The  swelling  may  be  so  much  greater  in  the  con- 

135 


136 

voluted  excretory  duct  along  the  upper  border  of  the  testicle  as  to  sug- 
gest the  presence  of  a  second  stone.  Even  in  the  more  violent  attacks 
the  intense  suffering  abates  somewhat  on  the  second  or  third  day.  If 
it  lasts  longer  it  is  likely  to  give  rise  to  the  formation  of  matter  (ab- 
scess). In  exceptional  cases  the  testicle  is  struck  with  gangrene  or 
death.  Improvement  may  go  on  slowly  to  complete  recovery,  or  the 
malady  may  subside  into  a  subacute  and  chronic  form  with  induration. 
Matter  (abscess)  may  be  recognized  by  the  presence  of  a  soft  spot, 
where  pressure  with  two  fingers  will  detect  fluctuation  from  one  to 
the  other.  When  there  is  liquid  exudation  into  the  scrotum,  or  sack, 
fluctuation  may  also  be  felt,  but  the  liquid  can  be  made  out  to  be 
around  the  testicle  and  can  be  pressed  up  into  the  abdomen  through 
the  inguinal  canal.  When  abscess  occurs  in  the  cord  the  matter  may 
escape  into  the  scrotal  sack  and  cavity  of  the  abdomen  and  pyemia 

may  follow. 

Treatment  consists  in  perfect  rest  and  quietude,  the  administration  of 
a  purgative  (1  pound  to  1^  pounds  Glauber's  salts),  and  the  local  appli- 
cation of  an  astringent  lotion  (acetate  of  lead  2  drams,  extract  of  bella- 
donna 2  drams,  and  water  1  quart)  upon  soft  rags  or  cotton  wool,  kept 
in  contact  with  the  part  by  a  suspensory  bandage.  This  bandage,  of 
great  value  for  support,  may  be  made  nearly  triangular  and  tied  to  a 
girth  around  the  loins  and  to  the  upper  part  of  the  same  surcingle  by 
two  bands  carried  backward  and  upward  between  the  thighs.  In  severe 
cases'  scarifications  one-fourth  inch  deep  serve  to  relieve  vascular  ten- 
sion. When  abscess  is  threatened  its  formation  may  be  favored  by 
warm  fomentations  or  poultices,  and  on  the  occurrence  of  fluctuation 
the  knife  may  be  employed  to  give  free  escape  to  the  pus.  The  result- 
ing cavity  may  be  injected  daily  with  a  weak  carbolic  acid  lotion,  or 
satol  may  be  introduced.  The  same  agents  may  be  used  on  a  gland 
threatened  with  gangrene,  but  its  prompt  removal  by  castration  is  to 
be  preferred,  antiseptics  being  applied  freely  to  the  resulting  cavity. 

SAECOCELE. 

This  is  an  enlarged  and  indurated  condition  of  the  gland  resulting 
from  chronic  inflammation,  though  it  is  often  associated  with  a  specific 
deposit  like  glanders.  In  this  condition  the  natural  structure  of  the 
gland  has  given  place  to  embryonal  tissue  (small,  round  cells,  with  a 
few  fibrous  bundles),  and  its  restoration  to  health  is  very  improbable. 
Apart  from  active  inflammation,  it  may  increase  very  slowly.  The  dis- 
eased testicle  is  enlarged,  firm,  non-elastic,  and  comparatively  insensi- 
ble. The  skin  of  the  scrotum  is  tense,  and  it  may  be  oederaatous  (pit- 
ting on  pressure),  as  are  the  deeper  envelopes  and  spermatic  cord.  If 
liquid  is  present  in  the  sack  the  symptoms  are  masked  somewhat. 
As  it  increases  it  causes  awkward,  straddling,  dragging  movement  of 
the  hind  limbs,  or  lameness  on  the  affected  side.  The  spermatic  cord 
often  increases  at  the  same  time  with  the  testicle,  and  the  inguinal 


137 

ring  being  thereby  stretched  and  enlarged,  a  portion  of  intestine  may 
escape  into  the  sack,  complicating  the  disease  with  hernia. 

The  only  rational  and  effective  treatment  is  castration,  and  even  this 
may  not  succeed  when  the  disease  is  speciiic  (glanders,  tuberculosis). 

HYDROCELE — DROPSY   OF   THE   SCROTUM. 

This  may  be  merely  an  accompaniment  of  dropsj^  of  the  abdomen,  the 
cavity  of  which  is  continuous  with  that  of  the  scrotum  in  horses.  It 
may  be  the  result,  however,  of  local  disease  in  the  testicle,  spermatic 
cord,  or  walls  of  the  sack. 

The  symptoms  are  enlargement  of  the  scrotum,  and  fluctuation  under 
the  fingers,  the  testicle  being  recognized  as  floating  in  water.  By  press- 
ure the  liquid  is  forced,  in  a  slow  stream,  and  with  a  perceptible  thrill, 
into  the  abdomen.  Sometimes  the  cord,  or  the  scrotum,  are  thickened 
and  pit  on  pressure. 

Treatment  may  be  the  same  as  for  ascites,  yet  when  the  effusion  has 
resulted  from  inflammation  of  the  testicle  or  cord,  astringent  applications 
(chalk  and  vinegar)  may  be  applied  to  these.  Then  if  the  liquid  is  not 
re  absorbed  under  diuretics  and  tonics,  it  may  be  drawn  off  through  the 
nozzle  of  a  hypodermic  syringe,  which  has  been  first  passed  through 
carbolic  acid.     In  geldings  it  is  best  to  dissect  out  the  sacks. 

VARICOCELE. 

This  is  an  enlargement  of  the  venous  network  of  the  spermatic  cord, 
and  gives  rise  to  general  thickening  of  the  cord  from  the  Testicle  up  to 
the  ring.  The  same  astringent  dressings  may  be  tried  as  in  hydrocele, 
and  this  failing  castration  may  be  resorted  to. 

ABNORMAL   NUMBER   OF   TESTICLES. 

Sometimes  one  or  both  testicles  are  wanting  5  in  most  such  cases, 
however,  they  are  merely  partially  developed,  and  retained  in  the  in- 
guinal canal,  or  the  abdomen  (cryptorchid).  In  rare  cases  there  may 
be  a  third  testicle,  the  animal  becoming  to  this  extent  a  double  monster. 
Teeth,  hair,  and  other  indications  of  a  second  foetus  have  likewise  been 
found  in  the  testicle,  or  scrotum. 

DEGENERATION  OF   THE   TESTICLES. 

The  testicles  may  become  the  seat  of  fibrous,  calcareous,  fatty,  carti- 
laginous, or  cystic  degeneration,  for  all  of  which  the  appropriate  treat- 
ment is  castration.  They  also  become  the  seat  of  cancer,  glanders,  or 
tuberculosis,  and  castration  is  requisite,  though  with  less  hope  of  ar- 
resting the  disease.  Finally  they  may  become  infested  with  cystic 
tape-Tvorms,  or  the  armed  round  worm  (solcrostomum  cquinumj. 


138 

WARTS  ON   THE   PENIS. 

These  are  best  removed  by  seizing  them  between  the  thumb  and  fore- 
finger and  twisting  them  off.  Or  they  may  be  cut  off  Avith  scissors  and 
the  roots  cauterized  with  nitrate  of  silver, 

DEGENERATION  OF  PENIS — PAPILLOMA,   EPITHELIOMA. 

The  penis  of  the  horse  is  subject  to  great  cauliflower-lilie  growths  on 
its  free  end,  which  extend  back  into  the  substance  of  the  organ,  obstruct 
the  passage  of  urine,  and  cause  very  fetid  discharges.  The  only  resort 
is  to  cut  them  off,  together  with  whatever  portion  of  the  penis  has  be- 
come diseased  and  indurated.  The  operation,  which  should  be  per- 
formed by  a  veterinary  surgeon,  consists  in  cutting  through  the  organ 
from  its  upper  to  its  lower  aspect,  twisting  or  t3ing  the  two  dorsal 
arteries  and  leaving  the  urethra  longer  by  half  an  inch  to  1  inch  than 
the  adjacent  structures. 

EXTRAVASATION  OF  BLOOD  IN  THE  PENIS. 

As  the  result  of  kicks,  blows,  or  of  forcible  striking  of  the  yard  on 
the  tliighs  of  the  mare  which  it  has  failed  to  enter,  the  penis  may  be- 
come the  seat  of  effusion  of  blood  from  one  or  more  ruptured  blood- 
vessels. This  gives  rise  to  a  more  or  less  extensive  swelling  on  one  or 
more  sides,  followed  by  some  heat  and  inflammation,  and  on  recovery  a 
serious  curving  of  the  organ.  The  treatment  in  the  early  stages  may 
be  the  application  of  lotions,  of  alum,  or  other  astringents,  to  limit  the 
amount  of  effusion  and  favor  absorption.  The  penis  should  be  sus- 
pended in  a  sling. 

PARALYSIS   OF   THE  PENIS. 

This  results  from  blows  and  other  injuries,  and  also  in  some  cases 
from  too  frequent  and  exhausting  service.  Tiie  yard  hangs  from  the 
sheath,  flaccid,  pendulous,  and  often  cold.  The  i^assage  of  urine  occurs 
with  lessened  force,  and  especially  without  the  final  jets.  In  cases  of 
local  injury  the  inflammation  should  first  be  subdued  by  astringent  and 
emollient  lotions,  and  in  all  cases  the  syst^  should  be  invigorated  by 
nourishing  diet,  while  30-grain  doses  of  nux  vomica  are  given  twice  a 
day.  Finally,  a  weak  current  of  electricity  sent  through  the  penis  from 
just  beneath  the  anus  to  the  free  portion  of  the  yard,  continued  for  ten 
or  fifteen  minutes  and  repeated  daily,  may  prove  successfal. 

SELF-ABUSE — MASTURBATION. 

Some  stallions  acquire  this  vicious  habit,  stimulating  the  sexual  in- 
stinct to  the  discharge  of  semen,  by  rubbing  the  penis  against  the  belly 
or  between  the  fore  limbs.  The  only  remedy  is  a  mechanical  one,  the 
fixing  of  a  net  under  the  penis  in  such  fashion  as  will  prevent  the  ex- 
tension of  the  penis,  or  so  jyvick  the  organ  as  to  compel  the  animal  to 
desist  through  pain. 


139 

MAL  DU   COIT — DOUEINE. 

This  is  propagated,  like  syphilis,  by  the  act  of  copulation  and  affects 
stallions  and  mares.  It  has  been  long  known  in  Northern  Africa,  Arabia, 
and  Continental  Europe.  It  was  imported  into  Illinois  in  1882  in  a 
Percheron  horse. 

From  one  to  ten  days  after  copulation,  or  in  stallions  it  may  be  after 
some  weeks,  there  is  irritation,  swelling,  and  a  livid  redness  of  the  ex- 
ternal organs  of  generation,  sometimes  followed  by  the  eruption  of  small 
blisters  one-fifth  of  au  inch  across,  on  the  penis,  the  vulva,  clitoris,  and 
vagina,  and  the  subsequent  rupture  of  these  vesicles  and  the  forma- 
tion of  ulcers  or  small  open  sores.  Vesicles  have  not  been  noticed  in 
this  disease  in  the  dry  climate  of  Illinois.  In  the  mare  there  is  frequent 
contraction  of  the  vulva,  urination,  and  the  discharge  of  a  watery  and 
later  a  thick  viscid  liquid  of  a  whitish,  yellowish,  or  reddish  color,  which 
collects  on  and  soils  the  tail.  The  swelling  of  the  vulva  increases  and 
decreases  alternately,  affecting  one  part  more  than  another  and  giving 
a  distorted  appearance  to  the  opening.  The  affection  of  the  skin  leads 
to  the  appearance  of  circular  white  spots,  vrhich  may  remain  distinct  or 
coalesce  into  extensive  patches  which  persist  for  months.  This  with 
the  soiled  tail,  red,  swollen,  puckered,  and  distorted  vulva,  and  an  in- 
creasing weakness  and  paralysis  of  the  hind  limbs,  serve  to  characterize 
the  affection.  The  mare  rarely  breeds,  but  will  take  the  male  and  thus 
propagate  the  disease.  The  disease  "winds  up  with  great  emaciation 
and  stupidity,  and  death  in  four  months  to  two  years.  In  horses  which 
serve  few  mares  there  may  be  only  swelling  of  the  sheath  for  a  year, 
but  -with  frequent  copulation  the  progress  is  more  rapid.  The  penis 
maybe  enlarged,  shrunken,  or  distorted;  the  testicles  are  unusually 
pendant  and  may  be  enlarged  or  wasted  and  flabby;  the  skin,  as  in  the 
mare,  shows  white  spots  and  patches.  Later  the  penis  becomes  par- 
tially paralyzed  and  hangs  out  of  the  sheath ;  swelling  of  the  adjacent 
lymphatic  glands  (in  the  groin)  and  even  of  distant  ones,  and  of  the 
skin,  appear,  and  the  hind  limbs  become  weak  and  unsteady.  luisome 
instances  the  glands  under  the  jaw  swell,  and  a  discharge  flows  from 
the  nose  as  in  glanders.  In  other  cases  the  itching  of  the  skin  leads  to 
gnawing  and  extensive  sores.  Weakness,  emaciation,  and  stupidity 
increase  until  death,  in  fatal  cases,  yet  the  sexual  desire  does  not  seem 
to  fail.  A  stallion  without  sense  to  eat  except  when  food  was  put  in 
his  mouth,  would  still  neigh  and  seek  to  follow  mares.  In  mild  cases 
an  apparent  recovery  may  ensue,  and  through  such  animals  the  disease 
is  propagated  to  new  localities  to  be  roused  into  activity  and  extension 
under  the  stimulus  of  service.  The  diseased  nerve  centers  are  the  seat 
of  cryptogamic  growths.     (Thannhoffer). 

Treatment  of  the  malady  has  proved  eminently  unsatisfactory  It  be- 
longs to  the  purely  contagious  diseases,  and  should  be  stamped  out  by 
the  remorseless  slaughter  or  castration  of  every  horse  or  mare  that  has 
had  sexual  congress  with  a  diseased  animal.    A  urovisiau  for  Govern- 


140 

ment  indemr-ity  for  the  animals  so  destroyed  or  castrated,  and  a  severe 
penalty  for  putting  any  such  animal  to  breeding,  would  serve  as  effectual 
accessory  resorts. 

CASTRATION  OF   STALLIONS. 

This  is  usually  done  at  one  year  old,  but  may  be  accomplished  at  a 
few  weeks  old,  at  the  expense  of  an  imperfect  development  of  the  fore 
parts.    The  simplicity  and  safety  of  the  operation  are  greatest  in  the 
young.    The  delay  till  two,  three,  or  four  years  old  will  secure  a  better 
development  and  carriage  of  the  fore  parts.    The  essential  part  of 
castration  is  the  safe  removal  or  destruction  of  the  testicle  and  the 
arrest  or  prevention  of  bleeding  from  the  spermatic  artery  found  in 
the  anterior  part  of  the  cord.     Into  the  many  methods  of  accomplish- 
ing this,  limited  space  forbids  us  to  enter  here,  so  that  the  method  most 
commonly  adopted,  castration  by  clamps,  will  alone  be  noticed.     The 
animal  having  been  thrown  on  his  left  side,  and  the  right  hind  foot 
drawn  up  on  the  shoulder,  the  exposed  scrotum,  penis,  and  sheath  are 
washed  with  soap  and  water,  any  concretion  of  sebum  being  carefully 
removed  from  the  bilocular  cavity  in  the  end  of  the  penis.    The  left 
spermatic  cord,  just  above  the  testicle,  is  now  seized  in  the  left  hand, 
so  as  to  render  the  skin  tense  over  the  stone,  and  the  right  hand,  armed 
with  the  knife,  makes  an  incision  from  before  backward,  about  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  from  and  parallel  to  the  median  line  between  the 
thighs,  deep  enough  to  expose  the  testicle  and  long  enough  to  allow 
that  organ  to  start  out  through  the  skin.     At  the  moment  of  making 
this  incision  the  left  hand  must  grasp  the  cord  very  firmly,  otherwise 
the  sudden  retraction  of  the  testicle  by  the  cremaster  muscle  may  draw 
it  out  of  the  hand  and  upwards  through  the  canal  and  even  into  the 
abdomen.    In  a  few  seconds,  when  the  struggle  and  retraction  have 
ceased,  the  knife  is  inserted  through  the  cord,  between  its  anterior  and 
posterior  portions  and  the  latter,  the  one  which  the  muscle  retracts,  is 
cut  completely  through.     The  testicle  will  now  hang  limp  and  there  is 
no  longer  any  tendency  to  retraction.     It  should  be  pulled  down  until 
it  will  no  longer  hang  loose  below  the  wound  and  the  clamps  applied 
around  the  still  attached  portion  of  the  cord,  close  up  to  the  skin.    The 
clamps,  which  may  be  made  of  any  tough  wood,  are  grooved  along  the 
center  of  the  surfaces  opposed  to  each  other,  thereby  fulfilling  two  im- 
portant indications,  (a)  enabling  the  clamps  to  hold  more  securely  and 
(b)  providing  for  the  application  of  an  antiseptic  to  the  cord.     For  this 
purpose  a  dram  of  sulphate  of  copper  may  be  mixed  with  an  ounce  of 
lard  and  pressed  into  the  groove  in  the  face  of  each  clamp.     In  apply- 
ing the  clamp  over  the  cord  it  should  be  drawn  so  close  with  pincers  as 
to  press  out  all  blood  from  the  compressed  cord  and  destroy  its  vitality, 
and  the  cord  applied  upon  the  compressing  clamps  should  be  so  hard- 
twined  that  it  will  not  stretch  Later  and  slacken  the  hold.     When  the 
clamp  has  been  fixed  the  testicle  is  cut  off  one-half  to  1  inch  below  it, 


141 

and  the  clamp  may  be  left  tbus  for  twenty-four  hours ;  then,  by  cutting 
the  cord  around  one  end  of  the  clamp,  the  latter  may  be  opened  and  the 
stump  liberated,  without  any  danger  of  bleeding.  Should  the  stump 
hang  out  of  the  wound  it  should  be  pushed  inside  with  the  finger  and 
left  there.  The  wound  should  begin  to  discharge  white  matter  on  the 
second  day  in  hot  weather,  or  the  third  in  cold,  and  from  that  time  a 
good  recovery  may  be  expected. 

CONDITIONS  FAVORABLE   TO   SUCCESSFUL   CASTRATION. 

The  young  horse  suffers  less  from  castration  than  the  old,  and  very 
rarely  perishes.  Good  health  in  the  subject  is  all  important.  Castra- 
tion should  never  be  attempted  during  the  prevalence  of  strangles,  in- 
fluenza, catarrhal  fever,  contagious  pleurisy,  bronchitis,  pneumonia, 
purpura  haemorrhagica,  or  other  specific  disease,  nor  on  subjects  that 
have  been  kept  in  close,  illy  ventilated,  filthy  buildings,  where  the 
system  is  liable  to  have  been  charged  with  putrid  bacteria  or  other 
products.  AVarm  weather  is  to  be  preferred  to  cold,  but  the  fly  time 
should  be  avoided  or  the  flies  kept  at  a  distance  by  the  application  of 
a  watery  solution  of  tar,  carbolic  aciil,  or  camphor  to  the  wound. 

CASTRATION   OF   CRYPTORCHTDS    (RIDGLINGS). 

This  is  the  removal  of  a  testicle  or  testicles  that  have  failed  to  de- 
scend into  the  scrotum,  but  have  been  detained  in  the  inguinal  canal 
or  inside  the  abdomen.  The  mauipulatiooi  requires  an  accurate  an- 
atomical knowledge  of  the  parts,  and  special  skill,  experience,  and 
manual  dexterity,  and  can  not  be  made  clear  to  the  unprofessional  mind 
in  a  short  notice.  It  consists,  however,  in  the  discovery  and  removal 
of  the  missing  gland  by  exploring  through  the  natural  channel  (the 
inguinal  canal),  or,  in  case  it  is  absent,  through  the  inguinal  ring  or 
through  an  artificial  opening  made  in  front  and  above  that  channel  be- 
tween the  abdominal  muscles  and  the  strong  fascia  on  the  inner  side 
of  the  thigh  (Poupart's  ligament).  Whatever  method  is  used,  the  skin, 
hands,  and  instruments  should  be  rendered  aseptic  with  a  solution  of 
raurcuric  chloride  1  part;  water  2,000  parts  (a  carbolic  acid  lotion 
for  the  instruments),  and  the  spermatic  cord  is  best  torn  through  by  the 
ecraseur.  In  many  such  cases,  too,  it  is  desirable  to  sew  up  the  external 
wound  and  keep  the  animal  still,  to  favor  healing  of  the  wound  by 
adhesion. 

PAIN  AFTER   CASTRATION. 

Some  horses  are  pained  and  very  restless  for  some  hours  after  castra- 
tion, and  this  may  extend  to  cramps  of  the  bowels  and  violent  colic. 
This  is  best  kept  in  check  by  carefully  rubbing  the  i^atient  dry  when  he 
rises  from  the  operation,  and  then  leading  him  in  hand  for  some  time. 
If  the  i^ain  still  persists  a  dose  of  laudanum  (1  ounce  for  an  adult)  may 
be  given. 


142 

BLEEDING   AFTER   CASTRATION. 

Bleeding  from  the  wouud  iu  the  scrotum  and  from  the  little  artery 
in  the  posterior  portion  of  the  spermatic  cord  always  occurs,  and  in 
warm  weather  may  appear  to  be  quite  free.  It  scarcely  ever  lasts, 
however,  over  fifteen  minutes,  and  is  easily  checked  by  dashing  cold 
water  against  the  part. 

Bleeding  from  the  spermatic  artery  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  cord 
may  be  dangerous  wheu  due  precaution  has  not  been  taken  to  prevent 
it.  In  such  case  the  stump  of  the  cord  should  be  sought  for  and  the 
artery  twisted  with  artery  forceps  or  tied  with  a  silk  thread.  If  the 
stump  can  not  be  found,  pledgets  of  tow  wet  with  tincture  of  muriate 
of  iron  may  be  stuffed  into  the  canal  to  favor  the  formation  of  clot  and 
the  closure  of  the  artery. 

STRANGULATED   SPERMATIC   CORD. 

If  in  castration  the  cord  is  left  too  long,  so  as  to  hang  out  of  the 
wound,  the  skin  wound  in  contracting  grasps  and  strangles  it,  pre- 
venting the  free  return  of  blood  and  causing  a  steadily  advancing 
swelling.  In  addition  the  cord  becomes  adherent  to  the  lips  of  the 
wound  in  the  skin,  whence  it  derives  an  increased  supply  of  blood, 
and  is  thereby  stimulated  to  more  rapid  swelling.  The  subject  walks 
stiffly,  with  straddling  gait,  loses  appetite,  and  has  a  rapid  pulse  and 
high  fever.  Examination  of  the  wound  discloses  the  partial  closure  of 
the  skin  wound,  and  the  protrusion  from  its  lips  of  the  end  of  the  cord, 
red,  tense,  and  varying  in  size  from  a  hazel-nut  upward.  If  there  is 
no  material  swelling  and  little  protrusion  the  wound  may  be  enlarged 
with  the  knife  and  the  end  of  the  cord  broken  loose  from  any  connec- 
tion with  the  skin,  and  pushed  up  inside.  If  the  swelling  is  larger  the 
mass  constitutes  a  tumor,  and  must  be  removed.     (See  below.) 

SWELLING  OF   THE    SHEATH,  PENIS,   AND   ABDOMEN. 

This  occurs  in  certain  unhealthy  states  of  the  system,  in  unhealthy 
seasons,  as  the"  result  of  operating  without  cleansing  the  sheath  and 
penis,  or  of  keeping  the  subject  in  a  filthy,  impure  building,  as  the 
result  of  infecting  the  wound  by  hands  or  instruments  bearing  septic 
bacteria,  or  as  the  result  of  i)remature  closure  of  the  w^ound,  and  im- 
prisonment of  matter. 

Pure  air  and  cleanliness  of  groin  and  wound  are  to  be  secured. 
Antiseptics,  like  the  mercuric  chloride  lotion  (1  part  to  2,000)  are  to  be 
applied  to  the  i)arts;  the  wound,  if  closed,  is  to  be  opened  anew,  any 
accumulated  matter  or  blood  washed  out,  and  the  antiseptic  liquid 
freely  applied.  The  most  tense  or  dependent  parts  of  the  swelling  in 
sheath  or  penis,  or  beneath  the  belly,  should  be  pricked  at  intervals 
of  3  or  4  inches,  and  to  a  depth  of  half  an  inch,  and  antiseptics  freely 
used  to  the  surface.    Fomentations  with  warm  water  may  also  be  used 


143 

to  favor  oozing  from  the  iucisions  and  to  encourage  tlie  formation  of 
white  matter  iu  the  original  wounds,  which  must  not  be  allowed  to  close 
again  at  once.  A  free,  cream-like  discharge  implies  a  healthy  action  in 
the  sore,  and  is  the  precursor  of  recovery. 

PHYMOSIS  AND   PARAPHYMOSIS. 

In  cases  of  swelling,  as  above,  the  penis  may  be  imprisoned  within 
the  sheath  (phymosis)  or  protruded  and  swollen  so  that  it  can  not  be 
retracted  into  it  (paraphymosis).  In  these  cases  the  treatment  indi- 
cated above,  and  especially  the  scarifications,  will  prove  a  useful  pre- 
liminary resort.  The  use  of  astringent  lotions  is  always  desirable,  and 
in  case  of  the  protruded  penis  the  application  of  an  elastic  or  simple 
linen  bandage,  so  as  to  press  out  the  blood  and  accumulated  fluid,  will 
enable  the  operator  to  return  it. 

TUMORS   ON   THE   SPERMATIC   CORD. 

These  are  due  to  rough  handling  or  dragging  upon  the  cord  in  castra- 
tion, to  strangulation  of  unduly  long  cords  in  the  external  wound,  to 
adhesion  of  the  end  of  the  cord  to  the  skin,  to  inflammation  of  the  cord 
succeeding  exposure  to  cold  or  wet,  or  to  the  presence  of  septic  or 
irritant  matters.  These  tumors  give  rise  to  a  stiff,  straddling  gait,  and 
may  be  felt  as  hard  masses  in  the  groin  connected  above  with  the  cord. 
They  may  continue  to  grow  slowly  for  many  years  until  they  reach  a 
weight  of  15  or  20  pounds,  and  contract  adhesions  to  all  surrounding 
parts.  If  disconnected  from  the  skin  and  inguinal  canal  they  may  be 
removed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  testicle,  while  if  larger  and  firmly 
adherent  to  the  skin  and  surrounding  parts  generally  they  must  be  care- 
fully dissected  from  the  parts,  the  arteries  being  tied  as  they  are  reached 
and  the  cord  finally  torn  through  with  an  ecraseur.  When  the  cord 
has  become  swollen  and  indurated  up  into  the  abdomen  such  removal  is 
impossible,  though  a  partial  destruction  of  the  mass  may  still  be  at- 
tempted by  passing  white  hot  pointed  irons  upward  toward  the  inguinal 
ring  in  the  center  of  the  thickened  and  indurated  cord. 

CASTRATION  BY  THE   COVERED   OPERATION. 

This  is  only  required  in  case  of  hernia  or  protrusion  of  bowels  or 
omentum  into  the  sack  of  the  scrotum,  and  consists  in  the  return  of 
the  hernia  and  the  application  of  the  caustic  clamps  over  the  cord  and 
inner  walls  of  the  inguinal  canal,  so  that  the  walls  of  the  latter  become 
adherent  above  the  clamps,  the  canal  is  obliterated,  and  further  pro- 
trusion is  hindered.  For  the  full  description  of  this  and  of  the  opera- 
tion for  hernia  in  geldings,  see  article  on  hernia. 

CASTRATION  OP  THE   MARE. 

Castration  is  a  much  more  dangerous  operation  in  the  mare  than  in  the 
females  of  other  domesticated  quadrupeds,  and  should  never  be  resorted 


144 

to  except  in  animals  that  become  nnraanngeable  on  the  recurrence  of 
heat,  and  that  will  not  breed  or  that  are  utterly  unsuited  to  breeding. 
Formerly  the  operation  was  extensivelj'  practiced  in  Europe,  the  incision 
being  made  through  the  flank,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  subjects 
perishing.  By  operating  through  the  \agina  the  risk  can  be  largely 
obviated,  as  the  danger  of  unhealthy  inflammation  in  the  wound  is 
greatly  lessened.  The  animal  should  be  fixed  in  a  trevis,  with  each  foot 
fixed  to  a  post  and  a  sling  placed  under  the  body,  or,  better,  it  may  be 
thrown  and  put  under  chloroform.  The  manual  operation  demands 
special  professional  knowledge  and  skill,  but  it  consists  essentially  in 
making  an  opening  through  thereof  of  the  vagina  just  above  the  neck 
of  the  womb,  then  following  with  the  hand  each  horn  of  the  womb 
until  the  ovary  on  that  side  is  reached  and  grasped  between  the  lips  of 
forceps  and  twisted  off.  It  might  be  torn  off  by  an  ecraseur  especially 
constructed  for  the  purpose.  The  straining  that  follows  the  operation 
may  be  checked  by  ounce  doses  of  laudanum,  and  any  risk  of  protru- 
sion of  the  bowels  may  be  obviated  by  applying  the  truss  advised  to 
l^reveut  eversiou  of  the  womb.  To  further  prevent  the  i^ressure  of 
the  abdominal  contents  against  the  vaginal  wound  the  mare  should 
be  tied  short  and  high  for  twenty-four  or  forty-eight  hours,  after  which 
I  have  found  it  best  to  remove  the  truss  and  allow  the  privilege  of 
lying  down.  Another  important  i^oint  is  to  give  bran  mashes  and 
other  laxative  diet  only,  and  in  moderate  quantity,  for  a  fortnight,  and 
to  unload  the  rectum  by  copious  injections  of  w^arm  water  in  case  it 
should  threaten  to  become  impacted. 

STERILITY. 

sterility  may  be  in  the  male  or  in  the  female.  If  due  to  the  stallion, 
then  all  the  mares  put  to  him  remain  barren;  if  due  to  the  mare,  she 
alone  fails  to  conceive. 

In  the  stallion  sterility  may  be  due  to  the  following  causes  :  {a)  Im- 
perfect development  of  the  testicles,  as  in  cases  in  which  they  are  re- 
tained within  the  abdomen:  (b)  inflammation  of  the  testicles,  resulting 
in  induration ;  (c)  fatty  degeneration  of  the  testicles,  in  stallions  lib- 
erally fed  on  starchy  food  and  not  sufticiently  exercised;  {d)  fatty 
degeneration  of  the  excretory  ducts  of  the  testicles  {vasa  deferent ia)  '^ 
(e)  inflammation  or  ulceration  of  these  ducts;  (/)  inflammation  or  ulcer- 
ation of  the  mucous  membrane  covering  the  penis;  (g)  injuries  to  the 
penis  from  blows  (often  causing  paralysis) ;  {h)  warty  growths  on  the 
end  of  the  penis;  (i)  tumors  of  other  kinds  (largely  pigmentary)  af- 
fecting the  testicles  or  penis;  (j)  nervous  diseases  which  abolish  the 
sexual  appetite,  or  that  control  over  the  muscles  which  is  essential  to 
the  act  of  coition;  {k)  azoturia  with  resulting  weakness  or  paralysis 
of  the  muscles  of  the  loins  or  the  front  of  the  thigh  (above  the  stifle); 
(Z)  ossification  (anchylosis)  of  the  joints  of  the  back  or  loins,  which 
renders  the  animal  unable  to  rear  or  mount;  (m)  spavins,  ringbones, 


145 

or  other  painful  affections  of  the  hind  limbs,  the  pain  of  which  in 
mouutiug  causes  the  animal  to  suddenly  stop  short  in  the  act.  In  the 
first  three  of  these  only  {a,  b,  and  c)  is  there  real  sterility  in  the  sense 
of  the  non-development  or  imperfect  development  of  the  male  vivifying 
element  (spermatozoa).  In  the  other  examples  the  secretion  may  be 
perfect  in  kind  and  amount,  but  as  copulation  is  prevented  it  can  not 
reach  and  impregnate  the  ovum. 

In  the  mare  barrenness  is  eqnally  due  to  a  variety  of  causes.  In  a 
number  of  breeding  studs  the  i^roportion  of  sterile  mares  has  varied 
from  20  to  40  per  cent.  It  may  be  due  to  :  (a)  Imperfect  development 
of  the  ovary  and  non-maturation  of  ova;  (b)  cystic  or  other  tumors  of 
the  ovary ;  (c)  fatty  degeneration  of  the  ovary  in  very  obese,  pampered 
mares;  {d)  fatty  degeneration  of  the  excretory  tubes  of  the  ovaries 
(fallopian  tubes);  (e)  catarrh  of  the  womb,  with  muc6-purulent  dis- 
charge; (/)  irritable  condition  of  the  womb,  with  profuse  secretion, 
straining,  and  ejection  of  the  semen;  {g)  nervous  irritability,  leading 
to  the  same  expulsion  of  the  male  element;  (h)  high  condition  (plethora) 
with  profuse  secretion  and  excitement;  (i)  low  condition  with  imperfect 
maturation  of  the  ova  and  lack  of  sexual  desire;  (j)  poor  feeding,  over- 
work, and  chronic  debilitating  diseases,  as  leading  to  the  condition  just 
named ;  (7;)  closure  of  the  neck  of  the  womb,  temporarily  by  spasm,  or 
permanently  by  inflammation  and  induration;  (l)  closure  of  the  entrance 
to  the  vagina  through  imperforate  hymen,  a  rare  though  not  unknown 
condition  in  the  mare;  (/»)  acquired  indisposition  to  breed,  seen  in  old, 
hard  worked  mares,  which  are  first  put  to  the  stallion  when  aged ;  {n) 
change  of  climate  has  repeatedly  been  followed  by  barrenness ;  (o)  hy- 
bridity,  which  in  male  and  female  alike,  usually  entails  sterility. 

The  treatment  of  the  majoritj^  of  these  conditions  will  be  found  dealt 
with  in  other  parts  of  this  work,  so  that  it  is  only  necessary  here  to 
name  them  as  causes.  Some,  however,  must  be  specialh^  referred  to  in 
this  place.  Stallions  with  undescended  testicles  are  beyond  the  reach 
of  medicine,  and  should  be  castrated  and  devoted  to  other  uses.  In- 
durated testicles  may  sometimes  be  remedied  in  the  early  stages  by 
smearing  with  a  weak  iodine  ointment  daily  for  a  length  of  time,  and 
at  the  same  time  invigorating  the  system  by  liberal  feeding  and  judi- 
cious work.  Fatty  degeneration  is  best  met  by  an  albuminoid  diet 
(wheat  bran,  cotton-seed  meal,  rape  cake)  and  constant,  well  regulated 
work.  Saccharine,  starchy  and  fatty  food  (potatoes,  wheat,  corn,  etc.) 
are  to  be  specially  avoided.  In  the  mare  one  diseased  and  irritable 
ovary  should  be  removed,  to  do  away  with  the  resulting  excitability  of 
the  remainder  of  the  generative  organs.  An  irritable  womb,  with  fre- 
quent straining  and  the  ejection  of  a  profuse  secretion,  may  sometimes 
be  corrected  by  a  restricted  diet  and  full  but  well  regulated  work. 
Even  fatigue  will  act  beneficially  in  some  such  cases,  hence  the  practice 
of  the  Arab  riding  his  mare  to  exhaustion  just  before  service.  The 
perspiration  in  such  a  case,  like  the  action  of  a  purgative  or  the  abstrac- 
11035 10 


146 

tion  of  blood  just  before  service,  benefits,  by  rendering  the  blood-ves- 
sels less  full,  by  lessening  secretion  in  tlie  womb  and  elsewhere,  and 
thus  counteracting  the  tendency  to  the  ejection  and  loss  of  semen.  If 
these  means  are  ineffectual  a  full  dose  of  camphor  (2  drams)  or  of  sal- 
acin  may  at  times  assist.  Low  condition  and  anremia  demands  just  the 
opposite  kind  of  treatment — rich,  nourishing,  albuminoid  food,  bitter 
tonics  (geutian),  sunshine,  gentle  exercise,  liberal  grooming,  and  sup- 
porting treatment  generally  are  here  in  order.  Spasmodic  closure  of 
the  neck  of  the  womb  is  common  and  is  easily  remedied  in  the  mare  by 
dilatation  with  the  fingers. 

The  hand,  smeared  with  belladonna  ointment  and  with  the  fingers 
drawn  into  the  form  of  a  cone,  is  introduced  through  the  vagina  until 
the  projecting,  rounded  neck  of  the  womb  is  felt  at  its  anterior  end. 
This  is  opened  by  the  careful  insertion  of  one  finger  at  a  time  until  the 
fingers  have  been  passed  through  the  constricted  neck  into  the  open 
cavity  of  the  womb.  The  introduction  is  made  with  a  gentle,  rotary  mo- 
tion, and  all  precipitate  violence  is  avoided,  as  abrasion,  laceration,  or 
other  cause  of  irritation  is  likely  to  interfere  with  the  retention  of  the 
semen  and  with  impregnation.  If  the  neck  of  the  womb  is  rigid  and 
unyielding  from  the  induration  which  follows  inflammation — a  rare  con- 
dition in  the  mare,  though  common  in  the  cow — more  force  will  be  req- 
uisite, and  it  may  even  be  needful  to  incise  the  neck  to  the  depth  of 
one-sixth  of  an  inch  in  four  or  more  opposite  directions,  i)rior  to  forc- 
ible dilatation.  The  incision  may  be  made  with  a  probe-pointed  knife, 
and  should  be  done  by  a  professional  man  if  possible.  The  subsequent 
dilatation  may  be  best  effected  by  the  slow  expansion  of  sponge  or  sea- 
weed tents  inserted  into  the  narrow  canal.  In  such  cases  it  is  best  to 
let  the  wounds  of  the  neck  heal  before  putting  to  horse.  An  imperfo- 
rate hymen  may  be  freely  incised  in  a  crucial  manner  until  the  passage 
will  admit  the  human  hand.  An  ordinary  knife  may  be  used  for  this 
purpose,  and  after  the  operation  the  stallion  may  be  admitted  at  once 
or  only  after  the  wounds  have  healed. 

INDICATIONS  OF  PREGNANCY. 

As  the  mere  fact  of  service  by  the  stallion  does  not  insure  pregnancy, 
it  is  important  that  the  result  should  be  determined,  to  save  the  mare 
from  unnecessary  and  dangerous  work  or  medication  when  actually  in 
foal  and  to  obviate  wasteful  and  needless  i>recautions  when  she  is  not. 

The  cessation  and  non-recurrence  of  the  symptoms  of  heat  (horsing)  is 
a  most  significant  though  not  infallible  sign  of  conception.  If  the 
sexual  excitement  speedily  subsides  and  the  mare  persistently  refuses 
the  stallion  for  a  month,  she  is  probably  pregnant.  In  very  exceptional 
cases  a  mare  will  accept  a  second  or  third  service  after  weeks  or  months, 
though  pregnant,  and  some  mares  will  refuse  the  horse  persistently, 
though  conception  has  not  taken  place,  and  this  in  spite  of  warm 
weather,  good  condition  of  the  mare,  and  liberal  feeding.    The  recur- 


147 

rence  of  heat  in  tlie  iiregnant  mare  is  most  likely  to  take  place  in  hot 
weather.  If  heat  merely  persists  an  undue  length  of  time  after  service, 
or  if  it  re-appears  shortly  after,  in  warm  weather  and  in  a  compara- 
tively idle  mare,  on  good  feeding,  it  is  less  significant,  while  the  per- 
sistent absence  of  heat  under  such  conditions  may  be  usually  accepted 
as  iiroof  of  conception. 

An  unwonted  gentleness  and  docility  on  the  part  of  a  previously  irrita- 
ble or  vicious  mare,  and  supervening  on  service,  is  an  excellent  indica- 
tion of  pregnancy,  the  generative  instinct  which  caused  the  excitement 
having  been  satisfied. 

An  increase  of  fot,  with  softness  and  flabbiness  of  muscle,  a  loss  of 
energy,  indisposition  for  active  w^ork,  a  manifestation  of  laziness,  in- 
deed, and  of  fatigue  early  and  easily  induced,  when  preceded  by  service, 
will  usually  imi^ly  conception. 

Enlargement  of  the  abdomen,  especially  in  its  lower  third,  with  slight 
falling  in  beneath  the  loins  and  hollowness  of  the  back  are  significant 
symptoms,  though  they  may  be  entirely  absent.  Swelling  and  firmness 
of  the  [udder,  with  the  smoothing  out  of  its  wrinkles,  is  a  suggestive 
sign,  even  though  it  appears  only  at  intervals  during  gestation. 

A  steady  increase  in  weight  (H  pounds  daily)  about  tbe  fourth  or 
fifth  month  is  a  useful  indication  of  pregnancy.  So  is  a  swollen  and  red 
or  bluish-red  appearance  of  the  vaginal  mucous  membrane. 

From  the  seventh  or  eighth  mouth  onward  the  foal  may  be  felt  by  the 
hand  (palm  or  knuckles)  pressed  into  the  abdomen  in  front  of  the  left 
stifle.  The  sudden  push  displaces  the  foal  toward  the  opposite  side  of 
the  womb,  and  as  it  floats  back  its  hard  body  is  felt  to  strike  against 
the  hand.  If  the  pressure  is  maintained  the  movements  of  the  live  foal 
are  felt,  and  especially  in  the  morning  and  after  a  drink  of  cold  water, 
or  during  feeding.  A  drink  of  cold  water  will  often  stimulate  the  fa?tu8 
to  movements  that  may  be  seen  by  the  eye,  but  an  excess  of  iced  water 
may  prove  injurious,  even  to  the  causing  of  abortion.  Cold  water 
dashed  on  the  belly  has  a  similar  effect  on  the  foetus  and  equally  en- 
dangers abortion. 

Examination  of  the  uterus  with  the  oiled  hand  introduced  into  the 
rectum  is  still  more  satisfactory,  and  if  cautiously  conducted  no  more 
dangerous.  The  rectum  must  be  first  emptied  and  then  the  hand  car- 
ried forward  until  it  reaches  the  front  edge  of  tbe  pelvic  bones  below, 
and  pressed  downward  to  ascertain  the  size  and  outline  of  the  womb. 
In  the  unimpregnated  state  the  vagina  and  womb  can  be  felt  as  a  sin- 
gle rounded  tube,  dividing  in  front  to  two  smaller  tubes  (the  horns  of 
the  womb).  In  the  pregnant  mare  not  only  the  body  of  the  womb  is 
enlarged,  but  still  more  so  one  of  the  horns  (right  or  left),  and  on  com- 
pression the  latter  is  found  to  contain  a  hard,  nodular  body,  floating  in 
a  liquid,  which  in  the  latter  half  of  gestation  may  be  stimulated  by  gen- 
tle pressure  to  manifest  spontaneous  movements.  By  this  method  the 
presence  oi  the  foetus  may  be  determined  as  early  as  the  third  month. 


14S 

If  tlie  complete  nataral  outline  of  the  virgin  -n-omb  can  n^t  be  made 
out,  carefal  examination  should  always  be  made  on  the  right  and  left 
side  for  the  enlarged  horn  and  its  living  contents.  Should  there  still 
be  difficnlty  the  mare  should  be  placed  on  au  inclined  plane,  with  her 
hind  parts  lowest,  and  two  assistants,  standing  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
body,  should  raise  the  lower  i^art  of  the  abdomen  by  a  sheet  passed 
beneath  it.  Finally  the  ear  or  stethoscope  applied  on  the  wall  of  the 
abdomen  in  front  of  the  stifle  may  detect  the  beating  of  the  fcrtal  heart 
(one  hundred  and  twenty-five  per  minute)  and  a  blowing  souud  ithe 
uterine  sough),  much  less  rapid  and  corresponding  to  the  number  of 
the  pulse  of  the  dam.  It  is  heard  most  satisfactorily  after  the  sixth  or 
eighth  month  and  in  the  absence  of  active  rumbling  of  the  bowels  of 
the  dam. 

DrEATIO>'  OF   rEEGNA>'CY. 

Glares  usually  go  about  eleven  months  with  young,  though  first  preg- 
nancies often  last  a  year.  Foals  have  lived  when  born  at  the  three 
hundredth  day,  so  with  others  carried  till  the  four  hundredth  day. 
"With  the  longer  pregnancies  there  is  a  greater  probabiliiy  of  male  off- 
spring. 

HYGIEXE    OF   THE   PEEGX'A>'T   3IAEE. 

The  pregnant  mare  should  not  be  exposed  to  teasing  by  a  young  and 
ardent  stallion,  nor  should  she  be  overworked  or  fatigued,  particularly 
under  the  saddle  or  on  uneven  ground.  Yet  exercise  is  beneficial  to 
both  mother  and  offspring,  and  in  the  absence  of  moderate  work  the 
breeding  mare  should  be  kept  in  a  lot  where  she  can  take  exercise  at 
will. 

The  food  should  be  liberal,  but  not  fattening,  oats,  bran,  sound  hay, 
and  other  foods  rich  in  the  principles  which  form  flesh  and  bone  being 
especially  indicated.  All  aliments  that  tend  to  indigestion  are  to  be 
especially  avoided.  Thus  rank,  aqueous,  rapidly  grown  grass  and  other 
green  food,  partially  ripe  rye  grass,  millet,  Hungarian  grass,  vetches, 
pease,  beans,  or  maize  are  objectionable,  as  is  over-ripe  fibrous,  innu- 
tritions hay,  or  that  which  has  been  injured  and  rendered  musty  by 
wet,  or  that  which  is  infested  with  smut  or  ergot.  Food  that  tends  to  cos- 
tiveness  should  be  avoided.  Water  given  often,  and  at  a  temperature 
considerably  above  freezing,  -will  avoid  the  dangers  of  indigestions  and 
abortions  which  result  from  taking  too  much  ice-cold  water  at  one  time. 
Very  cold  or  frozen  food  is  objectionable  in  the  same  sense.  Severe 
surgical  operations  and  medicines  that  act  violently  on  the  womb,  bow- 
els, or  kidneys  are  to  be  avoided  as  being  liable  to  cause  abortion.  Con- 
stipation should  be  corrected,  if  possible,  by  bran  mashes,  carrots,  or 
beets,  seconded  by  excercise,  and  if  a  medicinal  laxative  is  required  it 
should  be  olive  oil  or  other  equally  bland  agent. 

The  stall  of  the  pregnant  mare  should  not  be  too  narrow  so  as  to 
cramp  her  ^vhen  lying  down,  or  to  entail  violent  efforts  in  getting  up. 


149 

and  it  should  not  slope  too  mucU  from  the  front  backward,  as  this 
throws  the  weight  of  the  uterus  back  on  the  pelvis  and  endangers  pro- 
trusions and  even  abortion.  Violent  mental  impressions  are  to  be 
avoided,  for  though  the  majority  of  mares  are  not  afi'ected  thereby,  yet  a 
certain  number  are  so  jirofoundly  impressed  that  peculiarities  and  dis- 
tortions are  entailed  on  the  offspring.  Hence,  there  is  wisdom  shown  in 
ba-nishing  iiarti-colored  or  objectionably  tinted  animals,  and  those  that 
show  deformities  or  faulty  conformation.  Hence,  too,  the  importance 
of  preventing  prolonged  acute  suffering  by  the  pregnant  mare,  as  cer- 
tain troubles  of  the  eyes,  feet,  and  joints  in  the  foals  have  been  clearly 
traced  to  the  concentration  of  the  mother's  mind  on  corresponding 
injured  organs  in  herself.  Sire  and  dam  alike  tend  to  reproduce  their 
l^ersoual  defects  which  predispose  to  disease,  but  the  dam  is  far  more 
likely  to  perpetuate  the  evil  in  her  progeny  which  was  carried  while 
she  was  personally  enduring  severe  suff'ering  caused  by  such  defects. 
Hence,  an  active  bone  spavin  or  ring-bone,  causing  lameness,  is  more  ob- 
jectionable than  that  in  which  the  inflammation  and  lameness  have  both 
passed,  and  an  active  ophthalmia  is  more  to  be  feared  than  even  an  old 
cataract.  For  this  reason  all  active  diseases  in  the  breeding  mare 
should  be  soothed  and  abated  at  as  early  a  moment  as  possible. 

EXTKA-UTERINE   GESTATIOI^. 

It  is  rare  in  the  domestic  animals  to  find  the  fcetus  developed  else- 
where than  in  the  womb.  The  exceptional  forms  are  those  in  which 
the  sperm  of  the  male,  making  its  way  turough  the  womb  and  Fallopian 
tubes,  impregnates  the  ovum  prior  to  its  escape,  and  in  which  the  now 
vitalized  and  growing  ovum,  by  reason  of  its  gradually  increasing  size, 
becomes  imprisoned  and  fails  to  escape  into  the  womb.  The  arrest  of 
the  ovum  may  be  in  the  substance  of  the  ovary  itself  (ovarian  preg- 
nancy), in  the  Fallopian  tube  (tubal  pregnancy),  or  when  by  its  contin- 
uous enlargement  it  has  ruptured  its  envelopes  so  that  it  escapes  into 
the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  it  may  become  attached  to  any  part  of  the 
serous  membrane  and  draw  its  nourishment  directly  from  that  (abdom- 
inal pregnancy).  In  all  such  cases  there  is  an  increase  and  enlarge- 
ment of  the  capillary  blood-vessels  at  the  point  to  which  the  embryo 
has  attached  itself  so  as  to  furnish  the  needful  nutriment  for  the  grow- 
ing offspring. 

All  appreciable  symptoms  are  absent,  unless  from  the  death  of 
the  fcetus,  or  its  interference  with  normal  functior^s,  general  disorder 
and  indications  of  parturition  supervene.  If  these  occur  later  than  the 
natural  time  for  parturition  they  are  the  more  significant.  There  may 
be  general  malaise,  loss  of  appetite,  elevated  temperature,  accelerated 
pulse,  with  or  without  distinct  labor  pains.  Examination  with  the 
oiled  hand  in  the  rectum  will  reveal  t^^he  womb  of  the  natural  uuim- 
preguated  size  and  shape  and  with  both  uorns  of  one  size.  Further 
exploration  may  detect  an  elastic  mass  aparc  from  the  womb  and  in  the 


150 

interior  of  which  may  be  felt  the  characteristic  solid  body  of  thefcetas. 
If  the  latter  is  s*^ill  alive  and  can  be  stimulated  to  move  the  evidence 
is  even  more  perfect.  The  foetus  may  die  aud  be  carried  for  years,  its 
soft  structures  becoming  absorbed  so  as  to  leave  only  the  bones,  or  by 
pressure  it  may  form  a  fistulous  opening  through  the  abdominal  walls, 
or  less  frequently  through  the  vagina  or  rectum.  In  the  latter  cases  the 
best  course  is  to  favor  the  expulsion  of  the  foal  and  to  wash  out  the  re- 
sulting cavity  with  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid  1  i)art  to  water  50  parts. 
This  may  be  repeated  daily.  Where  there  is  no  spontaneous  opening 
it  is  injudicous  to  interfere,  as  the  danger  from  the  retention  of  the 
foetus  is  less  than  that  from  septic  fermentations  in  the  enormous  foetal 
sack  when  that  has  been  opened  to  the  air. 

MOLES— ANIDIAN  MONSTERS. 

These  are  evidently  products  of  conception,  in  which  the  impregnated 
ovum  has  failed  to  develop  naturally,  and  presents  only  a  chaotic  mass 
of  skin,  hair,  bones,  muscles,  etc.,  attached  to  the  inner  surface  of  the 
womb  by  an  umbilical  cord,  which  is  itself  often  shriveled  aud  wasted. 
They  are  usually  a'ccompanied  by  a  well-developed  foetus,  so  that  the 
mole  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  twin  which  has  undergone  arrest  and 
vitiation  of  development.  They  are  expelled  by  the  ordinary  process 
of  parturition,  and  usually,  at  the  same  time,  with  the  normally  devel- 
oped offspring. 

CYSTIC  DISEASE  OF  THE  WALLS  OF  THE  "WO^IB— VESICULAR  MOLE. 

This  condition  appears  to  be  due  to  hypertrophy  (enlargement)  of 
the  villi  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  womb,  which  become  greatly  in- 
creased in  number  and  hollowed  out  internally  into  a  series  of  cysts  or 
pouches  containing  liquid.  Unlike  the  true  mole,  therefore,  they  appear 
to  be  disease  of  the  maternal  structure  of  the  womb  rather  than  of  the 
product  of  conception.  Eodet,  in  a  case  of  this  kind,  which  had  pro- 
duced active  labor  pains,  quieted  the  disorder  with  anodynes  aud  secured 
a  recovery.  Where  this  is  not  available  attempts  may  be  made  to  re- 
move the  mass  with  the  ecraseur  or  otherwise,  following  this  up  with 
antiseptic  injections,  as  advised  under  the  last  heading. 

DROPSY   OF   THE   WOMB. 

This  appears  as  a  result  of  some  disease  of  the  walls  of  the  womb, 
but  has  been  frequently  observed  after  sexual  congress,  and  has,  there- 
fore, been  confounded  with  pregnancy.  The  symptoms  are  those  of 
pregnanc3^,  but  without  any  movements  of  the  foetus  and  without  the 
detection  of  any  solid  body  in  the  womb  when  examined  with  the  oiled 
hand  in  the  rectum.  At  the  end  of  four  or  eight  months  there  are 
signs  of  parturition  or  of  frequent  straining  to  pass  urine,  and  after  a 
time  the  liquid  is  discharged  clear  and  watery,  or  muddy,  thick,  aud 
fetid.    The  hand  introduced  into  the  womb  can  detect  neither  foetus 


151 

nor  foetal  membrane.  If  the  neck  of  the  womb  closes  the  liquid  may 
accumulate  a  second  time,  oi:  even  a  third,  if  no  means  are  taken  to 
correct  the  tendency.  The  best  resort  is  to  remove  any  diseased  product 
that  may  be  found  attached  to  the  walls  of  the  womb,  and  to  inject  it 
daily  with  a  warm  solution  of  carbolic  acid  2  drams,  chloride  of  zinc 
oue-half  dram,  water,  1  quart.  A  course  of  bitter  tonics,  gentian  2 
drams,  sulphate  of  iron  2  drams,  daily,  should  be  given,  and  a  nutri- 
tious, easily  digested  and  slightly  laxative  diet  allowed. 

DEOPSY   OF   THE   AMNIOS. 

This  differs  from  simple  dropsy  of  the  womb  in  that  the  fluid  collects 
in  the  inner  of  the  two  water  bags  (that  in  which  the  foal  floats)  and 
not  in  the  otherwise  void  cavity  of  the  womb.  This  affection  can  oc- 
cur only  in  the  pregnant  animal,  while  dropsy  of  the  womb  occurs  in 
the  unimpregnated.  The  blood  of  the  pregnant  mare  contains  an  ex- 
cess of  water  and  a  smaller  proportion  of  albumen  and  red  globules,  and 
when  this  is  still  further  aggravated  by  poor  feeding,  and  other  unhy- 
gienic conditions,  there  is  developed  the  tendency  to  liquid  transuda- 
tion from  the  vessels  and  dropsy.  As  the  watery  condition  of  the  blood 
increases  with  advancing  pregnancy,  so  dropsy  of  the  amnios  is  a  dis- 
ease of  the  last  four  or  five  months  of  gestation.  The  abdomen  is  large 
and  pendulous,  and  the  swelling  fluctuates  under  pressure,  though  the 
solid  body  of  the  fa3tus  can  still  be  felt  to  strike  against  the  hand 
pressed  into  the  swelling.  If  the  hand  is  introduced  into  the  vagina 
the  womb  is  found  to  be  tense  and  round,  with  the  projecting  rounded 
neck  effaced,  while  the  hand  in  the  rectum  will  detect  the  rounded 
swollen  mass  of  the  womb  so  firm  and  tense  that  the  body  of  the  fostus 
can  not  be  felt  within  it.  The  mare  moves  weakly  and  unsteadily  on  its 
limbs,  having  difficulty  in  supporting  the  great  weight,  and  in  bad 
cases  there  may  be  loss  of  appetite,  stocking  (dropsy)  of  the  hind  limbs, 
difficult  breathing,  and  colicky  pains.  The  tension  may  lea  d  to  abortion , 
or  a  slow,  laborious  parturition  may  occur  at  the  usual  time. 

Treatment  consists  in  relieving  the  tension  and  accumulation  by 
puncturing  the  foetal  membrane  with  a  cannula  and  trochar  introduced 
through  the  neck  of  the  womb  and  the  withdrawal  of  the  trochar  so  as 
to  leave  the  canula  in  situ.  Or  the  membranes  may  be  punctured  with 
the  finger  and  the  excess  of  liquid  allowed  to  escape.  This  may  bring 
on  abortion,  or  the  wound  may  close  and  gestation  continue  to  the  full 
terra.  A  course  of  tonics  (gentian  root  2  drams,  sulphate  of  iron  2 
drams,  daily)  will  do  much  to  fortify  the  system  and  counteract  further 
excessive  efl'usion. 

DROPSY   OF   THE   LIMBS,  PERINEUM,  AND  ABDOMEN. 

The  disposition  to  dropsy  often  shows  itself  in  the  hind  and  even  in 
in  the  fore  limbs,  around  and  beneath  the  vulva  (perinneum)  and  be- 
neath the  abdomen  and  chest.     The  affected  parts  are  swollen  and  pit 


152 

on  pressure,  but  are  not  especially  tender,  and  subside  more  or  less 
perfectly  under  exercise,  band  rubbiug,  and  bandages.  In  obstinate 
cases  rubbing  witb  tbe  following  liniment  may  be  resorted  to :  Com- 
pound tincture  of  iodine,  2  ounces  ;  tannic  acid,  one-balf  dram;  water, 
10  ounces.     It  does  not  last  over  a  day  or  two  after  parturition. 

CRAMPS   OF   THE   HIND   LIMBS. 

The  pressure  of  the  distended  womb  on  the  nerves  and  blood-vessels 
of  the  pelvis,  besides  conducing  to  dropsy,  occasionally  causes  cramps 
of  the  hind  limbs.  The  limb  is  raised  without  flexing  the  joints,  the 
front  of  the  hoof  being  directed  toward  the  ground,  or  the  spasms  oc- 
curring intermittently  the  foot  is  kicked  violently  against  the  ground 
several  times  in  rapid  succession.  The  muscles  are  felt  to  be  firm  and 
rigid.  The  cramps  may  be  promptly  relieved  by  active  rubbing,  or  by 
walking  the  animal  about,  and  it  does  not  reappear  after  parturition. 

CONSTIPATION. 

This  may  result  from  compression  by  the  gravid  womb,  and  is  best 
corrected  by  a  graduated  allowance  of  boiled  flaxseed. 

PARALYSIS. 

The  pressure  on  the  nerves  of  the  pelvis  is  liable  to  cause  paralysis 
of  the  hind  limbs,  or  in  the  mare  of  the  nerve  of  sight.  These  are  ob- 
stinate until  after  parturition,  when  they  recover  spontaneously,  or 
under  a  course  of  nux  vomica  and  (locally)  stimulating  liniments. 

PROLONGED   RETENTION   OF   THE   FCETUS   (FOAL). 

In  the  mare,  though  far  less  frequently  than  in  the  cow,  parturition 
may  not  be  completed  at  term,  and  the  foal  may  continue  to  be  carried 
in  the  womb' for  a  number  of  months,  to  the  serious,  or  even  fatal  in- 
jury of  the  mare.  Hamon  records  one  case  in  which  the  mare  died 
after  carrying  the  fffitus  for  seventeen  months,  and  Caillier  a  similar  re- 
sult after  it  had  been  carried  twenty-two  mouths.  In  these  cases  the 
foetus  retained  its  natural  form,  but  in  one  reported  by  Gohier,  the 
bones  only  were  left  in  the  womb  amid  a  mass  of  apparently  purulent 
matter. 

The  cause  may  be  any  efiective  obstruction  to  the  act  of  parturition, 
such  as  lack  of  contractile  power  in  the  womb,  unduly  strong  (inflam- 
matory) adhesions  between  the  womb  and  the  foetal  membranes,  wrong 
presentation  of  the  foetus,  contracted  pelvis  (from  fracture,  or  disease 
of  the  bones),  or  disease  and  induration  of  the  neck  of  the  womb." 

The  mere  prolongation  of  gestation  does  not  necessarily  entail  the 
death  of  the  foal,  hence  the  latter  has  been  born  alive  at  the  four  hun- 
dredth day.  Even  when  the  foal  has  perished,  putrefaction  does  not 
set  in  unless  the  membranes  (water  bags)  have  been  ruptured,  and  sep- 


153 

tic  bacteria  have  beeu  adiuitteLl  to  the  interior  of  the  womb.  In  the 
latter  case  a  fetid  decomposition  advances  rapidly,  and  the  mare  usu- 
ally perishes  from  poisoning  with  the  putrid  matters  absorbed. 

At  the  natural  period  of  parturition  preparations  are  apparently  made 
for  that  act.  The  vulva  swells  and  discharges  much  mucus,  the  udder 
enlarges,  the  belly  becomes  more  pendant,  and  the  animal  strains  more 
or  less.  No  progress  is  made,  however;  there  is  not  even  opening  of 
the  neck  of  the  womb,  and  after  a  time  the  symptoms  subside.  The 
mare  usually  refuses  the  male,  yet  there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule.  If 
the  neck  of  the  womb  has  beeu  opened  and  putrefying  changes  have 
set  in  in  its  contents,  the  mare  loses  appetite  and  condition,  pines,  dis- 
charges an  offensive  matter  from  the  generative  passages,  and  dies  of 
inflammation  of  the  womb  and  putrid  infection.  In  other  cases  there  is 
a  slow  wearing  out  of  the  strength  and  the  mare  finally  dies  of  exhaus- 
tion. 

The  treatment  is  such  as  will  facilitate  the  expulsion  of  the  foetus  and 
its  membranes,  and  the  subsequent  washing  out  of  the  womb  with  dis- 
infectants. So  long  as  the  mouth  of  the  womb  is  closed,  time  should  be 
allowed  for  its  natural  dilatation,  but  if  this  does  not  come  about  after  a 
day  or  two  of  straining  the  opening  may  be  smeared  with  extract  of  bella- 
donna, and  the  oiled  hand,  with  the  fingers  and  thumb  drawn  into  the 
form  of  a  cone,  may  be  inserted  by  slow  oscillating  movements  into  the 
interior  of  the  womb.  The  water  bags  may  now  be  ruptured,  any  mal- 
piesentation  rectified  (see  "Difficult  Parturition"),  and  delivery  effected. 
After  removal  of  the  membranes  wash  out  the  womb  first  with  tepid 
water,  and  then  with  a  solution  of  2  ounces  of  borax  in  half  a  gallon  of 
water. 

This  injection  may  have  to  be  repeated  if  a  discharge  sets  in.  The 
same  course  may  be  pursued  even  after  prolonged  retention.  If  the 
soft  parts  of  the  foetus  have  been  absorbed  and  the  bones  only  left  these 
must  be  carefully  sought  for  and  removed,  and  subsequent  daily  injec- 
tions will  be  required  for  some  time.  In  such  cases,  too,  a  course  of  iron 
tonics  (sulphate  of  iron,  2  drams  daily),  will  be  highly  beneficial  in  re- 
storing health  and  vigor. 

ABORTION. 

Abortion  is,  strictly  speaking,  the  expulsion  of  the  impregnated  ovum 
at  any  period  from  the  date  of  impregnation  until  the  foal  can  survive 
out  of  the  womb.  If  the  foal  is  advanced  enough  to  live  it  is  premature 
parturition,  and  in  the  mare  this  may  occur  as  early  as  the  tenth  month 
(three  hundredth  day). 

The  mare  may  abort  by  reason  of  almost  any  cause  that  very  pro- 
foundly disturbs  the  system.  Hence  very  violent  inflammations  of  im- 
portant internal  organs  (bowels,  kidneys,  bladder,  lungs,)  may  induce 
abortion.  Profuse  diarrhea,  whether  occurring  from  the  reckless  use 
of  purgatives,  the  consumption  of  irritants  in  the  food,  or  a  simple  in- 
digestion is  an  effective  cause.     No  less  so  is  acute  indigestion  with 


154 

evoliitiou  of  gas  iu  the  intestines  (bloating).  The  presence  of  stone  in 
tlje  liidneys,  ureters,  bladder,  or  urethra  may  induce  so  much  sympa- 
tlietic  disorder  in  tbe  womb  as  to  induce  abortion.  In  exceptional  cases 
wbercin  mares  come  in  lieat  during  gestation  service  by  tbe  stallion 
may  cause  abortion.  Blows  or  pressure  on  the  abdomen,  rapid  driving 
or  riding  of  the  pregnant  mare,  especially  if  she  is  soft  and  out  of  con- 
dition from  idleness;  the  brutal  use  of  tbe  spur  or  whip,  and  the  jolting 
and  straining  of  travel  by  rail  or  boat  are  prolific  causes.  Bleeding  the 
liregnant  mare,  a  painful  surgical  operation,  and  the  throwing  and  con- 
straint resorted  to  for  an  operation  are  other  causes.  Traveling  on 
heavy,  muddy  roads,  slips  and  falls  on  ice,  and  jumping  must  be  added. 
The  stimulation  of  the  abdominal  organs  by  a  full  drink  of  iced  water 
may  precipitate  a  miscarriage,  as  may  exposure  to  a  cold  rain-storm  or 
a  very  cold  night  after  a  warm  day.  Irritant  poisons  that  act  on  the 
urinary  or  generative  organs,  such  as  Spanish  flies,  rue,  savin,  tansy, 
cotton-root  bark,  ergot  of  rye  or  other  grasses,  the  smut  of  maize  and 
other  grain,  and  various  fungi  in  musty  fodder  are  additional  causes. 
Frosted  food,  indigestible  food,  and  above  all  green  succulent  vegetables 
in  a  frozen  state  have  iiroved  effective  factors,  and  filthy,  stagnant  water 
is  dangerous.  Low  condition  in  the  dam  and  plethora  have  in  opposite 
ways  caused  abortion,  and  hot  relaxing  stables  and  lack  of  exercise 
strongly  conduce  to  it.  The  exhaustion  of  the  sire  by  too  frequent  serv- 
ice, entailing  debility  of  the  oflspring  and  disease  of  the  fojtus  or  of 
its  envelopes,  must  be  recognized  as  a  further  cause. 

The  symptoms  vary  mainly  according  as  the  abortion  is  early  or  late 
in  pregnancy.  In  the  first  month  or  two  of  ijregnancy  the  mare  may 
miscarry  without  observable  symptoms,  and  the  fact  only  appears  by 
her  coming  in  heat.  If  more  closely  observed  a  small  clot  of  blood  may 
be  found  behind  her,  in  which  a  carefnl  search  reveals  the  rudiments 
of  the  foal.  If  the  occurrence  is  somewhat  later  iu  gestation  there  will 
be  some  general  disturbance,  inappetence,  neighing,  and  straining,  and 
the  small  body  of  the  foetus  is  expelled,  enveloped  in  its  membranes. 
Abortions  during  the  later  stages  of  pregnancy  are  attended  with 
greater  constitutional  disturbance,  and  the  process  resembles  normal 
parturition,  with  the  aggravation  that  more  effort  and  straining  is  req- 
uisite to  force  the  foetus  through  the  comparatively  undilatable  mouth 
of  the  womb.  There  is  the  swelling  of  the  vulva,  with  mucus  or  even 
bloody  discharge ;  the  abdomen  droops,  the  flanks  fall  iu,  the  udder  fills, 
the  mare  looks  at  her  flanks,  paws  with  the  fore  feet  and  kicks  with 
the  hind,  switches  the  tail,  moves  around  uneasily,  lies  down  and  rises, 
strains,  and,  as  iu  natural  foaling,  expels  first  mucus  and  blood,  then 
the  waters,  and  finally  the  fcetus.  This  may  occupy  an  hour  or  two,  or 
it  may  be  prolonged  for  a  day  or  more,  the  symptoms  subsiding  for  a 
time,  only  to  reappear  with  renewed  energy.  If  there  is  malpresenta- 
tion  of  the  foetus  it  will  hinder  progress  until  rectified,  as  iu  diincult 


155 

parturition.     Abortion  may  also  be  followed  by  fhe  same  accideuts,  as 
flooding,  retention  of  the  i^laceuta,  and  leucorrboea. 

The  most  important  object  in  an  impending  abortion  is  to  recognize 
it  at  as  early  a  stage  as  possible,  so  that  it  may,  if  possible,  be  cut  short 
and  prevented.  Any  general  indefinable  illness  in  a  pregnant  mare 
shonld  lead  to  a  close  examination  of  the  vulva  as  regards  swelling, 
vascularity  of  its  mucous  membrane,  and  profuse  mucous  secretion,  and 
above  all  any  streak  or  staining  of  blood;  also  the  condition  of  the  nd- 
der,  if  that  is  congested  and  swollen.  Any  such  indication,  with  colicky 
pains,  straining,  however  little,  and  active  movement  of  the  fcetus  or 
entire  absence  of  movement,  are  suggestive  symptoms  and  should  be 
duly  counteracted. 

The  changes  in  the  vulva  and  udder,  with  a  soiled  and  bloody  condi- 
tion of  the  tail,  may  suggest  an  abortion  already  accomplished,  and  the 
examination  with  the  hand  in  the  vagina  may  detect  the  mouth  of  the 
womb  soft  and  dilatable,  and  the  interior  of  the  organ  slightly  filled  with 
a  bloody  liquid. 

Treatment  should  be  preventive  if  possible,  and  would  embrace  the 
avoidance  of  all  causes  mentioned,  and  particularly  of  such  as  may  seem 
to  be  particularly  operative  in  the  particular  case.  Where  abortions 
have  already  occurred  in  a  stud,  the  especial  cause,  in  the  matter  of  food, 
water,  exposure  to  injuries,  overwork,  lack  of  exercise,  etc.,  may  often 
be  identified  and  removed.  A  most  important  point  is  to  avoid  all 
causes  of  constipation,  diarrhea,  indigestion,  bloating,  violent  purga- 
tives, diuretics  or  other  potent  medicines,  i^ainful  operations,  and  slip- 
l)ery  roads,  unless  well  frosted. 

"When  abortion  is  imminent  the  mare  should  bo  placed  alone  in  a 
roomy,  dark,  quiet  stall,  and  have  the  straining  checked  by  some  sedative. 
Laudanum  is  usually  at  hand  and  may  be  given  in  doses  of  1  or  2  ounces, 
according  to  size,  and  repeated  after  two  or  three  hours,  and  even  daily 
if  necessary.  Chloroform  or  choral  hydrate,  3  drams,  may  be  substituted 
if  more  convenient.  These  should  be  given  in  a  pint  or  quart  of  water, 
to  avoid  burning  the  mouth  and  throat.  Or  viburnum  pruuifolium,! 
ounce,  may  be  given  and  repeated  if  necessary  to  prevent  straining. 

When  all  measures  fail  and  miscarriage  proceeds,  all  that  can  be  done 
is  to  assist  in  the  removal  of  the  foetus  and  its  membranes,  as  in  ordinary 
parturition.  As  in  the  case  of  retention  of  the  fcetus,  it  maj'  be  neces- 
sary after  delivery  to  emjjloy  antiseptic  injections  into  the  womb  to 
counteract  putrid  fermentation.  This,  however,  is  less  requisite  in  the 
mare  than  in  the  cow,  in  which  the  prevalent  contagious  abortion  must 
be  counteracted  by  the  persistent  local  use  of  antiseptics.  After  abor- 
tion a  careful  hygiene  is  demanded,  especially  in  the  matter  of  pure  air 
and  easily  digestible  food.  The  mare  should  not  be  served  again  for  a 
month  or  longer,  and  in  no  case  until  after  all  discharge  from  the  vulva 
has  ceased. 


156 

SYMPTOMS   OF   PARTURITION. 

As  the  period  of  partiuitiou  approaches  the  swelling  of  the  udder 
bespeaks  the  couiiug  event,  the  engorgement  in  exceptional  cases  ex- 
tending forward  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  abdomen  and  even  into  the 
hind  limbs.  For  about  a  week  a  serous  fluid  oozes  from  the  teat  and 
concretes  as  a  yellow,  wax-like  mass  around  its  orifice.  About  twenty- 
four  hours  before  the  birth  this  gives  place  to  a  whitish,  milky  liquid, 
which  falls  upon  and  mats  the  hairs  on  the  inner  sides  of  the  legs. 
Another  symptom  is  enlargement  of  the  vulva,  with  redness  of  its  lin- 
ing membrane,  and  the  escape  of  glairy  mucus.  The  belly  droops,  the 
flanks  fall  in,  and  the  loins  may  even  become  depressed.  Finally  .the 
mare  becomes  uneasy,  stops  feeding,  looks  anxious,  whisks  her  tail,  and 
may  lie  down  and  rise  again.  In  many  mares  this  is  not  repeated,  but 
the  mare  remains  down;  violent  contractions  of  the  abdominal  muscles 
ensue;  after  two  or  three  pains  the  water-bags  appear  and  burst,  fol- 
lowed by  the  fore  feet  of  the  foa^  with  the  nose  between  the  knees,  and 
by  a  few  more  throes  the  foetus  is  expelled.  In  other  cases  the  act  is 
accomplished  standing.  The  whole  act  may  not  occupy  more  than  five 
or  ten  minutes.  This,  together  with  the  disposition  of  the  mare  to  avoid 
observation,  renders  the  act  one  that  is  rarely  seen  by  the  attendants. 

The  navel-string,  which  connects  the  foal  to  the  membranes,  is  rupt- 
ured when  the  foetus  falls  to  the  ground,  or  when  the  mare  rises,  if 
she  has  been  down,  and  the  membranes  are  expelled  a  few  minutes 
later. 

NATURAL  PRESENTATION. 

When  there  is  a  single  foal  the  common  and  desirable  presentation 
is  with  the  fore  feet  first,  the  nose  between  the  knees,  and  with  the 
front  of  the  hoofs  and  knees  and  the  forehead  directed  upward  toward 
the  anus,  tail,  and  croup  (Plate  IX,  fig.  1).  In  this  way  the  natural 
curvature  of  the  body  of  the  foetus  corresponds  to  the  curve  of  the 
womb  and  genital  passages,  and  particularly  of  the  bony  i)elvis,  and 
the  foal  passes  with  much  greater  ease  than  if  it  were  placed  with  its 
back  downward  toward  the  udder.  When  there  is  a  twin  birth  the 
second  foal  usually  comes  with  its  hind  feet  first,  and  the  backs  of  the 
legs,  the  points  of  the  hocks,  and  the  tail  and  croup  are  turned  upward 
toward  the  anus  and  tail  of  the  mare  (Plate  IX,  fig.  2).  In  this  way, 
even  with  a  posterior  presentation,  the  curvature  of  the  body  of  the 
foal  still  corresponds  to  that  of  the  passages,  and  its  expulsion  may 
be  quite  as  easy  as  in  anterior  presentation.  Any  presentation  aside 
from  these  two  may  be  said  to  be  abnormal  and  will  be  considered 
under  "Difficult  Parturition." 

DLPFICULT   PARTURITION. 

With  natural  presentation  this  is  a  rare  occurrence.  The  great 
length  of  the  fore  limbs  and  face  entail,  in  the  anterior  presentation, 
the  formation  of  a  long  cone,  which  dilates  and  glides  through  the 


157 

passages  with  comparative  ease.  Even  with  the  hind  feet  first  a  simi- 
lar conical  form  is  jiresented,  and  the  process  is  rendered  easy  and 
quick.  Difficulty  and  danger  arise  mainly  from  the  act  being  brought 
on  prematurely  before  the  passages  are  sufficiently  dilated,  from  nar- 
rowiug  of  the  pelvic  bones  or  other  mechanical  obstruction  in  the 
passages,  from  monstrous  distortions  or  duplications  in  the  fcetus,  or 
from  the  turning  back  of  one  of  the  members  so  that  the  elougated 
conical  or  wedge-shaped  outline  is  done  away  with.  But  prompt  as  is 
the  normal  parturition  in  the  mare,  difficult  and  delayed  parturitions 
are  surrounded  by  special  dangers  and  require  unusual  i^recautions  and 
skill.  From  the  proclivity  of  the  mare  to  unhealthy  inflammations  of 
the  peritoneum  and  other  abdominal  organs,  i)enetratiug  wounds  of  the 
womb  or  vagina  are  liable  to  prove  fatal.  The  contractions  of  the 
womb  and  abdominal  walls  are  so  powerful  as  to  exhaust  and  benumb 
the  arm  of  the  assistant,  and  to  endanger  penetrating  wounds  of  the 
genital  organs.  By  reason  of  the  looser  connection  of  the  fcetal  mem- 
branes with  the  womb,  as  compared  with  those  of  ruminants,  the  violent 
throes  early  detach  these  membranes  throughout  their  whole  extent, 
and  the  foal,  being  thus  separated  from  the  mother  and  thrown  on  its 
own  resources,  dies  at  an  early  stage  of  any  protracted  parturition. 
The  foal  rarely  survives  four  hours  after  the  onset  of  parturient  throes. 
From  the  great  length  of  the  limbs  and  neck  of  the  foal  it  is  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  secure  and  bring  u])  limb  or  head  which  has  been 
turned  back  when  it  should  have  been  presented.  When  assistance 
must  be  rendered  the  operator  should  don  a  thick  woolen  undershirt 
with  the  sleeves  cut  out  at  the  shoulders.  This  protects  the  body  and 
leaves  the  whole  arm  free  for  manipulation.  Before  inserting  the  arm 
it  should  be  smeared  with  lard.  This  protects  the  skin  against  septic 
infection,  and  favors  the  introduction  of  the  hand  and  arm.  The  hand 
should  be  inserted  with  the  thumb  and  fingers  drawn  together  like  a 
cone.  Whether  standing  or  lying  the  mare  should  be  turned  with  head 
down  hill  and  hind  parts  raised  as  much  as  possible.  The  contents  of 
the  abdomen  gravitating  forward  leave  much  more  room  for  manipula- 
tion. Whatever  part  of  the  foal  is  presented  (head,  foot)  should  be  se- 
cured with  a  cord  and  running  noose  before  it  is  pushed  back  to  search 
for  the  other  missing  parts.  Even  if  a  missing  part  is  reached  no  at- 
tempt should  be  made  to  bring  it  up  during  a  labor  i)ain.  Pinching 
the  back  will  sometimes  check  the  pains  and  allow  the  operator  to  se- 
cure and  bring  uj)  the  missing  member.  In  intractable  cases  a  large 
dose  of  chloral  hydrate  (1  ounce  in  a  quart  of  water)  or  the  inhalation 
of  chloroform  and  air  (equal  proportions)  to  insensibility  may  secure  a 
respite,  during  which  the  missing  members  may  be  replaced.  If  the 
tcaters  have  been  discharged  and  the  mucus  dried  up,  the  genital  pas- 
sages and  body  of  the  foetus  should  be  lubricated  with  lard  or  oil  before 
any  attempt  at  extraction  is  made.  When  the  missing  member  has 
been  brought  up  into  i^ositiou,  and  presentation  has  been  rendered  nat- 


158 

ural,  traction  on  tlie  fee  tus  must  be  made  only  during  a  labor  pain.  If 
a  mare  is  inclined  to  kick,  it  may  be  necessary  to  apply  Lobbies  to  pro- 
tect the  operator. 

PREMATURE   LABOR   PAINS. 

These  may  be  brought  on  by  any  violent  exertion,  use  under  the 
saddle,  or  in  heavy  draught,  or  in  rapid  paces,  or  in  travel  by  rail  or 
sea,  blows,  kicks,  crushiug  by  other  animals  in  a  doorway  or  gate. 
Excessive  action  of  purgative  or  diuretic  agents,  or  of  agents  that  ir- 
ritate the  bowels  or  kidneys,  like  arsenic,  Paris  green,  all  caustic  salts 
and  acids,  and  acrid  and  narcotico- acrid  vegetables,  is  equally  in- 
jurious. Finally,  the  ingestion  of  agents  that  stimulate  the  action  of 
the  gravid  womb  (ergot  of  rye  or  of  other  grasses,  smut,  various  fuugi  of 
fodders,  rue,  savin,  cotton-root,  etc.)  may  bring  on  labor  pains  pre- 
maturely. 

Besides  the  knowledge  that  parturition  is  not  yet  due,  there  will  be 
less  enlargement,  redness  and  swelling  of  the  vulva,  less  mucous  dis- 
charge, less  filling  of  the  udder,  and  less  appearances  of  wax  and  proba- 
bly none  of  milk  from  the  ends  of  the  teats.  The  oiled  hand  introduced 
into  the  vulva  will  cot  enter  with  the  ease  usual  at  full  term,  and  the 
neck  of  the  womb  will  be  felt  not  only  closed,  but  with  its  projecting 
papilla?,  through  which  it  is  perforated,  not  yet  flattened  down  and 
effaced,  as  at  full  term.  The  symptoms  are  indeed  those  of  threatened 
abortion,  but  at  such  an  advanced  stage  of  gestation  as  is  compatible 
with  the  survival  of  the  offspring. 

The  treatment  con&vAts  in  the  separation  of  the  mare  from  all  other 
animals  in  a  quiet,  dark,  secluded  place,  and  the  free  use  of  anti-spas- 
modics  and  anodynes.  Opium  in  dram  doses  every  two  hours,  or 
laudanum  in  ounce  doses  at  similar  intervals,  will  often  suffice.  When 
the  more  urgent  symptoms  have  subsided  these  doses  may  be  repeated 
thrice  a  day  till  all  excitement  passes  off  or  until  the  passages  have 
become  relaxed  and  prepared  for  parturition.  Viburnum  prunifolium, 
in  ounce  doses,  may  be  added  if  necessary.  Should  parturition  become 
inevitable,  it  may  be  favored  and  any  necessary  assistance  furnished. 

DIFFICULT  PARTURITION  FROM   NARROW  PELVIS. 

A  disproportion  between  the  foetus  got  by  a  large  stallion  and  the 
pelvis  of  a  small  dam  is  a  serious  obstacle  to  parturition,  sometimes 
seen  in  the  mare.  This  is  not  the  rule,  however,  as  the  foal  up  to 
birth  usually  accommodates  itself  to  the  size  of  the  dam,  as  illustrated 
in  the  successful  crossing  of  Percheron  stallions  on  mustang  mares. 
If  the  disproportion  is  too  great  the  only  resort  is  emhryotomy. 

FRACTURED   HIP-BONES. 

More  commonly  the  obstruction  comes  from  distortion  and  narrow- 
ing of  the  pelvis  as  the  result  of  fractures.  (Plates  XIV,  Fig.  2.) 
Fractures  at  any  point  of  the  lateral  wall  or  floor  of  the  pelvis  are  re- 


159 

paired  with  the  formation  of  an  extensive  bony  deposit  bulging  into  the 
passage  of  the  pelvis.  The  displacement  of  the  ends  of  the  broken  bone 
is  another  cause  of  constriction  and  between  the  two  conditions  the 
passage  of  the  fcetus  may  be  rendered  impossible  without  emhryotomy. 
Fracture  of  the  sacrum  (the  continuation  of  the  back-bone  forming  the 
croup)  leads  to  the  depression  of  the  posterior  part  of  that  bone  in  the 
roof  of  the  i)elvis  and  the  narrowing  of  the  passage  from  above  down- 
ward by  a  bony  ridge  iiresenting  its  sharp  edge  forward. 

In  all  cases  in  which  there  has  been  injury  to  the  bones  of  the  pelvis 
the  obvious  precautioa  is  to  withhold  the  mare  from  breeding  and  to 
use  her  for  work  only. 

If  a  mare  with  a  pelvis  thus  narrowed  has  got  in  foal  inadvertently, 
abortion  may  be  induced  in  the  early  months  of  gestation  by  slowly 
introducing  the  oiled  finger  through  the  neck  of  the  womb  and  follow- 
ing this  by  the  other  fingers  until  the  whole  hand  has  been  introduced. 
Then  tiie  water-bags  may  be  broken,  and  with  the  escape  of  tbe  liquid 
the  womb  will  contract  on  the  solid  foetus  and  labor  pains  will  ensue. 
The  foetus  being  small  it  will  pass  easily. 

TUMOES  IN  THE  VAGINA  AND  PELVIS. 

Tumors  of  various  kinds  may  form  in  the  vagina  or  elsewhere  within 
the  pelvis,  and  when  large  enough  will  obstruct  or  prevent  the  passage 
of  the  foetus.  Gray  mares,  which  are  so  subject  to  black  pigment  tumors 
{melanosis)  on  the  tail,  anus,  and  vulva,  are  the  most  likely  to  suffer 
from  this.  Still  more  rarely  the  wall  of  the  vagina  becomes  relaxed, 
and  being  i^ressed  by  a  mass  of  intestines  will  protrude  through  the  lips 
of  the  vulva  as  a  hernial  sac,  containing  a  part  of  the  bowels.  Where 
a  tumor  is  small  it  may  only  retard  and  not  absolutely  prevent  parturi- 
tion. A  hernial  i)rotrusiou  of  the  wall  of  the  vagina  may  be  pressed 
back  and  emptied  so  tbat  the  body  of  the  fcetus  engaging  in  the  passage 
may  find  no  further  obstacle.  When  a  tumor  is  too  large  to  allow  de- 
livery tbe  only  resort  is  to  remove  it,  but  before  proceeding  it  must  be 
clearly"  made  out  that  the  obstruction  is  a  mass  of  diseased  tissue,  and 
not  a  sac  containing  intestines.  If  the  tumor  hangs  by  a  neck  it  can 
usually  be  most  safely  removed  by  the  ecraseur,  the  chain  being  passed 
around  the  pedicel  and  gradually  tightened  until  that  is  torn  through. 

HERNIA   OF   THE   WOMB. 

The  rupture  of  the  musculo-fibrous  floor  of  the  belly  and  the  escape 
of  the  gravid  womb  into  a  sac  formed  by  the  peritoneum  and  skin  hang- 
ing towards  the  ground,  is  described  by  all  veterinary  obstetricians, 
yet  it  is  very  rarely  seen  in  the  mare.  The  form  of  the  foetus  can  be 
felt  through  the  walls  of  the  sac,  so  that  it  is  easy  to  recognize  the  condi- 
tion. Its  cause  is  usually  external  violence,  though  it  may  start  from 
an  umbilical  hernia.  When  the  period  of  parturition  arrives,  the  first 
eftbrt  should  be  to  return  the  fcetus  within  the  proper  abdominal  cavity, 


160 

and  this  can  sometimes  be  accomplished  with  the  aid  of  a  stout  blanket 
gradually  tightened  around  the  belly.  This  failing,  the  mare  may  be 
placed  on  her  side  or  back  and  gravitation  brought  to  the  aid  of  manip- 
ulation in  securing  the  return.  Even  after  the  hernia  has  been  reduced 
the  relaxed  state  of  the  womb  and  abdominal  walls  may  serve  to  hinder 
I)arturition,  in  which  case  the  oiled  hand  must  be  introduced  through 
the  vagina,  the  foetus  brought  into  position,  and  traction  coincident 
with  the  labor  pains  employed  to  secure  delivery. 

TWISTING   or   THE   NECK   OF   THE   WOMB. 

This  condition  is  very  uncommon  in  the  mare,  though  occasionally 
seen  in  the  cow,  owing  to  the  greater  laxity  of  the  broad  ligaments  of 
the  womb  in  that  animal.  It  consists  in  a  revolution  of  the  womb  on 
its  own  axis,  so  that  its  right  or  left  side  will  be  turned  upward  (quarter 
revolution),  or  the  lower  surface  may  be  turned  upward  and  the  upper 
surface  downward  (half  revolution).  The  effect  is  to  throw  the  narrow 
neck  of  the  womb  into  a  series  of  spiral  folds,  turning  in  the  direction 
in  which  the  womb  has  revolved,  closing  the  neck  and  rendering  dis- 
tention and  dilatation  impossible. 

The  period  and  pains  of  parturition  arrive,  but  in  spite  of  continued 
efforts  no  progress  is  made,  neither  water-bags  nor  liquids  appearing. 
The  oiled  hand  introduced  into  the  closed  neck  of  the  womb  will  readily 
detect  the  spiral  direction  of  the  folds  on  its  inner  surface. 

The  method  of  relief  which  I  have  successfully  adopted  in  the  cow  may 
be  equally  happy  in  the  mare.  The  dam  is  placed  (with  her  head  up- 
hill) on  her  right  side  if  the  upper  folds  of  the  spiral  turn  toward  the 
right,  and  on  her  left  side  if  they  turn  toward  the  left ;  and  the  oiled 
hand  is  introduced  through  the  neck  of  the  womb  and  a  limb  or  other 
part  of  the  body  of  the  foetus  is  seized  and  pressed  against  the  wall  of 
the  womb,  while  two  or  three  assistants  turn  the  animal  over  her  back 
toward  the  other  side.  The  object  is  to  keep  the  womb  stationary  while 
the  animal  is  rolling.  If  success  attends  the  effort,  the  constriction 
around  the  arm  is  suddenly  relaxed,  the  spiral  folds  are  effaced,  and 
the  water-bags  and  foetus  press  forward  into  the  passage.  If  the  first 
attempt  does  not  succeed  it  may  be  repeated  again  and  again  until  suc- 
cess crowns  the  effort.  Among  my  occasional  causes  of  failure  have 
been  the  prior  death  and  decomposition  of  the  foetus,  with  the  extrica- 
tion of  gas  and  overdistention  of  the  womb,  and  the  supervention  of 
inflammation  and  inflammatory  exudation  around  the  neck  of  the  womb, 
which  hinders  untwisting.  The  first  of  these  conditions  occurs  early  in 
the  horse  from  the  detachment  of  the  foetal  membranes  from  the  wall 
of  the  womb,  and  as  the  mare  is  more  subject  to  fatal  peritonitis  than 
the  cow,  it  may  be  concluded  that  both  these  sources  of  failure  are 
more  probable  in  the  equine  subject. 

When  the  case  is  intractable,  though  the  hand  may  be  easily  in- 
troduced, the  instrument  shown  in  Plate  VIII,  Fig.  7,  may  be  used. 


161 

Each  hole  at  the  small  end  of  the  instrument  has  passed  through  it  a 
stout  cord  with  a  ruuniog  noose,  to  be  passed  around  two  feet  or  other 
portion  of  the  foBtus  which  it  may  be  possible  to  reach.  The  cords  are 
then  drawn  tight  and  fixed  around  the  handle  of  the  instrument,  then 
by  using  the  cross-handle  as  a  lever  the  foetus  and  womb  may  be  rotated 
in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  causing  the  obstruction.  During  this 
process  the  hand  must  be  introduced  to  feel  when  the  twist  has  been 
undone.  This  method  may  be  supplemented,  if  necessary,  by  rolling 
the  mare  as  described  above. 

EFFUSION   OF  BLOOD   IN    THE    VAGINAL   WALLS. 

This  is  common  as  a  result  of  difficult  parturition,  but  it  may  occur 
from  local  injury  before  that  act,  and  may  seriously  interfere  with  it. 
This  condition  is  easily  recognized  by  the  soft,  doughy  swelling  so  char- 
acteristic of  blood  clots,  and  by  the  dark  red  color  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane. I  have  laid  open  such  swellings  with  the  knife  as  late  as  ten 
days  before  parturition,  evacuated  the  clots,  and  dressed  the  wound 
daily  with  an  astringent  lotion  (sulphate  of  zince  1  dram,  carbolic  acid 
1  dram,  water  1  quart).  A  similar  resort  might  be  had,  if  necessary, 
during  i^arturition. 

CALCULUS  (stone)  AND  TUMOR  IN  THE  BLADDER. 

The  pressure  upon  the  bladder  containing  a  stone  or  a  tumor  may 
prove  so  painful  that  the  mare  will  voluntarily  suppress  the  labor  pains. 
Examination  of  the  bladder  with  the  finger  introduced  through  the 
urethra  will  detect  the  offending  agent.  A  stone  should  be  extracted 
with  forceps  (see  "Lithotomy").  The  large  papillary  tumors  which  I 
have  met  with  in  the  mare's  bladder  have  been  invariably  delicate  in 
texture  and  could  be  removed  piecemeal  by  forceps.  Fortunately, 
mares  affected  in  this  way  rarely  breed. 

IMrACTION   OF   THE   RECTUM   WITH   FyECES. 

In  some  animals,  with  more  or  less  paralysis  or  wealiness  of  the  tail 
and  rectum,  the  rectum  may  become  so  impacted  with  solid  faeces  that 
the  mare  is  unable  to  discharge  them,  and  the  accumulation  both  by 
reason  of  the  mechanical  obstruction  and  the  pain  caused  by  pressure 
upon  it  will  impel  the  animal  to  cut  short  all  labor  pains.  The  rounded 
swelling  surrounding  the  anus  will  at  once  suggest  the  condition,  when 
the  obstruction  may  be  removed  by  the  well-oiled  or  soaped  hand. 

spasm   of   the   neck   OF   THE   WOMB. 

This  occurs  in  the  mare  of  specially  excitable  temperament,  or  under 
particular  causes  of  irritation,  local  or  general.  Labor  pains,  though 
continuing  for  some  time,  produce  no  dilatation  of  the  neck  of  the 
womb,  which  will  be  found  firmly  closed  so  as  to  admit  but  one  or  two 
fingers,  and  this,  although  the  projection  at  the  mouth  of  the  womb 
11035 11 


162 

may  Lave  been  entirely  effaced,  so  that  a  simple  round  opening  is  left 
with  rigid  margins. 

The  simplest  treatment  consists  in  smearing  this  part  with  solid  ex- 
tract of  belladonna,  and  after  an  interval  inserting  the  hand  with  fin- 
gers and  thumb  drawn  into  the  form  of  a  cone,  rupturing  the  mem- 
branes and  bringing  the  fcetus  into  jiosition  for  extraction,  as  advised 
under  "Prolonged  Eetention  of  the  Foetus."  Another  mode  is  to  in- 
sert through  the  neck  of  the  womb  an  ovoid  caoutchouc  bag,  empty, 
and  furnished  with  an  elastic  tube  12  feet  long.  Carry  the  free  end 
end  of  this  tube  upward  to  a  height  of  8,  10,  or  12  feet,  insert  a  tiller 
into  it,  and  proceed  to  distend  the  bag  with  tepid  or  warm  water. 

FIBROUS  BANDS  CONSTRICTING  OR  CROSSING  THE  NECK  OF  THE  WOMB. 

These  occurring  as  the  result  of  disease  have  been  several  times  ob- 
served m  the  mare.  They  may  exist  in  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen  and 
compress  and  obstruct  the  neck  of  the  womb,  or  they  may  extend  from 
side  to  side  of  the  vagina  across  and  just  behind  the  neck  of  the  womb. 
In  the  latter  position  they  may  be  felt  and  quickly  remedied  by  cut- 
ting them  across.  In  the  abdomen  they  can  only  be  reached  by  incis- 
ion, and  two  alternatives  are  presented  :  (1)  To  perforna  embryotomy 
and  extract  the  foetus  piecemeal ;  and  (2)  to  make  an  incision  into 
the  abdomen  and  extract  by  the  CiBsarian  operation,  or  simply  to  cut 
the  constricting  band  and  attempt  delivery  by  the  usual  channel. 

FIBROUS  CONSTRICTION   OF  VAGINA  OR  VULVA. 

This  is  probably  always  the  result  of  direct  mechanical  injury  aud 
the  formation  of  rigid  cicatrices  which  fail  to  dilate  with  the  remainder 
of  the  passages  at  the  approach  of  parturition.  The  presentation  of 
the  foetus  in  the  natural  way  and  the  occurrence  of  successive  and 
active  labor  pains  without  any  favorable  result  will  direct  attention 
to  the  rigid  and  unyielding  cicatrices  which  may  be  incised  at  one, 
two,  or  more  points  to  a  depth  of  half  an  inch  or  more,  after  which  the 
natural  expulsiv.e  efforts  will  usually  prove  effective.  The  resulting 
wounds  may  be  washed  frequently  with  a  solution  of  one  part  of  car- 
bolic acid  to  50  parts  of  water,  or  of  1  part  of  mercuric  chloride  to 
to  500  iiarts  water. 

FCETUS   ADHERENT   TO   THE   WALLS   OF   THE   WOMB. 

In  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  cavity  of  the 
womb  and  implicating  the  fcetal  membranes,  the  resulting  embryonic 
tissue  sometimes  establishes  a  medium  of  direct  continuity  between 
the  womb  and  foetal  membranes;  the  blood  vessels  of  the  one  communi- 
cate freely  with  those  of  the  other  and  the  fibers  of  the  one  are  pro- 
longed into  the  other.  This  causes  retention  of  the  membranes  after 
birth,  and  a  special  risk  of  bleeding  from  the  womb,  and  of  sep- 
tic poisoning.    In  exceptional  cases  the  adhesion  is  more  extensive 


163 

and  binds  a  portion  of  the  body  of  the  foal  firmly  to  the  womb.  In 
such  cases  it  has^repeatedly  been  found  impossible  to  extract  the  foal 
until  such  adhesions  were  broken  down.  If  they  can  be  reached  with 
the  hand  and  recognized  they  may  be  torn  through  with  the  fingers  or 
with  a  blunt  hook,  after  which  delivery  may  be  attempted  with  hope  of 
success. 

EXCESSIVE   SIZE   OF   THE   FCETUS. 

It  would  seem  that  a  small  mare  may  usually  be  safely  bred  to  a 
large  stallion,  yet  this  is  not  always  the  case,  and  when  the  small  size  is 
an  individual  rather  than  a  racial  characteristic  or  the  result  of  extreme 
youth,  the  rule  can  not  be  expected  to  hold.  There  is  always  great 
danger  in  breeding  the  young,  small,  and  undeveloped  female,  and  the 
dwarfed  representative  of  a  larger  breed,  as  the  offspring  tend  to  par- 
take of  the  large  race  characteristics  and  to  show  them  even  prior  to 
birth.  When  impregnation  has  occurred  in  the  very  young  or  in  the 
dwarfed  female,  there  are  two  alternatives — to  induce  abortion,  or  to 
wait  until  there  are  attempts  at  parturition  and  to  extract  by  embry- 
otomy if  impracticable  otherwise. 

CONSTRICTION   OF   A  MEMBER   BY   THE   NAVEL   STRING. 

In  man  and  animals  alike  the  winding  of  the  umbilical  cord  round  a 
member  of  the  foetus  sometimes  leads  to  the  amputation  of  the  latter. 
It  is  also  known  to  get  wound  around  the  neck  or  a  limb  at  birth,  but 
in  the  mare  this  does  not  seriously  impede  parturition,  as  the  loosely 
attached  membranes  are  easily  separated  from  the  womb  and  no  stran- 
gulation or  retarding  occurs.  The  foal  may,  however,  die  from  the 
cessation  of  the  placental  circulation  unless  it  is  speedily  delivered. 

WATER  IN  THE  HEAD  (HYDROCEPHALUS)  OF  THE  FOAL. 

This  consists  in  the  excessive  accumulation  of  liquid  in  the  ventricles 
of  the  brain  so  that  the  cranial  cavity  is  enlarged  and  constitutes  a 
great  projecting  rounded  mass  occupying  the  space  from  the  eyes 
upward.  (See  Plate  XIV,  Fig.  3.)  With  an  anterior  presentation  (fore 
feet  and  nose)  this  presents  an  insuperable  obstacle  to  progress,  as  the 
diseased  cranium  is  too  large  to  enter  the  pelvis  at  the  same  time  with 
the  fore-arms.  With  a  posterior  presentation  (hind  feet)  all  goes  well 
until  the  body  and  shoulders  have  passed  out,  when  progress  is  sud- 
denly arrested  by  the  great  bulk  of  the  head.  In  the  first  case,  the 
oiled  hand  introduced  along  the  face  detects  the  enormous  size  of  the 
head,  which  may  be  diminished  by  puncturing  it  with  a  knife  or  trochar 
and  cannula  in  the  median  line,  evacuating  the  water  and  pressing  in 
the  thin  bony  walls.  With  a  posterior  presentation,  the  same  course 
must  be  followed;  the  hand  passed  along  the  neck  will  detect  the  cranial 
swelling,  Avhich  may  be  punctured  with  a  knife  or  trochar.  Oftentimes 
with  an  anterior  presentation  the  great  size  of  the  head  leads  to  its 


164 

displacement  backward  and  thus  the  fore  limbs  alone  engage  in  the 
passages.  Here  the  first  object  is  to  seek  and  bring  up  the  missing 
head,  and  then  puncture  it  as  above  suggested. 

DROPSY   OF    THE   ABDOMEN  IN    THE   FOAL — ASCITES. 

The  accumulation  of  liquid  in  the  abdominal  cavity  of  the  foetus  ia 
less  frequent,  but  when  present  it  may  arrest  parturition  as  completely 
as  will  hydrocephalus.  With  an  anterior  presentation  the  foal  may 
pass  as  far  as  the  shoulders,  but  behind  this  all  efforts  fail  to  secure  a 
further  advance.  With  a  posterior  presentation  the  hind  legs  as  far  a3 
the  thighs  may  be  expelled,  but  at  this  point  all  jirogress  ceases.  In 
either  case  the  oiled  hand  passed  inward  by  the  side  of  the  foal  will  de- 
tect the  enormous  distention  of  the  abdomen  and  its  soft,  fluctuating 
contents.  The  only  course  is  to  iiuncture  the  cavity  and  evacuate  the 
liquid.  With  the  anterior  presentation  this  may  be  done  with  a  long 
trochar  and  cannula,  introduced  through  the  chest  and  diaphragm  ;  or 
with  a  knife  an  incision  may  be  made  between  the  first  two  ribs,  and 
the  lungs  and  heart  cut  or  torn  out,  when  the  diaphragm  will  be  felt 
projecting  strongly  forward  and  may  be  easily  punctured.  Should 
there  not  be  room  to  introduce  the  hand  through  the  chest,  the  oiled 
hand  may  be  passed  along  beneath  the  breast  bone  and  the  abdomen 
punctured.  With  a  posterior  presentation  the  abdomen  must  be  punct- 
ured in  the  same  way,  the  hand,  armed  with  a  knife  protected  in  its 
palm,  being  passed  along  the  side  of  the  flank  or  between  the  hind 
limbs.  It  should  be  added  that  moderate  dropsy  of  the  abdomen  is  not 
incompatible  with  natural  delivery,  the  liquid  being  at  first  crowded 
back  into  the  portion  of  the  belly  still  engaged  in  the  womb,  and  passing 
slowly  from  that  into  the  advanced  i^ortion  as  soon  as  that  has  cleared 
the  narrow  passage  of  the  pelvis,  and  passed  out  where  it  can  expand. 

GENERAL    DROPSY   OF   THE  FCETUS. 

In  this  case  the  tissues  generally  are  distended  with  liquid,  and  the 
skin  is  found  at  all  points  tense  and  rounded,  and  pitting  on  pressure 
with  the  fingers.  In  some  such  cases  delivery  may  be  effected  alter  the 
skin  has  been  punctured  at  narrow  intervals  to  allow  the  escape  of  the 
fluid  and  then  liberally  smeared  with  fresh  lard.  More  commonly, 
however,  it  can  not  be  reached  at  all  points  to  be  so  punctured,  nor 
sufficiently  reduced  to  be  extracted  whole,  and  resort  must  be  had  to 
embryotomy. 

SWELLING  OF   THE   FCETUS   WITH   GAS — EMPHYSEMA. 

This  has  been  described  as  occurring  in  a  living  foetus,  but  I  have 
only  met  with  it  in  the  dead  and  decomposing  foal,  after  futile  efibrts 
have  been  made  for  several  days  to  effect  delivery.  These  cases  are 
very  difficult  ones,  as  the  foal  is  inflated  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is 
impossible  to  advance  it  into  the  passages,  and  the  skin  of  the  foetus 


165 

and  the  walls  of  the  womb  and  vagina  have  become  so  dry  that  it  ia 
impracticable  to  cause  the  one  to  glide  on  the  other.  The  hair  comes 
off  any  part  that  may  be  seized,  and  the  case  is  rendered  the  more  of- 
fensive and  dangerous  by  the  very  fetid  liquids  and  gases.  The  only 
resort  is  embryotomy,  by  which  1  have  succeeded  in  saving  a  valuable 
mare  that  had  carried  a  colt  in  this  condition  for  four  days. 

CONTRACTIONS   OF  MUSCLES. 

The  foal  is  not  always  developed  symmetrically,  but  certain  groups 
of  muscles  are  liable  to  remain  short  or  to  shorten  because  of  persistent 
spasmodic  contraction,  so  that  even  the  bones  become  distorted  and 
twisted.  This  is  most  common  in  the  neck.  The  bones  of  this  part 
and  even  of  the  face  are  drawn  to  one  side  and  shortened,  the  head 
being  held  firmly  to  the  flank  and  the  jaws  being  twisted  to  the  right 
or  left.  In  other  cases  the  flexor  muscles  of  the  fore  limbs  are  con- 
tracted so  that  these  members  are  strongly  bent  at  the  knee.  In  neither 
of  these  cases  can  the  distorted  part  be  extended  and  straightened,  so 
that  body  or  limbs  must  necessarily  iiresent  double,  and  natural  deliv- 
ery is  rendered  impossible.  The  bent  neck  "may  sometimes  be  straight- 
ened after  the  muscles  have  been  cut  on  the  side  to  which  it  is  turned, 
and  the  bent  limbs  after  the  tendons  on  the  back  of  the  shank  bone  have 
been  cut  across.  Failing  to  accomplish  this,  the  next  resort  is  to  em- 
bryotomy. 

TUMORS   OF   THE   FCETUS — INCLOSED   OVUM. 

Tumors  or  diseased  growths  may  form  on  any  part  of  the  foal,  in- 
ternal or  external,  and  by  their  size  impede  or  hinder  parturition.  In 
some  cases  what  appears  as  a  tumor  is  an  imprisoned  and  undeveloped 
ovum,  which  has  grafted  itself  on  the  fcetus.  These  are  usually  saccu- 
lated and  may  contain  skin,  hair,  muscle,  bone,  and  other  natural  tissues. 
The  only  course  to  be  pursued  in  such  cases  is  to  excise  the  tumor,  or, 
if  this  is  not  feasible,  to  perform  embryotomy. 

MONSTROSITIES. 

Monstrosity  in  the  foal  is  an  occasional  cause  of  difflcult  parturition, 
especially  such  monsters  as  show  excessiv^e  development  of  some  part 
of  the  body,  a  displacement  or  distortion  of  parts,  or  a  redundancy  of 
parts,  as  in  double  monsters.     Monsters  may  be  divided  into — 

(1)  Monsters  with  absence  of  parts — absence  of  head,  limb,  or  other 
organ. 

(2')  Monsters  with  some  i)art  abnormally  small — dwarfed  head,  limb, 
trunk,  etc. 

(3)  Monsters  through  unnatural  division  of  parts — cleft  head,  trunk, 
limbs,  etc. 

(4)  Monsters  through  absence  of  natural  divisions — absence  of  mouth, 
nose,  eyes,  anus,  confluent  digits,  etc. 


166 

(5)  Monsters  tbrough  fusion  of  parts— one  central  eye,  one  nasal 
opening,  etc. 

(6)  Monsters  through  abnormal  position  or  form  of  parts — curved 
spine,  face,  limb,  etc. 

(7)  Monsters  through  excess  of  formation — enormous  head,  super- 
numerary digits,  etc. 

(8)  Monsters  through  imperfect  differentiation  of  sexual  organs — 
hermaphrodites. 

(9)  Double  monsters — double-headed,  double-bodied,  extra  limbs, 
etc. 

The  causes  of  monstrosities  appear  to  be  very  varied.  Some  mon- 
strosities, like  extra  digits,  absence  of  horns  or  tails,  etc.,  run  in  fami- 
lies and  are  produced  almost  as  certainly  as  color  or  form.  Others  are 
associated  with  too  close  breeding,  the  powers  of  symmetrical  develop- 
ment beiug  interfered  with,  just  as  in  other  cases  a  sexual  incompati- 
bility is  developed,  near  relatives  failing  to  breed  with  each  other. 
Mere  arrest  of  development  of  a  part  may  arise  from  accidental  disease 
of  the  embryo;  hence  vital  organs  are  left  out,  or  portions  of  organs,  like 
the  dividing  walls  of  the  heart,  are  omitted,  Sometimes  an  older  foetus 
is  inclosed  in  the  body  of  another,  each  having  started  independently 
from  a  separate  ovum,  but  the  one  having  become  embedded  in  the 
semi-fluid  mass  of  the  other  and  having  developed  there  simultaneously 
with  it,  but  not  so  largely  nor  perfectly.  In  many  cases  of  redundance 
of  parts,  the  extra  part  or  member  has  manifestly  developed  from  the 
same  ovum  and  nutrient  center  with  the  normal  member  to  which  it 
remains  adherent,  just  as  a  new  tail  will  grow  out  in  a  newt  when  the 
the  former  has  been  cut  off.  In  the  early  embryo,  with  its  great  powers 
of  development,  this  factor  can  operate  to  far  greater  purpose  than  in 
the  adult  animal.  Its  influence  is  seen  in  the  fact  pointed  out  by  St. 
Hilaire  that  such  redundant  parts  are  nearly  always  connected  with  the 
corresponding  portions  in  the  normal  foetus.  Thus  superfluous  legs  or 
digits  are  attached  to  the  normal  ones,  double  heads  or  tails  are  con- 
nected to  a  common  neck  or  rump,  and  double  bodies  are  attached  to 
each  other  by  corresponding  points,  navel  to  navel,  breast  to  breast, 
back  to  back.  All  this  suggests  the  development  of  extra  parts  from 
the  same  primary  layer  of  the  impregnated  and  developing  ovum.  The 
effect  of  disturbing  conditions  in  giving  such  wrong  directions  to  the 
developmental  forces  is  well  shown  in  the  experiments  of  St.  Hilaire 
and  Valentine  in  varnishing,  shaking,  and  otherwise  breaking  up  the 
natural  connections  in  eggs,  and  thereby  determining  the  formation  of 
monstrosities  at  will.  So,  in  the  mammal,  blows  and  other  injuries 
that  detach  the  foetal  membranes  from  the  walls  of  the  womb  or  that 
modify  their  circulation  by  inducing  inflammation  are  at  times  followed 
by  the  development  of  a  monster.  The  excitement,  mental  and  phys- 
ical, attendant  on  fright  occasionally  acts  in  a  similar  way,  acting  prob- 
ably through  the  same  channels. 


167 

The  monstrous  forms  likely  to  interfere  with  parturition  are  such  as 
from  contracted  or  twisted  limbs  or  spine,  must  be  presented  double; 
where  supernumerary  limbs,  head,  or  body  must  approach  the  passages 
with  the  natural  ones;  where  a  head  or  other  member  has  attained  to 
an  unnatural  size ;  where  the  body  of  one  fcetus  has  become  inclosed 
in  or  attached  to  another,  etc. 

Extraction  is  sometimes  possible  by  straightening  the  members  and 
securing  such  a  presentation  as  will  reduce  the  presenting  mass  to  its 
smallest  and  most  wedge-like  dimensions.  To  effect  this  it  may  be 
needful  to  cut  the  flexor  tendons  of  bent  limbs  or  the  muscles  on  the 
side  of  a  twisted  neck  or  body;  and  one  or  more  of  the  manii^ulations 
necessary  to  secure  and  bring  u\)  a  missing  member  may  be  required. 
In  most  cases  of  monstrosity  by  excess,  however,  it  is  needful  to  remove 
the  superfluous  parts,  in  which  case  the  general  principles  employed 
for  emhryotomy  must  be  followed.  The  Ctesarian  section,  by  which  the 
foetus  is  extracted  through  an  incision  in  the  walls  of  the  abdomen  and 
womb,  is  inadmissible,  as  it  practically  entails  the  sacrifice  of  the  mare, 
which  should  never  be  done  for  the  sake  of  a  monster.  See  "Em- 
bryotomy." 

ENTRANCE   OF   TWINS   INTO   THE   PASSAGE   AT    ONCE. 

Twins  are  rare  in  the  mare,  and  still  more  rare  is  the  impaction  of 
both  at  once  intothe  pelvis.  The  condition  would  be  easily  recognized 
by  the  fact  that  two  fore  limbs  and  two  hind  would  occupy  the  passage 
at  once,  the  front  of  the  hoofs  of  the  fore  feet  being  turned  upward  and 
those  of  the  hind  feet  downward.  If  both  belonged  to  one  foal  they 
would  be  turned  in  the  same  direction.  Once  recognized,  the  condi- 
tion is  easily  remedied  by  passing  a  rope  with  a  running  noose  round 
each  foot  of  the  foal  that  is  farthest  advanced  or  that  promises  to  be 
most  easily  extracted,  and  to  i^ush  the  members  of  the  other  fcetus 
back  into  the  depth  of  the  womb.  As  soon  as  the  one  foetus  is  fully 
engaged  in  the  passage  it  will  hold  its  place  and  its  delivery  will  pro- 
ceed in  the  natural  way. 

TABLE  OF  WRONG  PRESENTATIONS. 

f  Incompletely  extended.  Flexor  tendons  shortened, 

fFore  limbs )  Crossed  over  the  neck. 

I  I  Bent  back  at  the  knee. 

l^Beufchack  from  the  shoulder. 

f  Bent  downward  on  the  neck. 


si 


s-  c3     Head  }  ^®^*^  ^"^  neck  turned  back  beneath  the  breast. 

®-M<(  I  Turned  to  one  side. 


a  <B 

U 
ft 


[Turned  upward  and  backward  on  the  back. 

Hind  limbs Hiud  feet  engaged  in  the  pelvis. 

Transverse Back  of  foal  fo  side  of  pelvis. 

^  Inverted Back  of  foal  to  floor  of  pelvis. 

•n  §  .  »•  fmnd  limbs \  Benton  itself  at  the  hock. 

®  S  ^"il  5  J  \  Berut  at  the  hip. 

o  u  g  •-  1  Transverse Back  of  foal  to  side  of  pelvis. 

CL,  o      "^  t  Inverted Back  of  foal  to  floor  of  pelvis. 

Transverse  presentation  of  body.  \  ^\f^  back  and  loins  presented. 
*^  ''    \  With  breast  and  belly  presented. 


168 

FORE-LIMBS   INCOMPLETELY  EXTENDED. 

lu  cases  of  this  kiDtl,  uot  only  are  the  back  tendons  behind  the  knee 
and  shank-bone  unduly  short,  but  the  sinew  extending  from  the 
front  of  the  shoulder-blade  over  the  front  of  the  elbow  and  down 
to  the  head  of  the  shank-bone  is  also  shortened.  The  result  is  that 
the  fore-limb  is  bent  at  the  knee  and  the  elbow  is  also  rigidly  bent. 
The  condition  obstructs  parturition  by  the  feet  becoming  pressed  against 
the  floor  of  the  pelvis  or  by  the  elbow  pressing  on  its  anterior  brim. 
Belief  is  to  be  obtained  by  forcible  extension.  A  rope  with  a  running 
noose  is  passed  around  each  fetlock  and  a  repeller  (see  Plate  YIII), 
planted  in  the  breast  is  pressed  in  a  direction  upward  and  backward 
while  active  traction  is  made  on  the  ropes.  If  the  feet  are  not  thereby 
raised  from  the  floor  of  the  pelvis  the  palm  of  the  hand  may  be  placed 
beneath  them  to  protect  the  mucous  membrane  until  they  have  ad- 
vanced sufficiently  to  obviate  this  danger.  In  the  absence  of  a  repel- 
ler, a  smooth  rounded  fork-handle  may  be  employed.  If  the  shortening 
is  too  great  to  allow  of  the  extension  of  the  limbs  in  this  way,  the  tense 
tendons  may  be  cut  across  behind  the  shank  bone  and  in  front  of  the 
elbow,  and  the  limb  will  be  easily  straightened  out.  This  is  most  easily 
done  with  an  embryotomy  knife  furnished  with  a  ring  for  the  middle 
finger,  so  that  the  blade  may  be  protected  in  the  palm  of  the  hand. 
(See  Plate  XIY,  Fig.  4.) 

ONE  FORE-LIMB  CROSSED  OVER  THE  BACK  OF  THE  NECK. 

With  the  long  fore-limbs  of  the  foal  this  readily  occurs  and  the  re- 
sulting increase  in  thickness,  both  at  the  head  and  shoulder,  offers  a, 
serious  obstacle  to  progress.  (See  Plate  X,  Fig.  2.)  The  hand  intro- 
duced into  the  passage  detects  the  head  and  one  forefoot,  and  further 
back  on  the  same  side  of  the  head  the  second  foot,  from  which  the  limb 
may  be  traced  obliquely  across  the  back  of  the  neck. 

If  parturition  continues  to  make  progress  the  displaced  foot  may 
bruise  and  lacerate  the  vagina.  By  seizing  the  limb  above  the  fetlock 
it  may  be  easily  pushed  over  the  head  to  the  proper  side,  when  par- 
turition will  proceed  normally. 

FORE-LIMB  BENT  AT  THE  KNEE. 

The  nose  and  one  fore-foot  present,  and  on  examination  the  knee  of 
the  missing  fore-limb  is  found  farther  back.  (Plate  X,  Fig.  1.)  First 
place  a  noose  each  on  the  presenting  pastern  and  lower  jaw,  and  push 
back  the  body  of  the  fcetus  with  a  repeller.  while  the  operator  seizing 
the  shank  of  the  bent  limb  extends  it  so  as  to  press  back  the  knee 
and  bring  forward  the  fetlock  and  foot.  As  progress  is  made  little 
by  little  the  hand  is  slid  down  from  the  region  of  the  knee  to  the  fet- 
lock, and  finally  that  is  secured  and  brought  up  into  the  passage, 
when  parturition  will  proceed  without  hindrance.    If  both  fore-limbs 


169 

are  beut  back  the  head  must  be  noosed  and  tlio  limbs  brought  up  as 
above,  one  after  the  other.  It  is  usuallj'  best  to  employ  the  left  hand 
for  the  right  fore-limb  and  the  right  hand  for  the  left  fore-limb. 

FORE-LIMB  TURNED  BACK  FROM  THE  SHOULDER. 

In  this  case,  on  esploration  by  the  side  of  the  head  and  presenting 
limb,  the  shoulder  only  can  be  reached  at  first.  (Plato  X,  Fig.  4.)  By 
noosing  the  head  and  presenting  fore-limb  these  may  be  drawn  for- 
ward into  the  pelvis,  and  the  oiled  hand  being  carried  along  the  shoul- 
der in  the  direction  of  the  missing  limb  is  enabled  to  reach  and  seize 
the  fore  arm  just  below  the  elbow.  The  body  is  now  pushed  back  by 
the  assistants  i)ressiug  on  the  head  and  presenting  limb  or  on  a  repel- 
ler  planted  in  the  breast  until  the  knee  can  be  brought  up  into  the  pel- 
vis, after  which  the  procedure  is  the  same  as  described  in  the  last  par- 
agraph. 

HEAD   BENT   DOWN   BETWEEN   THE   FORE-LIMBS. 

This  may  be  so  that  the  poll  or  nape  of  the  neck  with  the  ears  can  be 
felt  far  back  between  the  fore-limbs,  or  so  that  only  the  ujiper  border  of 
the  neck  can  be  reached,  head  and  neck  being  bent  back  beneath  the 
body.  With  the  head  only  bent  on  the  neck,  noose  the  two  presenting 
limbs,  then  introduce  the  hand  between  them  until  the  nose  can  be 
seized  in  the  palm  of  the  hand.  Next  have  the  assistants  push  back 
the  presenting  limbs,  while  the  nose  is  strongly  lifted  upward  over  the 
brim  of  the  i^elvis.  This  accomplished  it  assumes  the  natural  position 
and  parturition  is  easy. 

When  both  head  and  neck  are  bent  downward  it  may  be  impossible 
to  reach  the  nose.  If,  however,  the  labor  has  only  commenced,  the  limbs 
may  be  drawn  upon  until  the  operator  can  reach  the  ear,  by  dragging 
on  which  the  head  may  be  so  far  advanced  that  the  fingers  may  reach 
the  orbit;  traction  upon  this  while  the  limbs  are  being  pushed  back  may 
bring  the  head  up  so  that  it  bends  on  the  neck  only,  and  the  further 
procedure  will  be  as  described  in  the  last  paragraph. 

If  the  labor  has  been  long  in  progress  and  the  foetus  is  jammed  into 
the  pelvis,  the  womb  emptied  of  the  waters  and  firml^^  contracted  on  its 
solid  contents,  the  case  is  incomparably  more  difQcult.  The  mare  may 
be  chloroformed  and  turned  on  her  back  with  hind  parts  elevated,  and 
the  womb  may  be  injected  with  sweet-oil.  Then,  if  the  ear  can  be 
reached,  the  correction  of  the  mal-presentation  may  be  attempted  as 
above  described.  Should  this  fail  one  or  more  sharp  hooks  may  be  in- 
serted in  the  neck  as  near  the  head  as  can  be  reached,  and  ropes  at- 
tached to  these  may  be  dragged  on,  while  the  body  of  the  foal  is  pushed 
back  by  the  fore-limbs  or  by  a  repeller.  Such  repulsion  should  be  made 
in  a  direction  obliquely  upward  toward  the  loins  of  the  mother  so  as  to 
rotate  the  fostus  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  the  head  up.  As  this  is  ac- 
complished a  hold  should  be  secured  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  nose,  with 
hand  or  hook,  until  the  head  can  be  straightened  out  on  the  neck. 


170 

All  means  failing,  it  becomes  necessary  to  remove  tlie  fore-limbs 
{embryotomy)  so  as  to  make  more  space  for  bringing  up  the  head.  If, 
even  then,  this  can  not  be  accomplished,  it  may  be  possible  to  push  the 
body  backward  and  upward  with  the  repeller  until  the  hind-limbs  are 
brought  to  the  passage,  when  they  may  be  noosed  and  delivery  effected 
with  the  posterior  presentation. 

HEAD   TURIs^ED   BACK   ON   THE   SHOULDER. 

In  this  case,  the  fore-feet  present,  and  the  oiled  h  and  passed  along 
the  forearms  in  search  of  the  missing  head  finds  the  side  of  the  neck 
turned  to  one  side,  the  head  being  perhaps  entirely  out  of  reach. 
(Plate  XIII,  Fig.  1.)  To  bring  forward  the  head  it  may  be  desirable 
to  lay  the  mare  on  the  opposite  side  to  that  to  which  the  head  is 
turned,  and  even  to  give  chloroform  or  ether.  Then  the  feet  being 
noosed,  the  body  of  the  foetus  is  pushed  by  the  hand  or  repeller  for- 
ward and  to  the  side  opposite  to  that  occupied  by  the  head  until  the 
head  comes  within  reach,  near  the  entrance  of  the  pelvis.  If  such  dis- 
placement of  the  foetus  is  diflicult,  it  may  be  facilitated  by  a  free  use 
of  oil  or  lard.  When  the  nose  can  be  seized  it  can  be  brought  into  the 
I)assage  as  when  the  head  is  turned  down.  If  it  can  not  be  reached 
the  orbit  may  be  availed  of  to  draw  the  head  forward  until  the  nose  can 
be  seized  or  the  lower  jaw  noosed.  In  very  difficult  cases  a  rope  may 
be  passed  around  the  neck  by  the  hand,  or  with  the  aid  of  a  curved  car- 
rier (Plate  VIII),  and  traction  may  be  made  upon  this  while  the  body 
is  being  rotated  to  the  other  side.  In  the  same  way,  in  bad  cases, 
a  hook  may  be  fixed  in  the  orbit  or  even  between  the  bones  of  the 
lower  jaw  to  assist  in  bringing  the  head  up  into  position.  Should  all 
fail,  the  amputation  of  the  fore-limbs  may  be  resorted  to  as  advised 
under  the  last  heading. 

HEAD   TURNED   UPWARD    ON   THE   BACK. 

This  differs  from  the  last  mal-presentatiou  only  in  the  direction  of 
the  head,  which  has  to  be  sought  above  rather  than  at  one  side,  and  is 
to  be  secured  and  brought  forward  in  a  similar  manner.  (Plate  XIII, 
Fig.  2.)  If  a  rope  can  be  passed  around  the  neck  it  will  prove  most 
effectual,  as  it  naturally  slides  nearer  to  the  head  as  the  neck  is 
straightened,  and  ends  by  bringing  the  head  within  easy  reach. 

HIND   FEET  ENGAGED   IN   THE  PELVIS. 

In  this  case  fore-limbs  and  head  iiresent  naturally,  but  the  hind 
limbs  bent  forward  from  the  hip  and  the  loins  arched  allow  the  hind 
feet  also  to  enter  the  passages,  and  the  farther  labor  advances  the 
more  firmly  does  the  body  of  the  foal  become  wedged  into  the  pelvis. 
(Plate  XII,  Fig.  2.)  The  condition  is  to  be  recognized  by  introducing 
the  oiled  hand  along  the  belly  of  the  foetus,  when  the  hind  feet  will  be 


171 

felt  advancing.  An  attempt  should  at  once  be  made  to  push  them 
back,  one  after  the  other,  over  the  brim  of  the  pelvis.  Failing  in  this, 
the  mare  may  be  turned  on  her  back,  head  down  hill,  and  the  attempt 
renewed.  If  it  is  possible  to  introduce  a  straight  rope  carrier,  a  noose 
passed  through  this  may  be  put  on  the  fetlock  and  the  repulsion  thereby 
made  more  effective.  In  case  of  continued  failure  the  anterior  present- 
ing part  of  the  body  may  be  skinned  and  cut  off  as  far  back  toward  the 
pelvis  as  possible  (see  "Embryotomy");  then  nooses  are  placed  on  the 
hind  fetlocks  and  traction  is  made  upon  these  while  the  quarters  are 
pushed  back  into  the  womb.  Then  the  remaining  portion  is  brought 
away  by  the  posterior  presentation. 

ANTERIOR   PRESENTATION   "WITH   BACK   TURNED   TO   ONE   SIDE. 

The  greatest  diameter  of  the  axis  of  the  foal,  like  that  of  the  pelvic 
passages,  is  from  above  downward,  and  when  the  foetus  enters  the 
pelvis  with  this  greatest  diameter  engaged  transversely  or  in  the  nar- 
row diameter  of  the  pelvis,  parturition  is  rendered  dif&cult  or  impossi- 
ble. In  such  a  case  the  pasterns  and  head  may  be  noosed,  and  the 
passages  and  engaged  portion  of  the  foal  freely  lubricated  with  lard, 
the  limbs  may  be  crossed  over  each  other  and  the  head,  and  a  move- 
ment of  rotation  effected  in  the  fcetus  until  its  face  and  back  are  turned 
up  toward  the  crouj)  of  the  mother ;  then  parturition  becomes  natural. 

BACK  OF  THE  FOAL  TURNED  TO  THE  FLOOR  OF  THE  PELVIS. 

In  a  roomy  mare  this  is  not  an  insuperable  obstacle  to  parturition, 
yet  it  may  seriously  impede  it,  by  reason  of  the  curvature  of  the  body 
of  the  foal  being  opposite  to  that  of  the  passages,  and  the  head  and 
withers  being  liable  to  arrest  against  the  border  of  the  pelvis.  Lubri- 
cation of  the  passage  with  lard  and  traction  of  the  limbs  and  head 
will  usually  suffice  with  or  without  the  turning  of  the  mare  on  her  back. 
In  obstinate  cases  two  other  resorts  are  open :  (1)  to  turn  the  foal, 
pushing  back  the  fore-parts  and  bringing  up  the  hind  so  as  to  make  a 
a  posterior  presentation,  and  (2)  the  amputation  of  the  fore-limbs, 
after  which  extraction  will  usually  be  easy. 

HIND  PRESENTATION  WITH  LEG  BENT  AT  HOCK. 

In  this  form  the  quarters  of  the  foal  with  the  hind-legs  bent  up  be- 
neath them  present,  but  can  not  advance  through  the  pelvis  by  reason 
of  their  bulk.  (Plate  X,  Fig.  3.)  The  oiled  hand  introduced  can  recog- 
nize the  outline  of  the  buttocks,  with  the  tail  and  anus  in  the  center 
and  the  sharp  points  of  the  hocks  beneath.  First  pass  a  rope  around 
each  limb  at  the  hock,  then  with  hand  or  repeller,  push  the  buttocks 
backward  and  upwards,  until  the  feet  can  be  brought  up  into  the  pas- 
sages. The  great  length  of  the  shank  and  pastern  in  the  foal  is  a  serious 
obstacle  to  this,  and  in  all  cases  the  foot  should  be  protected  in  the 


172 

palm  of  the  baud  while  being  brought  up  over  the  brim  of  the  pelvis. 
Otherwise  the  womb  may  be  torn.  When  the  pains  are  too  violent  and 
constant  to  allow  effective  manipulation,  some  respite  maybe  obtained 
by  the  use  of  chloroform  or  morphia,  and  by  turning  the  mare  ou  her 
back,  but  too  often  the  operator  fails  and  the  foal  must  be  sacrificed. 
Two  courses  are  still  open :  first,  to  cut  through  the  cords  behind  and 
above  the  hock  and  extend  the  upper  part  of  the  limb,  leaving  the 
hock  bent,  and  extract  in  this  way,  and,  second,  to  amputate  the  hind 
limbs  at  the  hip  joint  and  remove  them  separately,  after  which  the  body 
may  be  extracted. 

HIND   PRESENTATION  WITH   LEGS  BENT   FORWARD   FRO^M   THE   HIP. 

This  is  merely  an  aggravated  form  of  the  presentation  last  de- 
scribed. (Plate  XII,  Fig.  1).  If  the  mare  is  roomy  a  rope  may  be 
passed  around  each  thigh  and  the  body  pushed  upward  and  forward,  so 
as  to  bring  the  hocks  and  heels  upward.  If  this  can  be  accomplished, 
nooses  are  placed  on  the  limb  farther  and  farther  down  until  the  feltlock 
is  reached  and  brought  into  position.  If  failure  is  met  with,  then  am- 
putation at  the  hips  is  the  dernier  ressort. 

HIND    PRESENTATIONS    WITH     THE    BACK     TURNED     SIDEWAYS    OB 

DOWNWARD. 

These  are  the  counterparts  of  similar  anterior  presentations  and  are 
to  be  managed  in  the  same  way. 

PRESENTATION   OF    THE  BACK. 

This  is  rare,  yet  not  unknown,  the  foal  being  bent  upon  itself  with 
the  back,  recognizable  by  its  sharp  row  of  spines,  presented  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  pelvis,  and  the  head  and  all  four  feet  turned  back  into  the 
womb.  (Plate  XI,  Fig.  1.)  The  body  of  the  foetus  may  be  extended 
across  the  opening  transversely  so  that  the  head  corresponds  to  one  side 
(right  or  left),  or  it  may  be  vertical  with  the  head  above  or  below. 

In  any  such  position  the  object  should  be  to  push  the  body  of  the 
foetus  forward  and  upward  or  to  one  side,  as  may  best  promise  to  bring 
up  the  fore  or  hind  extremities,  and  bring  the  latter  into  the  passage  so 
as  to  constitute  a  normal  anterior  or  posterior  presentation.  This  turn- 
ing of  the  foetus  may  be  favored  by  a  given  position  of  the  mother,  by 
the  free  use  of  oil  or  lard  on  the  surface  of  the  foetus,  and  by  th3  use  of 
a  propeller. 

PRESENTATION   OF   BREAST   AND   ABDOMEN. 

This  is  the  reverse  of  the  back  presentation,  the  foal  being  extended 
across  in  front  of  the  pelvic  opening,  but  with  the  belly  turned  toward 
the  passages  and  with  all  four  feet  engaged  in  the  passage.  (Plate  XI, 
Fig.  2.)    The  most  promising  course  is  to  secure  the  hind  feet  with 


173 

nooses  and  then  push  the  forefeet  forward  into  the  womb.  As  soon  as 
the  forefeet  are  pushed  forward  clear  of  the  brim  of  the  pelvis,  traction 
is  made  on  the  hind  feet  so  as  to  bring  the  thighs  into  the  passage  and 
prevent  the  re-entrance  of  the  fore-limbs.  If  it  prove  difficult  to  push 
back  the  fore-limbs  a  noose  may  be  passed  around  the  fetlock  of  each 
and  the  cord  drawn  through  the  eye  of  a  rope  carrier,  by  means  of 
which  the  members  may  be  easily  pushed  back. 

EMBRYOTOMY. 

This  consists  in  the  dissection  of  the  foetus  so  as  to  reduce  its  bulk 
and  allow  of  its  exit  through  the  pelvis.  The  indications  for  its  adop- 
tion have  been  furnished  in  the  foregoing  pages.  The  operation  will 
vary  in  different  cases  according  to  the  necessity  for  the  removal  of  one 
or  more  parts  in  order  to  secure  the  requisite  reduction  in  size.  Thus 
it  may  be  needful  to  remove  head  and  neck,  one  fore-limb  or  both,  one 
hind  limb  or  both,  to  remove  different  parts  of  the  trunk,  or  to  remove 
superfluous  (monstrous)  parts.  Some  of  the  simplest  operations  of  em- 
bryotomy (incision  of  the  head  in  hydrocephalus,  incision  of  the  belly 
in  dropsy)  have  already  been  described.  It  remains  to  notice  the  more 
difBcnlt  procedures  which  can  be  best  undertaken  by  the  skilled 
anatomist. 

Amputation  of  the  fore  limbs. — This  may  usually  be  begun  on  the  fet- 
lock of  the  limb  projecting  from  the  vulva.  An  embryotomy  knife  is 
desirable.  This  knife  consists  of  a  blade  with  a  sharp,  slightly  hooked 
point,  and  one  or  two  rings  in  the  back  of  the  blade  large  enough  to 
fit  on  the  middle  finger,  while  the  blade  is  protected  in  the  palm  of  the 
hand.  (See  Plate  XIY,  Fig.  4.)  Another  form  has  the  blade  inserted 
in  a  mortise  in  the  handle  from  which  it  is  pushed  out  by  a  movable 
button  when  wanted.  First  place  a  noose  around  the  fetlock  of  the 
limb  to  be  amputated,  cut  the  skin  circularly  entirely  around  the  fet- 
lock, then  make  an  incision  on  the  inner  side  of  the  limb  from  the  fetlock 
up  to  the  breast  bone,  ifext  dissect  the  skin  from  the  limb,  from  the  fet- 
lock up  to  the  breast  bone  on  the  inner  side,  and  as  far  up  on  the  shoulder 
blade  as  possible  on  the  outer  side.  Finally,  cut  through  the  muscles 
attaching  the  limb  to  the  breast  bone,  and  employ  strong  traction  on 
the  limb  so  as  to  drag  out  the  whole  limb,  shoulder  blade  included.  The 
muscles  around  the  upper  part  of  the  shoulder  blade  are  easily  torn 
through  and  need  not  be  cut,  even  if  that  were  possible.  In  no  case 
should  the  fore-limb  be  removed  unless  the  shoulder  blade  is  taken  with 
it,  as  that  furnishes  the  greatest  obstruction  to  delivery,  above  all  when 
it  is  no  longer  advanced  by  the  extension  of  the  fore-limb,  but  is  pressed 
back  so  as  to  increase  the  already  thickest  posterior  portion  of  the 
chest.  The  preservation  of  the  skin  from  the  whole  limb  is  advan- 
tageous in  various  ways;  it  is  easier  to  cut  it  circularly  at  the  fetlock 
than  at  the  shoulder;  it  covers  the  hand  and  knife  in  making  the  need- 
ful incisions,  thus  acting  as  a  protection  to  the  womb;  and  it  affords  a 


174 

means  of  traction  on  the  body  after  tlie  litnb  has  been  removed.  In  dis- 
secting the  skin  from  the  limb  the  knife  is  not  needful  at  all  points;  much 
of  it  may  be  stripped  off  with  the  fingers  or  knuckles,  or  by  a  blunt  iron 
spud  pushed  up  inside  the  hide,  which  is  meanwhile  held  tense  to  ren- 
der the  spud  effective. 

Amputation  of  the  head. — This  is  easy  when  both  fore-limbs  are  turned 
back  and  the  head  alone  has  made  its  exit  in  part.  It  is  more  difficult 
when  the  head  is  still  retained  in  the  passages  or  womb,  as  in  double- 
headed  monsters.  The  head  is  secured  by  a  hook  in  the  lower  jaw,  or 
in  the  orbit,  or  by  a  halter,  and  the  skin  is  divided  circularly  around 
the  lower  part  of  the  face  or  at  the  front  of  the  ears,  according  to  the 
amount  of  head  protruding.  Then  an  incision  is  made  backward  along 
the  line  of  the  throat,  and  the  skin  dissected  from  the  neck  as  far  back 
as  possible.  Then  the  muscles  and  other  soft  parts  of  the  neck  are  cut 
across,  and  the  bodies  of  two  vertebrse  (neck  bones)  are  severed  by 
cutting  completely  across  the  cartilage  of  the  joint.  The  bulging  of 
the  ends  of  the  bones  will  serve  to  indicate  the  seat  of  the  joint.  The 
head  and  detached  portion  of  the  neck  may  now  be  removed  by  steady 
pulling.  If  there  is  still  an  obstacle  the  knife  may  be  again  used  to 
sever  any  obstinate  connections.  In  the  case  of  a  double-headed  mon- 
ster, the  whole  of  the  second  neck  must  be  removed  with  the  head. 
When  the  head  has  been  detached  a  rope  should  be  passed  through 
the  eye-holes,  or  through  an  artificial  opening  in  the  skin,  and  tied 
firmly  around  the  skin,  to  be  employed  as  a  means  of  traction  when  the 
missing  limbs  or  the  second  head  have  been  brought  up  into  position. 

Amputation  of  the  hind  limh. — This  may  be  required  when  there  are 
extra  hind  limbs,  or  when  the  hind  limbs  are  bent  forward  at  hock  or 
hip  joint.  In  the  former  condition  the  procedure  resembles  that  for 
removal  of  a  fore-limb,  but  requires  more  anatomical  knowledge.  Hav- 
ing noosed  the  pastern,  a  circular  incision  is  made  through  the  skin 
around  the  fetlock,  and  a  longitudinal  one  from  that  up  to  the  groin, 
and  the  skin  is  dissected  from  the  limb  as  high  up  as  can  be  reached, 
over  the  croup  if  possible.  Then  cut  through  the  muscles  around  the 
hip  joint,  and,  if  possible,  the  two  interarticular  ligaments  of  the  joint 
(pubiofemoral  and  round),  and  extract  the  limb  by  strong  dragging. 

In  case  the  limb  is  bent  forward  at  the  hock,  a  rope  is  passed  round 
that  and  pulled  so  as  to  bring  the  point  of  the  hock  between  the  lips 
of  the  vulva.  The  hamstring  and  the  lateral  ligaments  of  the  hock  are 
now  cut  through,  and  the  limbs  extended  by  a  rope  tied  round  the 
lower  end  of  the  long  bone  above  (tibia).  In  case  it  is  still  needful  to 
remove  the  upper  part  of  the  limb,  the  further  procedure  is  the  same 
as  described  in  the  last  paragraph. 

In  case  the  limb  is  turned  forward  from  the  hip,  and  the  foetus  so 
wedged  into  the  passage  that  turning  is  impossible,  the  case  is  very 
difficult.  I  have  repeatedly  succeeded  by  cutting  in  on  the  hip  joint 
and  disarticulating  it,  then  dissecting  the  muscles  back  from  the  upper 


175 

end  of  the  thigh  bone.  A  noose  was  placed  around  the  neck  of  the  bone 
and  pulled  on  forcibly,  wliile  any  unduly  resisting  structures  were  cut 
with  the  knife. 

Cartwright  recommends  to  make  free  incisions  round  the  hip  joints 
and  tear  through  the  muscles  when  they  can  not  be  cut;  then  with 
cords  round  the  pelvic  bones,  and  hooks  inserted  in  the  openings  in  the 
floor  of  the  pelvis  to  drag  out  the  pelvic  bones ;  then  put  cords  arouud 
the  heads  of  the  thigh  bones  and  extract  them;  then  remove  the  intes- 
tines; and  finally,  by  means  of  the  loose,  detached  skin,  draw  out  the 
body  with  the  remainder  of  the  hind  limbs  bent  forward  beneath  it. 

Keuft"  cuts  his  way  into  the  pelvis  of  the  foal,  and  with  a  knife  separ- 
ates the  pelvic  bones  from  the  loins,  then  skinning  the  quarter  draws 
out  these  pelvic  bones  by  means  of  ropes  and  hooks,  and  along  with 
them  the  hind  limbs. 

The  hind  limbs  having  been  removed  by  one  or  the  other  of  these  pro- 
cedures, the  loose  skin  detaciied  from  the  pelvis  is  used  as  a  means  of 
traction  and  delivery  is  effected.  If  it  has  been  a  monstrosity  with  ex- 
tra hind  limbs,  it  may  be  possible  to  bring  these  up  into  the  passage 
and  utilize  them  for  traction. 

Removal  of  the  abdominal  viscera. — In  case  where  the  belly  is  unduly 
large,  from  decomposition,  tumors,  or  otherwise,  it  may  be  needful  to 
lay  it  open  with  the  knife  and  cut  or  tear  out  the  contents. 

Removal  of  the  thoracic  viscera, — To  diminish  the  bulk  of  the  chest  it 
has  been  found  advisable  to  cut  out  the  breast-bone,  remove  the  heart 
and  lungs,  and  allow  the  ribs  to  collapse  with  the  lower  free  ends  over- 
lapping each  other. 

Dissection  of  the  trunk. — In  case  it  becomes  necessary  to  remove  other 
portions  of  the  trunk,  the  general  rule  should  be  followed  of  preserving 
the  skin  so  that  all  maniiDulations  can  be  made  inside  this  as  a  pro- 
tector, that  it  may  remain  available  as  a  means  of  exercising  traction 
on  the  remaining  parts  of  the  body,  and  as  a  covering  to  protect  the 
vaginal  walls  against  injuries  from  bones  while  such  part  is  passing. 

FLOODING— BLEEDING-  FROM  THE   WOMB. 

This  is  rare  in  the  mare,  but  not  unknown,  in  connection  with  a  fail- 
ure of  the  womb  to  contract  on  itself  after  parturition,  or  with  eversion 
of  the  womb  (casting  the  withers),  and  congestion  or  laceration.  If  the 
blood  accumulates  in  the  flaccid  womb  the  condition  may  only  be  sus- 
pected by  reason  of  the  rai^idly  advancing  weakness,  swaying,  unsteady 
gait,  hanging  head,  paleness  of  the  eyes  and  other  mucous  membranes, 
and  weak,  small,  failing  pulse.  The  hand  introduced  into  the  womb 
detects  the  presence  of  the  blood  partly  clotted.  If  the  blood  escapes 
by  the  vulva  the  condition  is  evident. 

Treatment  consists  in  evacuating  the  womb  of  its  blood  clots,  giving 
a  large  dose  of  powdered  ergot  of  rye,  and  in  the  application  of  cold 
water  or  ice  to  the  loins  and  external  generative  organs.    Beside  this 


176 

a  sponge  impregnated  with  a  strong  solution  of  alum,  or,  still  better, 
with  tincture  of  muriate  of  iron  may  be  introduced  into  the  womb  and 
squeezed  so  as  to  bring  the  liquid  in  contact  with  the  walls  generally. 

EVERSION   OF   THE   WOMB. 

If  the  womb  fails  to  contract  after  difficult  parturition,  the  after-pains 
will  sometimes  lead  to  the  fundus  passing  into  the  body  of  the  organ 
and  passing  through  that  and  the  vagina  until  the  whole  inverted  organ 
appears  externally  and  hangs  down  on  the  thighs.  The  result  is  rapid 
engorgement  and  swelling  of  the  organ,  impaction  of  the  rectum  with 
fneces,  and  distention  of  the  bladder  with  urine,  all  of  which  conditions 
seriously  interfere  with  the  return  of  the  mass.  In  returning  the  womb 
the  standing  is  preferable  to  the  recumbent  jiosition,  as  the  abdomen 
is  more  pendant  and  there  is  less  obstruction  to  the  return.  It  may, 
however,  be  necessary  to  put  hobbles  on  the  hind  limbs  to  prevent  the 
mare  from  kicking.  A  clean  sheet  should  be  held  beneath  the  womb 
and  all  filth,  straw,  and  foreign  bodies  washed  from  its  surface.  Then 
with  a  broad,  elastic  (india-rubber)  band,  or  in  default  of  that  a  long 
strip  of  calico  4  or  5  inches  wide,  wind  the  womb  as  tightly  as  possible, 
beginning  at  its  most  dependent  part  (the  extremity  of  the  horn).  This 
serves  two  good  ends.  It  squeezes  out  into  the  general  circulation  the 
enormous  mass  of  blood  which  engorged  and  enlarged  the  organ,  and 
it  furnishes  a  strong  protective  covering  for  the  now  delicate  friable 
organ,  through  which  it  may  be  safely  manipulated  without  danger  of 
laceration.  The  next  step  may  be  the  pressure  on  the  general  mass 
while  those  portions  next  the  vulva  are  gradually  pushed  in  with  the 
hands;  or  the  extreme  lowest  point  (the  end  of  the  horn)  may  be  turned 
within  itself  and  pushed  forward  into  the  vagina  by  the  closed  fist,  the 
return  being  assisted  by  manipulations  by  the  other  hand,  and  even  by 
those  of  assistants.  By  either  mode  the  manipulations  may  be  made 
with  almost  perfect  safety  so  long  as  the  organ  is  closely  wrapped  in 
the  bandage.  Once  a  portion  has  been  introduced  into  the  vagina  the 
rest  will  usually'  follow  with  increasing  ease,  and  the  operation  should 
be  completed  with  the  hand  and  arm  extended  the  full  length  within 
the  womb  and  moved  from  point  to  point  so  as  to  straighten  out  all  parts 
of  the  organ  and  insure  that  no  portion  still  remains  inverted  within 
another  portion.  Should  any  such  partial  inversion  be  left  it  will  give 
rise  to  straining,  under  the  force  of  which  it  will  gradually  increase 
until  the  whole  mass  will  be  protruded  as  before.  The  next  step  is  to 
apply  a  truss  as  an  effectual  mechanical  barrier  to  further  escape  of 
the  womb  through  the  vulva.  The  simplest  is  made  with  two  inch  ropes, 
each  about  18  feet  long.  These  are  each  doubled  and  interwoven  at 
the  bend,  as  seen  in  Plate  YIII,  Fig.  4.  The  ring  formed  by  the  inter- 
lacing of  the  two  ropes  is  adjusted  around  the  vulva,  the  two  ends  of 
the  one  rope  are  carried  up  on  the  right  and  left  of  the  tail  and  along 
the  spine,  being  wound  round  each  other  in  their  course,  and  are  finally 


177 

tied  to  the  upper  part  of  the  collar  encircling  the  neck.  The  remain- 
ing two  ends,  belonging  to  the  other  rope,  are  carried  downward  and 
forward  between  the  thighs  and  thence  forward  and  upward  on  the 
sides  of  the  belly  and  chest  to  be  attached  to  the  right  and  left  sides  of 
the  collar.  These  ropes  are  drawn  tightly  enough  to  keep  closely  ap- 
plied to  the  opening  without  chafing,  and  will  fit  still  more  securely 
when  the  mare  raises  her  back  to  strain.  It  is  desirable  to  tie  the  mare 
short  so  that  she  may  be  unable  to  lie  down  for  a  day  or  two,  and  she 
should  be  kept  in  a  stall  with  the  hind  parts  higher  than  the  fore.  Violent 
straining  may  be  checked  by  full  doses  of  opium  (one-half  dram),  and 
any  costiveness  or  diarrhea  should  be  obviated  by  a  suitable  laxative  or 
binding  diet. 

In  some  mares  the  contractions  are  too  violent  to  allow  of  the  return 
of  the  womb,  and  full  doses  of  opium  (one-half  dram),  laudanum  (two 
ounces),  or  chloral  hydrate  (one  ounce)  may  be  demanded,  or  the  mare 
must  be  rendered  insensible  by  ether  or  chloroform. 

RUPTUEE  OR  LACERATION  OF  THE  WOMB. 

This  may  occur  from  the  feet  of  the  foal  during  parturition,  or  from 
ill-directed  efforts  to  assist,  but  it  is  especially  liable  to  take  place  in 
the  everted,  congested,  and  friable  organ.  The  resultant  dangers  are 
bleeding  from  the  wound,  escape  of  the  bowels  through  the  opening 
and  their  fatal  injury  by  the  mare's  feet  or  otherwise,  and  peritonitis 
from  the  extension  of  inflammation  from  the  wound  and  from  the  pois- 
onous action  of  the  septic  liquids  of  the  womb  escaping  into  the  ab- 
dominal cavity.  The  first  object  is  to  close  the  wound,  but  unless  in 
aversion  of  the  womb  this  is  practically  impossible.  In  the  last  named 
condition  the  wound  must  be  carefully  and  accurately  sewed  up  before 
the  womb  is  returned.  After  its  return,  the  womb  must  be  injected 
daily  with  an  antiseptic  solution  (borax  one-half  ounce  or  carbolic  acid 
3  drachms  to  a  quart  of  tepid  water).  If  inflammation  threatens, 
the  abdomen  may  be  bathed  continuously  with  hot  water  by  means  of 
a  heavy  woolen  rag,  and  large  doses  of  opium  (one-half  dram)  may  be 
given  twice  or  thrice  daily. 

RUPTURES   OF   THE   VAGINA. 

These  are  attended  by  dangers  similar  to  those  belonging  to  rupture 
of  the  womb,  and  in  addition  by  the  risk  of  protrusion  of  the  bladder, 
which  appears  through  the  lips  of  the  vulva  as  a  red  pyriform  mass. 
Sometimes  such  lacerations  extend  downward  into  the  bladder,  and 
in  others  upward  into  the  terminal  gut  (rectum).  In  still  other  cases 
the  anus  is  torn  so  that  it  forms  one  common  orifice  with  the  vulva. 

Too  often  such  cases  prove  fatal,  or  at  least  a  recovery  is  not  at- 
tained, and  urine  or  foeces  or  both  escaiie  freely  into  the  vagina.  The 
11035 12 


178 

simple  laceration  of  the  anus  is  easily  sewed  up,  but  the  ends  of  the 
muscular  fibers  do  not  reunite  and  the  control  over  the  lower  bowel  is 
never  fully  re-acquired.  The  successful  stitching  up  of  the  wound  com- 
municating with  the  bladder  or  the  rectum  requires  unusual  skill  and 
care,  and  though  I  have  succeeded  in  a  case  of  the  latter  kind,  I  can 
not  advise  the  attem^it  by  unprofessional  persons. 

BLOOD  CLOTS  IN  THE  WALLS  OF  THE  VAGINA. 

See  *' Obstructions  to  parturition." 

INFLAMMATION   OF   THE   "WOMB   AND   PERITONEUM. 

These  may  result  from  injuries  sustained  by  the  womb  during  or 
after  parturition,  from  exposure  to  cold  or  wet,  or  from  the  irritant  ac- 
tion of  putrid  products  within  the  womb.  Under  the  inflammation  the 
womb  remains  dilated  and  flaccid,  and  decomposition  of  its  secretions 
almost  always  occurs,  so  that  the  inflammation  tends  to  assume  a  putrid 
character  and  general  septic  infection  is  likely  to  occur. 

The  symptoms  are  ushered  in  by  shivering,  staring  coat,  small  rapid 
pulse,  elevated  temperature,  accelerated  breathing,  inapx)etence,  with 
arched  back,  stiff  movement  of  the  body,  looking  back  at  the  flanks, 
and  uneasy  motions  of  the  hind  limbs,  discharge  from  the  vulva  of  a 
liquid  at  first  watery,  reddish,  or  yellowish,  and  later  it  may  be  whitish 
or  glairy,  and  fetid  or  not  in  different  cases.  Tenderness  of  the  abdo- 
men shown  on  pressure  is  especially  characteristic  of  cases  affecting 
the  peritoneum  or  lining  of  the  belly,  and  is  more  marked  lower  down. 
If  the  animal  survives,  the  inflammation  tends  to  become  chronic  and 
attended  by  a  whitish  mucopurulent  discharge.  If,  on  the  contrary, 
it  proves  fatal,  death  is  preceded  by  extreme  i)rostration  and  weakness 
from  the  general  septic  poisoning. 

In  treatment  the  first  thing  to  be  sought  is  the  removal  of  all  offen- 
sive and  irritant  matters  from  the  womb  through  a  caoutchouc  tube  in- 
troduced into  the  womb,  and  into  which  a  funnel  is  fitted.  Warm  water 
should  be  passed  until  it  comes  away  clear.  To  insure  that  all  of  the 
womb  has  been  washed  out,  the  oiled  hand  may  be  introduced  to  carry 
the  end  of  the  tube  into  the  two  horns  successively.  When  the  offen- 
sive contents  have  been  thus  removed,  the  womb  should  be  injected 
with  a  quart  of  water  holding  in  solution  one-half  ounce  permanganate 
of  potash,  or,  in  the  absence  of  the  latter,  two  teaspooufuls  of  carbojic 
acid.  Eepeat  twice  daily.  Fomentation  of  the  abdomen,  or  the  appli- 
cation of  a  warm  flax-seed  poultice,  may  greatly  relieve.  Acetanilid, 
in  doses  of  half  an  ounce,  repeated  twice  or  thrice  a  day,  or  sulphate 
of  quinia  in  doses  of  one-third  ounce,  may  be  employed  to  reduce  the 
fever.  If  the  great  prostration  indicates  septic  iwisouing  large  doses 
(one-half  ounce)  bisulphite  of  soda,  or  salicylate  of  soda  may  be  re- 
sorted to. 


179 

-LEUCORRnCEA. 

This  is  a  white,  glutinous,  chronic  discharge,  the  result  of  a  continued 
sub-acute  iuflaramation  of  the  mucous  membrane  Of  the  womb.  Like  the 
discharge  of  acute  intlammation  it  contains  many  forms  of  bacteria,  by 
some  of  which  it  is  manifestly  inoculable  on  the  penis  of  the  stallion, 
producing  ulcers  and  a  specific  gonorrhoeal  discharge. 

Treatment  may  consist  in  the  internal  use  of  tonics  (sulphate  of  iron 
3  drams  daily),  and  the  washing  out  of  the  womb,  as  described  under 
the  last  heading,  followed  by  an  astringent  antiseptic  injection  (car- 
bolic acid  2  teaspoonfuls,  tannic  acid  one-half  dram,  water  one  quart). 
This  may  be  repeated  two  or  three  times  a  day. 

LAMINITIS  OK  FOUNDER  FOLLOWING   PARTURITION. 

This  sometimes  follows  on  inflammation  of  the  womb,  as  it  frequently 
does  on  disorder  of  the  stomach.  Its  symptoms  agree  with  those  of  the 
common  form  of  founder,  and  treatment  need  not  differ. 

DISEASES  OF    THE    UDDER    AND    TEATS — CONGESTION    AND    INFLAM- 
MATION  OF   THE   UDDER. 

This  is  comparatively  rare  in  the  mare,  though  in  some  cases  the  ud- 
der becomes  painfully  engorged  before  parturition,  and  a  doughy  swell- 
ing, pitting  on  pressure,  extends  forward  on  the  lower  surface  of  the 
abdomen.  When  this  goes  on  to  active  inflammation  one  or  both  of  the 
glands  become  enlarged,  hot,  tense,  and  painful;  the  milk  is  dried  up 
or  replaced  by  a  watery  or  reddish  serous  fluid,  which  at  times  becomes 
fetid ;  the  animal  walks  lame,  loses  appetite,  and  shows  general  disor- 
der and  fever.  The  condition  may  end  in  recovery,  in  abscess,  indu- 
ration, or  gangrene,  and  in  some  cases  may  lay  the  foundation  for  a  tu- 
mor of  the  gland. 

The  treatment  is  simple  so  long  as  there  is  only  congestion.  Active 
rubbing  with  lard  or  oil,  or  better,  camphorated  oil,  and  the  frequent 
drawing  off  of  the  milk,  by  the  foal  or  with  the  hand,  will  usually  bring 
about  a  rapid  improvement.  When  active  inflammation  is  present  fo- 
mentation with  warm  water  may  be  kept  up  for  an  hour  and  followed 
by  the  application  of  the  camphorated  oil,  to  which  has  been  added  some 
carbonate  of  soda  and  extract  of  belladonna.  A  dose  of  laxative  medi- 
cine (4  drams  Barbadoes  aloes)  will  be  of  service  in  reducing  fever,  and 
one  half  ounce  saltpeter  daily  will  serve  a  similar  end.  In  case  the  milk 
coagulates  in  the  udder  and  can  not  be  withdrawn,  or  when  the  liquid 
becomes  fetid,  a  solution  of  20  grains  carbonate  of  soda  and  10  drops 
carbolic  acid  dissolved  in  an  ounce  of  water  should  be  injected  into  the 
teat.  In  doing  this  it  must  be  noted  that  the  mare  has  three  separate 
ducts  opening  on  the  summit  of  each  teat  and  each  must  be  carefully  in- 
jected. To  draw  off  the  fetid  product  it  may  be  needful  to  use  a  small 
milking  tube,  or  spring  teat-dilator  designed  by  the  writer  (Plate  YlII, 


180 

figs.  2  and  3.)  When  pus  forms  and  points  externally,  and  can  not 
find  a  free  escape  by  the  teat,  the  spot  where  it  fluctuates  must  be 
opened  freely  with  the  knife  and  the  cavity  injected  daily  with  the  car- 
bolic acid  lotion.  When  the  gland  becomes  hard  and  indolent  it  may 
be  rubbed  daily  with  iodiue  ointment  1  part,  vaseline  6  parts. 

TUMOKS    OF   THE   UDDER. 

As  the  result  of  iuflammatiou  of  the  udder  it  may  become  the  seat  of 
an  indurated  diseased  growth,  which  may  go  on  growing  and  seriously 
interfere  with  the  movement  of  the  hind  limbs.  If  such  swellings  will 
not  give  way  in  their  early  stages  to  treatment  by  iodino  the  only  re- 
sort is  to  cut  them  out  with  a  knife.  As  the  gland  is  often  implicated 
and  has  to  be  removed,  such  mares  can  not  in  the  future  suckle  their 
coits,  and  therefore  should  uo^^  be  bred. 

SORE  TEATS,    SCABS,   CRACKS,   WARTS. 

By  the  act  of  sucking,  especially  in  cold  weather,  the  teats  are  sub- 
ject to  abrasions,  cracks,  and  scabs,  and  as  the  result  of  such  irritation, 
or  independently,  warts  sometimes  grow  and  prove  troublesome.  The 
warts  should  be  clipped  off  with  sharp  scissors  and  their  roots  burned 
with  a  solid  pencil  of  lunar  caustic.  This  is  best  done  before  parturi- 
tion to  secure  healing  before  suckling  begins.  For  sore  teats  use  an 
ointment  of  vaseline  1  ounce,  balsam  of  tola  5  grains,  and  sulphate  of 
zinc  5  grains. 


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ABNORMAL    PRESENTATIONS. 


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DISEASES  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


By  M,  R.   TRUMBOWER,  V.  S. 


THE    ANATOMY    AND     rHYSIOLOGY     OF     THE     BRAIN    AND    NERVOUS 

SYSTEM. 

The  uerv^ous  system  may  be  regarded  as  consisting  of  two  sets  of 
organs,  peripheral  and  central,  the  function  of  one  being  to  establish  a 
communication  between  the  centers  and  the  different  parts  of  the  body, 
and  that  of  the  other  to  generate  nervous  force.  The  whole  may  be 
arranged  under  two  divisions :  First.  The  cerebrospinal  or  nervous  sys- 
tem of  animal  life.  Second.  The  sympathetic,  ganglionic,  or  nervous 
system  of  organic  life.  Each  is  possessed  of  its  own  central  and  periph- 
eral organs. 

In  the  first,  the  center  is  made  up  of  two  portions,  one  large  and 
expanded— the  brain — placed  in  the  cranial  cavity;  the  other  elon- 
gated—spinal cord — continuous  with  the  brain,  and  lodged  in  the  canal 
of  the  vertebral  column.  The  peripheral  portion  of  this  system  consists 
of  the  cerebro-spinal  nerves,  which  leave  the  axis  in  symmetrical  pairs, 
and  are  distributed  to  the  skin,  the  voluntary  muscles,  and  the  organs 
of  common  and  spinal  sensation. 

In  the  second,  the  central  organ  consists  of  a  chain  of  ganglia  con- 
nected by  nerve  cords,  which  extends  from  the  head  to  the  rump  on 
each  side  of  the  spine.  The  nerves  of  this  system  are  distributed  to  the 
involuntary  muscles,  mucous  membrane,  viscera,  and  blood-vessels. 

The  two  systems  have  free  intercommunication,  ganglia  being  at  the 
junctions. 

Two  substances,  distinguishable  by  their  color,  enter  into  the  forma- 
tion of  nervous  matter,  viz,  the  white  or  medullary,  and  the  gray  or 
cortical  substance.  Both  are  soft,  fragile,  and  easily  injured,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  the  principal  nervous  centers  are  always  well  pro- 
tected by  bony  coverings.  The  nervous  substances  present  two  dis- 
tinct forms — nerve  fibers  and  nerve  cells.  An  aggregation  of  nerve  cells 
constitutes  a  nerve  ganglion. 

The  nerve  fibers  represent  a  conducting  apparatus,  and  serve  to 
place  the  central  nervous  organs   in   connection  with  i)eripheral  end 

181 


182 

organs.  The  nerve  cells,  however,  besides  transmitting  impulses,  act 
as  physiological  centers  for  automatic  or  reflex  movements,  and  also 
for  the  sensory,  perceptive,  trophic,  and  secretory  functions.  A  nerve 
consists  of  a  bundle  of  tubular  fibers,  held  together  by  a  dense  areolar 
tissue,  and  inclosed  in  a  membranous  sheath— the  neurilemma.  Iv'erve 
fibers  possess  no  elasticity,  but  are  very  strong.  Divided  nerves  do  not 
retract. 

Nerves  are  thrown  into  a  state  of  excitement  when  stimulated,  and 
are,  therefore,  said  to  i^ossess  excitable  or  irritable  ])roperties.  The 
stimuli  may  be  applied  to,  or  may  act  upon  any  part  of  the  nerve. 
Nerves  may  be  paralyzed  by  continuous  pressure  being  applied.  When 
the  nerves  divide  into  branches,  there  is  never  any  splitting  up  of  their 
ultimate  fibers,  nor  yet  is  there  ever  any  coalescing  of  them  -,  they 
retain  their  individuality  from  their  source  to  their  termination. 

Nerves  which  convey  impressions  to  the  centers  are  termed  sensory 
or  centripetal^  and  those  which  transmit  stimulus  from  the  centers  to 
organs  of  motion  are  termed  motor  or  centrifugal. 

The  function  of  the  nervous  system  may^  therefore,  be  defined  in  the 
simplest  terms,  as  follows:  It  is  intended  to  associate  the  different  x>arts 
of  the  body  in  siich  a  manner  that  stimulus  applied  to  one  organ  may  ex- 
cite or  depress  the  activity  of  another. 

The  brain  is  that  portion  of  the  cerebro-spinal  axis  within  the  cra- 
nium, which  may  be  divided  into  four  parts — the  medulla  oblongata,  the 
cerebellum,  t\iQ  pons  Varolii,  and  the  cerebrum,  and  it  is  covered  by  three 
membranes  called  the  meninges.  The  first  of  these  membranes,  the 
dura  mater,  is  a  thick,  white,  fibrous  membrane  which  lines  the  cavity 
of  the  cranium,  forming  the  internal  periosteum  of  the  bones;  it  is  con- 
tinuous with  the  spinal  cord  to  the  extremity  of  the  canal.  The  second, 
the  araclinoid,  is  a  delicate  serous  membrane,  and  loosely  envelops  the 
brain  and  spinal  cord;  it  forms  two  layers,  leaving  between  them  the 
arachnoid  space  which  contains  the  cerebro-spinal  fluid,  the  use  of 
which  is  to  protect  the  spinal  cord  and  brain  from  pressure.  The  third, 
the  pia  mater,  is  closelj'  adherent  to  the  entire  surface  of  the  brain,  but 
is  much  thinner  and  more  vascular  than  when  it  reaches  the  spinal  cord 
which  it  also  envelops,  and  is  continued  to  form  the  sheaths  of  the 
spinal  nerves. 

The  medulla  oblongata  is  the  prolongation  of  the  spinal  cord,  extend- 
ing to  the  pons  Varolii.  This  portion  of  the  brain  is  very  large  in  the 
horse;  it  is  pyramidal  in  shape,  the  narrowest  part  joining  the  cord. 

The  ^ons  Varolii  is  the  transverse  projection  on  the  base  of  the  brain, 
between  the  medulla  oblongata  and  the  peduncles  of  the  cerebrum. 

The  cerebellum  is  lodged  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  cranial  cavity, 
immediately  above  the  medulla  oblongata;  it  is  globular  or  elliptical  in 
shape,  the  transverse  diameter  being  greatest.  The  body  of  the  cere- 
bellum is  composed  of  gray  matter  externally  and  white  in  the  center. 

The  cerebrum,  or  brain  proper,  occupies  the  anterior  portion  of  the 


183 

cranial  cavity.  It  is  ovoid  in  shape,  with  an  irreguhir  flattened  base, 
and  consists  of  lateral  halves  or  hemispheres.  The  greater  part  ol 
the  cerebrum  is  composed  of  white  matter.  The  hemispheres  of  the 
cerebrnm  are  usually  said  to  be  the  seat  of  all  psychical  activities. 
Only  when  they  are  intact  are  the  processes  of  feeling,  thinking,  and 
willing  possible.  After  they  are  destroyed,  the  organism  comes  to  be 
like  a  complicated  machine,  and  its  activity  is  only  the  expression  of  the 
internal  and  external  stimuli  which  act  upon  it.  The  cerebellum  is  the 
great  and  important  central  organ  for  the  finer  co-ordination  and  inte- 
gration of  movements.  Injuries  to  the  cerebellum  cause  disturbance  of 
the  equilibrium  of  the  body,  but  do  not  interfere  with  the  psychical 
activities  or  the  will  or  consciousness,  neither  does  an  injury  to  these 
parts  give  rise  to  pain. 

The  spincd  cord  or  spinal  marrow  is  that  part  of  the  cerebro-spinal 
system  which  is  contained  in  the  spinal  canal  of  the  backbone,  and 
extends  from  the  medulla  oblongata  to  a  short  distance  behind  the 
loins.  It  is  an  irregularly  cylindrical  structure,  divided  into  two 
lateral  symmetrical  halves  by  fissures.  The  spinal  cord  terminates 
posteriorly  in  a  pointed  extremity,  which  is  continued  by  a  mass  of  ner- 
vous trunks — cauda  equincc.  A  transverse  section  of  the  cord  reveals 
that  it  is  composed  of  white  matter  externally  and  of  gray  internally. 
The  spinal  cord  does  not  fill  up  the  whole  spinal  canal.  The  latter  con- 
tains, besides,  a  large  venous  sinus,  fatty  matter,  the  membranes  of  the 
cord,  and  the  cerebro-spinal  fluid. 

The  spinal  nerves,  forty-two  or  forty-three  in  number,  arise  each  by 
two  roots,  a  superior  or  sensory  and  an  inferior  or  motor.  The  nerves 
originating  from  the  brain  are  twenty-four  in  number,  and  arranged  in 
pairs,  which  are  named  first,  second,  third,  etc.,  counting  from  before 
backward.  They  also  receive  special  names,  according  to  their  func- 
tions, or  the  parts  to  which  they  are  distributed,  viz  : 


1.  Olfactory. 

2.  Optic. 

3.  Oculo-motor. 

4.  Putlietic. 


7.  Facial. 

8.  Auditory, 

9.  Glosso-Pharyngeal. 

10.  Pneumogastric. 

11.  Spinal-Accessory. 

12.  Hypoglossal. 


6.  Abdaeens. 

INFLAMMATION  OF   THE   BRAIN  AND   ITS  MEMBRANES. 

Inflammation  may  attack  these  membranes  singly,  or  any  one  of  the 
anatomical  divisions  of  the  nerve  matter,  or  it  may  invade  the  whole 
at  once.  Practical  experience,  however,  teaches  us  that  primary  in- 
flammation of  the  dura  mater  is  of  rare  occurrence,  except  in  direct 
mechanical  injuries  to  the  head  or  diseases  of  the  bones  of  the  cranium. 
Neither  is  the  arachnoid  often  affected  with  acute  inflammation  except 
as  a  secondary  result.  The  pia  mater  is  most  commonly  the  seat  of 
inflammation,  acute  and  subacute,  but  from  its  intimate  relation  with 
the  surface  of  the  brain  the  latter  very  soon  becomes  involved  in  the 


184 

morbid  elianges.  Practically,  we  can  not  separate  inflammation  of  the 
pia  mater  from  that  of  the  brain  proper.  Inflammation  may,  however, 
exist  in  the  center  of  the  great  nerve  masses,  the  cerebrum,  cerebellum, 
pons  Varolii,  or  medulla  at  the  base  of  the  brain,  without  involving 
the  surface.  When,  therefore,  inflammation  invades  the  brain  and  its 
enveloping  membranes  it  is  properly  called  encephalitis ;  when  the 
membranes  alone  are  affected  it  is  called  meningitis  ;  or  the  brain  sub- 
stance alone,  cerebritis. 

ENCEPHAL-ITIS — INFLAMMATION    OF  THE  BKAIN  AND  ITS  MEMBRANES. 

Causes. — Exposure  to  extreme  heat  or  cold,  excessive  continued  cere- 
bral excitement,  direct  injuries  to  the  brain,  such  as  concussion,  or  from 
fracture  of  the  cranium,  sometimes  as  a  sequelae  to  influenza,  pysemia, 
jioisons  having  a  direct  influence  upon  the  encephalic  mass,  etc. 

Symptoius. — Acute  encephalitis  may  be  ushered  in  by  an  increased 
sensibility  to  noises,  with  more  or  less  nervous  excitability,  contraction 
of  the  pupil  of  the  eyes,  and  a  quick,  hard  pulse.  In  very  acute  attacks 
these  symptoms,  however,  are  not  always  noted.  This  condition  will 
soon  be  followed  by  muscular  twitchiugs,  convulsive  or  spasmodic  move- 
ments, eyes  wide  open  with  shortness  of  sight.  The  animal  becomes 
afraid  to  have  his  head  handled.  Convulsions  and  delirium  will  develop, 
with  inability  of  muscular  control,  or  stupor  and  coma  may  supervene. 
Where  the  membranes  are  greatly  implicated  convulsions  and  delirium 
with  violence  may  be  expected,  but  where  the  brain  substances  is  prin- 
cipally affected  stupor  and  coma  will  be  the  prominent  symptoms.  In 
the  former  condition  the  pulse  will  be  quick  and  hard,  in  the  latter  soft 
or  depressed  with  often  a  dilatation  of  the  pupils,  and  deep,  slow,  ster- 
terous  breathing.  The  symptoms. may  follow  one  another  in  rapid  suc- 
cession, and  the  disease  approach  a  fatal  termination  in  less  than  twelve 
hours.  In  subacute  attacks  the  symjitoms  are  better  defined,  and  the 
animal  seldom  dies  before  the  third  day.  Within  three  or  four  days 
gradual  imjirovement  may  become  manifest,  or  cerebral  softening  with 
partial  paralysis  may  occur.  In  all  cases  of  encephalitis  there  is  a 
marked  rise  in  temperature  from  the  very  onset  of  the  disease,  with  a 
tendency  to  increase  until  the  most  alarming  symptoms  develop,  suc- 
ceeded by  a  decrease  when  coma  becomes  manifested.  The  violence 
and  character  of  the  symptoms  greatly  depend  upon  the  extent  and 
location  of  the  structures  involved.  Thus,  in  some  cases  wo  may  find 
marked  paralysis  of  certain  muscles,  while  in  others  we  may  have  spas- 
modic rigidity  of  muscles  in  a  certain  region.  Very  rarely  the  animal 
becomes  extremely  violent  early  in  the  attack,  aifd  by  rearing  up,  strik- 
ing with  the  fore  feet,  or  falling  over,  may  do  himself  great  injury. 
Usually,  however,  the  animal  maintains  the  standing  position,  propping 
himself  against  the  manger  or  wall  until  he  falls  from  inability  of  mus- 
cular control  or  unconsciousness.     Occasionally  he  may  go  through  a 


185 

series  of  automatic  movements  in  his  delirium,  such  as  trotting  or  walk- 
ing, and  if  loose  in  a  stall  will  move  around  in  a  circle  persistently. 
Early  and  persistent  constipation  of  the  bowels  is  a  marked  symptom 
in  nearly  all  acute  affections  of  the  brain ;  retention  of  the  urine,  also, 
IS  frequently  observed. 

Chronic  encephalitis. — This  may  succeed  the  acute  stage,  or  may  be 
due  to  stable  miasma,  blood-poison,  narcotism,  lead-poisoniug,  etc. 
Contrary  to  acute  encephalitis,  this  form  is  not  characterized  in  its  ini- 
tial stages  by  excitability,  quick  and  hard  pulse,  and  high  fever.  The 
animal  appears  at  first  stupid;  eats  slowly;  the  pupil  of  the  eye  does 
not  respond  to  light  quickly;  the  animal  often  throws  up  his  head  or 
shakes  it  as  if  siifiering  sudden  twinges  of  pain.  He  is  slow  and  slug- 
gish in  his  movements,  or  there  may  be  partial  paralysis  of  one  limb, 
one  side  of  the  face,  neck,  or  body.  These  symptoms,  with  some  varia- 
tions, may  be  present  for  several  days  and  then  subside,  or  the  disease 
may  pass  into  the  acute  stage  and  terminate  fatally.  Chronic  encepha,- 
litis  may  affect  an  animal  for  ten  days  or  two  weeks  without  much  var- 
iation in  the  symptoms  before  the  crisis  is  reached.  If  improvement 
commences  the  symptoms  usually  disappear  in  the  reverse  order  in 
which  they  developed  with  the  exception  of  the  paralytic  effects,  which 
remain  intractible  or  permanent.  Paralysis  of  certain  sets  of  muscles 
is  a  very  common  result  of  chronic,  subacute,  and  acute  encephalitis, 
and  is  due  to  softening  of  the  brain,  or  to  exudation  into  the  cavities 
of  the  brain  or  arachnoid  space. 

MENINaiTIS — THE    MAD   STAGGERS   OF    THE    OLD   WRITERS — INFLAM- 
MATION  OF   THE   CEREBRAL   ENVELOPES. 

Causes. — Excess  of  heat  or  cold,  wounds  of  the  cranium  and  mem- 
branes, rheumatism,  influenza,  rupture  of  meningeal  blood-vessels,  etc. 

Symptoms. — In  an  attack  of  acute  meningitis  the  symptoms  appear 
very  suddenly  and  are  often  extremely  violent.  The  violent  pain  in  the 
head  is  indicated  by  the  animal  flying  back  in  the  halter,  plunging  for- 
ward or  running  ahead,  regardless  of  obstacles  or  obstructions  in  the 
way.  The  pulse  is  very  rapid,  the  breathing  accelerated  or  panting, 
the  pupils  of  the  eyes  contracted,  and  the  muscles  of  the  body  quiver- 
ing. All  these  symptoms  may  develop  within  a  few  minutes  or  in  a 
few  hours.  If  the  animal  does  not  obtain  relief,  spasms  or  rigidity  of 
the  muscles  along  one  or  both  sides  of  the  neck  or  back  will  become 
manifest,  the  head  will  be  held  elevated,  the  eyeballs  will  retract 
into  their  sockets,  the  eye-lids  twitch,  convulsions  and  furious  delirium 
will  soon  appear,  followed  by  coma  and  death.  Acute  meningitis 
may  result  fatally  in  a  very  few  hours.  During  the  whole  course  of  the 
disease  the  more  violent  symptoms  occur  in  paroxysms,  and  the  least 
noise  or  disturbance  serves  to  induce  them.  In  the  quiescent  periods 
the  animal  appears  dull  and  drowsy.  The  urine  is  frequently  ejected 
in  spurts  and  strong  efforts  are  made  to  pass  manure.    In  subacute 


186 

menivgifis  the  symptoms  will  develop  more  slowly  and  be  less  ^marked 
by  violeuce.  The  sensory  functions  may  not  be  much  interfered  with 
until  the  near  approach  of  death.  In  such  attacks  the  animal  may 
suffer  for  a  week  or  longer  and  ultimately  recover.  In  meningitis  the 
temperature  varies  from  103°  to  107°  F.,  according  to  the  severity  of 
the  attack. 

The  violent  symptoms  of  this  disease  must  not  be  confounded  with 
those  of  rabies.  In  the  latter  the  violence  is  directed  at  some  object  or 
upon  the  animal  himself;  in  the  former  no  malice  is  shown  toward  the  at- 
tendant or  surrounding  objects,  but  is  simply  the  manifestation  of  ex- 
cruciating pain  in  the  head.  Meningitis  may  be  distinguished  from 
encephalitis  and  cerebritis  by  the  absence  of  marked  localized  paralytic 
symptoms,  or  of  coma,  until  the  near  approach  of  death.  It  is  charac- 
terized by  violence,  increased  sensibility,  and  delirium. 

CEBEBRITIS— INFLAMMATION   OF   THE   BRAIN   SUBSTANCE. 

Causes.— The  causes  giving  rise  to  this  disease  are  very  numerous. 
Among  them  may  be  mentioned  all  those  named  heretofore  as  causing 
encephalitis  and  meningitis,  cystic  and  calcareous  tumors,  thrombi, 
uraemic  poisoning,  metastatic  abscesses,  septic  infection,  etc. 

Symptoms. — Cerebritis,  when  unaccompanied  by  other  disease,  is  sel- 
dom recognized  as  such  during  life.  It  is  always  localized  in  extent, 
and  the  symptoms  manifested  depend  upon  the  location  of  the  organic 
change  for  their  character.  The  symptoms,  therefore,  are  as  varied  as 
the  causes;  they  are  usually  of  slow  development  and  persistent.  Ver- 
tigo or  giddiness  may  be  regarded  as  a  constant  symptom.  The  ani- 
mal may  stop  on  the  road,  shake  his  head,  or  stagger,  apparently  un- 
decided in  what  direction  to  go.  There  may  be  contraction  of  the  pu- 
pils, cramp  of  the  muscles  on  the  side  of  the  neck  or  face,  pulse  small 
and  hard  and  variable  in  frequency,  often,  however,  slower  than  normal. 
The  temperature  is  slightly  increased,  the  respirations  may  be  slow  and 
deep,  the  appetite  capricious,  bowels  constipated;  rapid  emaciation  is 
a  common  symptom.  Such  conditions  may  be  apparent  for  a  week  or 
two  weeks;  then  the  horse  may  become  comatose.  The  pupils  dilate, 
the  pulse  becomes  intermitting,  swallowing  difficult,  the  muscles  which 
were  previously  rigid  become  relaxed  and  paralyzed,  and  the  urine  may 
either  be  retained  or  be  discharged  involuntarily.  In  this  way  the  ani- 
mal may  survive  another  week  and  then  die  in  a  paralyzed  and  uncon- 
scious state.  Not  infrequently,  however,  few  of  those  symptoms  are 
manifested,  for  in  some  cases  the  paralysis  is  sudden  from  extensive 
lesions  of  the  brain,  and  the  animal  may  die  within  twenty-four  hours. 

SOFTENING   AND  ABSCESS  OF   THE  BRAIN. 

This  is  one  of  the  terminations  of  cerebritis.  It  may  also  be  due  to 
an  insufficient  supply  of  blood  as  a  result  of  diseased  cerebral  arteries 
and  of  apoplexy. 


187 

S>jm2Jtoms.—DroY7smcs5,  vertigo,  or  attacks  of  giddiness,  increased 
timidity,  or  fear  of  familiar  objects,  paralysis  of  one  limb,  hemiplegia, 
imperfect  control  of  the  limbs,  and  usually  a  weak,  intermittent  pulse. 
In  some  cases  tlie  symptoms  are  analagous  to  those  of  apoplexy.  The 
character  of  the  symptoms  depends  upon  the  seat  of  the  softening  or 
abscess  within  the  brain. 

CEREBRAL  SCLEROSIS. 

This  is  a  result  of  an  inflammation  in  the  structure  of  the  brain  af- 
fecting the  connective  tissues,  which  eventually  become  hypertrophied 
and  press  upon  nerve  cells  and  fibers,  causing  their  ultimate  disappear- 
ance, leaving  the  parts  hard  and  indurated. 

Symptoms.— This  condition  gives  rise  to  a  progressive  paralysis,  and 
may  extend  aloug  a  certain  bundle  of  fibers  into  the  spinal  cord.  Com- 
plete paralysis  almost  invariably  supervenes  and  causes  death. 

PATHOLOGY  OF  ACUTE  BRAIN  AFFECTIONS. 

On  making  j?osf  ?>Jorfem  examinations  of  horses  which  have  died  in 
the  first  stages  of  either  of  those  diseases,  we  will  find  an  excessive  en- 
gorgement of  the  capillaries  and  small  blood-vessels,  with  correspond- 
ingly increased  redness  and  molecular  changes  in  both  contents  and 
the  walls  of  the  vessels.  If  the  death  has  occurred  at  a  later  period  of 
the  disease,  in  addition  to  the  redness  and  engorgement  we  will  find 
that  an  exudation  of  the  contents  of  the  blood-vessels  into  the  tissues 
and  upon  the  surfaces  of  the  inflamed  parts  has  supervened.  If  the 
case  has  been  one  of  encephalitis  we  will  usually  find  more  or  less  wa- 
tery fluid  in  the  ventricles  (natural  cavities  in  the  brain),  in  the  sub- 
arachnoid space,  and  a  serous  exudation  between  the  convolutions  and 
interstitial  spaces  of  the  gray  matter  under  the  membranes  of  the  brain. 
The  amount  of  fluid  varies  in  different  cases.  In  some  where  the  ani- 
mal's blood  was  very  plastic,  exudations  of  a  membranous  character 
may  be  present  and  are  found  attached  to  the  surface  of  the  pia  mater. 

In  meningitis ,  especially  in  chronic  cases,  in  addition  to  the  serous 
effusion,  we  find  changes  which  may  be  regarded  as  characteristic  in  the 
formation  of  a  delicate  and  highly  vascular  layer  or  layers  of  membrane 
or  organized  structure  on  the  surface  of  the  dura  mater,  and  also  indi- 
cations of  hemorrhages  in  connection  with  the  membranous  formations. 
Hsematoma  or  blood  tumors  may  be  found  embedded  in  this  membrane. 
In  some  cases  the  hemorrhages  are  copious,  causing  paralysis  or 
apoplexy,  followed  by  speedy  death. 

In  cerebritis,  or  inflammation  of  the  interior  of  the  brain,  there  is  a 
tendency  to  softening  and  suppuration  and  the  formation  of  abscesses. 
In  some  cases  the  abscesses  are  small  and  numerous,  surrounded  vvith 
a  softened  condition  of  the  brain  matter,  and  sometimes  we  may  find 
one  large  abscess.  In  cases  of  recent  development  the  walls  of  the  ab- 
scesses are  fringed  and  ragged  and  have  no  lining  membrane.    In  older 


188 

or  clironic  cases,  the  walls  of  the  abscesses  are  generally  liued  with  a 
strong  membrane,  often  having  the  appearance  of  a  sac  or  cyst,  and  the 
contents  have  a  very  offensive  odor. 

Treatment. — In  all  acute  attacks  of  inflammation  involving  the  mem- 
branes or  cerebral  masses,  it  is  the  pressure  from  the  distended  and 
engorged  blood-vessels,  and  the  rapid  accumulation  of  inflammatory 
products,  that  endangers  the  life  of  the  animal  in  even  the  very  early 
stage  of  the  disease.  The  earlier  the  treatment  is  commenced  to  lessen 
the  danger  of  fatal  pressure  from  the  engorged  blood-vessels,  the  less 
amount  of  inflammatory  products  and  effusion  we  have  to  contend  with 
later  on.  The  leading  object  then  to  be  accomplished  in  the  treatment 
of  the  first  stages  of  encephalitis,  meningitis,  or  cerebritis  is  to  relieve 
the  engorgement  of  the  blood-vessels  before  a  dangerous  degree  of  effu- 
sion or  exudation  has  taken  place,  and  thereby  lessen  the  irritation  or 
excitability  of  the  affected  structures.  If  we  fully  succeed  in  this  stage 
in  the  accomplishment  of  this  object,  we  certainly  prevent  a  second 
stage  of  the  disease,  and  it  will  only  be  required  to  continue  a  treat- 
ment which  will  tend  to  lessen  irritability  to  prevent  a  second  engorge- 
ment from  taking  place.  But  if  the  attempt  to  relieve  the  engorgement 
in  the  first  stage  has  been  only  partially  successful,  and  the  second 
stage  with  its  inflammatory  products  and  exudations,  whether  serous 
or  plastic,  has  set  in,  then  the  main  objects  in  further  treatment  are  to 
keep  up  the  strength  of  the  animal  and  hasten  the  absorption  of  the 
exudative  producis  as  much  as  possible.  To  obtain  these  results,  when 
the  animal  is  found  in  the  initial  stage  of  the  disease,  where  there  is 
unnatural  excitability  or  stupor  with  increase  of  temperature  and  quick- 
ened pulse,  we  must  rely  upon  the  safest  and  quickest  acting  remedy 
at  hand,  which  is  copious  bleeding  from  the  jugular  vein.  Especially 
in  acute  meningitis,  bleeding  is  imperatively  demanded.  The  finger 
should  be  kept  on  the  pulse,  and  the  blood  allowed  to  flow  until  there 
is  a  marked  fluttering  or  softening  of  the  pulse.  As  soon  as  the  animal 
recovers  somewhat  from  the  shock  of  the  bleeding,  the  following  medi- 
cine should  be  made  into  a  ball  or  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  warm  water, 
and  be  given  at  one  dose :  Barbadoes  aloes,  7  drams  ;  calomel,  2  drams ; 
powdered  ginger,  1  dram;  tincture  of  aconite,  20  drops. 

The  animal  should  be  placed  in  a  cool,  dark  place,  as  free  from  noise 
as  possible,  and  cloths  wrung  out  of  hot  water  placed  on  his  head. 
These  should  be  renewed  frequently  for  at  least  twelve  hours.  When 
the  animal  becomes  thirsty  half  an  ounce  of  saltpeter  may  be  dissolved 
in  his  drinking  water  every  six  hours.  Injections  of  warm  water  into 
the  rectum  may  facilitate  the  action  of  the  purgative.  Norwood's  tinct- 
ure of  veratrum  viride,  in  20  drop  doses,  should  be  given  every  hour, 
and  one  dram  of  solid  extract  of  belladonna  every  four  hours,  until 
the  symptoms  become  modified  and  the  pulse  regular  and  full. 

If  this  treatment  fails  to  give  relief  the  disease  will  pass  into  the  ad- 
vanced  stages,  or  if  the  animal  has  been  neglected  in  the  early  stages 


189 

the  treatment  must  be  supplauted  with  the  hypodermic  injection  of 
ergotioj  in  5  grain  doses,  dissolved  in  a  dram  of  water,  every  six 
hours.  The  limbs  may  bo  poulticed  above  the  fetlocks  with  mustard. 
Cold  water  or  ice-bags  should  now  take  the  x^lace  of  the  hot-water  cloths 
on  the  head.  Warm  blauketiog,  to  promote  perspiration,  is  to  be  ob- 
served in  all  cases  in  which  there  is  no  excessive  perspiration. 

If  the  disease  becomes  chronic — encephalitis  or  meningitis — we  must 
place  our  reliance  upon  alteratives  and  tcnics,  with  such  incidental 
treatment  as  special  symptoms  may  demand.  Iodide  of  potassium  in 
2-dram  doses  should  be  given  twice  a  day,  and  1  dram  of  calomel 
once  a  day,  to  induce  absorption  of  effusions  or  thickened  membranes. 
Tonics,  in  the  form  of  iodide  of  iron  in  dram  doses,  to  which  is  added 
2  drams  of  powdered  hydrastis,  may  also  be  given  every  six  or  eight 
hours,  as  soon  as  the  active  fever  has  abated.  In  all  cases,  after  the 
disajipearauce  of  the  acute  symptoms,  blisters  (cantharides  ointment) 
should  bo  applied  behind  the  poll.  When  paralytic  effects  remain  after 
the  disapiiearance  of  all  other  symptoms,  sulphate  of  strychnia  in  2-graiu 
doses,  in  combination  with  the  other  tonics,  may  be  given  twice  a  day, 
and  be  continued  until  it  produces  muscular  twitching.  In  some  cases 
of  paralysis,  as  of  the  lips  or  throat,  benefit  may  be  derived  from,  the 
moderate  use  of  the  electric  battery.  Many  of  the  recoveries  will,  how- 
ever, under  the  most  active  and  early  treatment,  be  but  partial,  and  in 
all  cases  the  animals  become  predisposed  to  subsequent  attacks.  A 
long  jieriod  of  time  should  be  allowed  to  i)ass  before  the  animal  is  ex- 
posed to  severe  work  or  great  heat.  When  the  disease  depends  upon 
mechanical  injuries  they  have  to  be  treated  and  all  causes  of  irritation 
to  the  brain  removed.  If  it  is  due  to  stable  miasma,  urtemic  poison- 
ing? pyaemia,  influenza,  rheumatism,  toxic  agents,  etc.,  they  should 
receive  prompt  attention  for  their  removal  or  mitigation. 

Cerebral  softening,  abscess,  or  sclerosis,  are  practically  inaccessible 
to  treatment,  otherwise  than  such  relief  as  may  be  afforded  by  the 
administration  of  opiates  and  general  tonics,  and,  in  fact,  the  diagno- 
sis is  largely  presumptive. 

CONaESTION  OF  THE  BRAIN — MEGRIMS. 

Congestion  of  the  brain  consists  in  an  accumulation  of  blood  in  the 
vessels,  also  called  hvperaemia,  or  engorgement.  It  may  be  active  or 
passive — active  when  there  is  an  undue  determination  of  blood  or 
diminished  arterial  resistance,  and  passive  when  it  accumulates  in  the 
vessels  of  the  brain,  owing  to  some  obstacle  to  its  return  by  the  veins. 

Causes. — Active  cerebral  congestion  may  be  due  to  hypertrophy  of 
the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  excessive  exertion,  the  influence  of  ex- 
treme heat,  sudden  and  great  excitement,  artificial  stimulants,  etc. 
Passive  congestion  may  be  produced  by  any  mechanical  obstruction 
which  prevents  the  proper  return  of  blood  through  the  veins  to  4;he 
heart,  such  as  small  or  ill-fitting  collar,  which  often  impedes  the  blood 


190 

current,  tumors  or  abcesses  pressing  on  the  vein  in  its  course,  and  or- 
ganic  lesions  of  the  heart  with  regurgitation. 

Extremely  fat  animals  with  short  thick  necks  are  peculiarly  subject 
to  attacks  of  cerebral  congestion.  Simple  congestion,  however,  is 
merely  a  functional  affection,  and  in  a  slight  or  moderate  degree  involves 
no  immediate  danger.  Extreme  engorgement,  on  the  contrary, may  be 
followed  by  rupture  of  previously  weakened  arteries  and  capillaries 
and  cause  immediate  death,  designated  then  as  a  stroke  of  apoplexy. 

Sym])toms.—GoTigGstioTi  of  the  brain  is  usually  sudden  in  its  mani- 
festation and  of  short  duration.  The  animal  may  stop  very  suddenly 
and  shake  his  head  or  stand  quietly  braced  on  his  legs,  then  stagger, 
make  a  plunge,  and  fall.  The  eyes  are  staring,  breathing  hurried  and 
stertorous,  and  the  nostrils  widely  dilated.  This  may  be  followed  by 
coma,  violent  convulsive  movements,  and  death.  Generally,  however, 
the  animal  gains  relief  in  a  short  time,  but  he  may  remain  weak  and 
giddy  for  several  days.  If  it  is  due  to  organic  change  of  the  heart  or 
to  disease  of  the  blood-vessels  in  the  brain,  then  the  symptoms  may  be 
of  slow  development  manifested  by  drowsiness,  dimness  or  imperfect 
vision,  difficulty  in  voluntary  movements,  diminished  sensibility  of  the 
skin,  loss  of  consciousness,  delirium,  and  death.  In  milder  cases  effu- 
sion may  take  place  in  the  arachnoid  spaces  and  ventricles  of  the  brain 
followed  by  paralysis  and  other  complications. 

Fathology.— In  congestion  of  the  brain  the  cerebral  vessels  are  loaded 
with  blood,  and  the  venous  sinuses  distended  to  an  extreme  degree, 
and  the  pressure  exerted  upon  the  braiu  constitutes  actual  compres- 
sion, giving  rise  to  the  symptoms  just  mentioned.  On 2)ost  mortem  ex- 
aminations this  engorgement  is  found  universal  throughout  the  brain 
and  its  membranes,  which  serves  to  distinguish  it  from  inflammations 
of  these  structures,  in  which  the  engorgements  are  confined  more  or 
less  to  circumscribed  portions.  A  prolonged  cr)ngestion  may,  however, 
lead  to  active  inflammation,  and  in  that  case  we  will  find  serous  and 
plastic  exudations  in  the  cavities  of  the  brain.  In  addition  to  the  in- 
tensely engorged  condition  of  the  vessels  we  find  the  gray  matter  of 
the  brain  redder  in  color  than  natural.  In  cases  where  several  attacks 
have  occurred  the  blood-vessels  are  often  found  permanently  dilated. 

Treatment.— Vvomiit  removal  of  all  mechanical  obstructions  to  the 
circulation.  If  it  is  due  to  venous  obstruction  by  too  tight  a  collar,  the 
loosening  of  the  collar  will  give  immediate  relief.  If  due  to  tumors  or 
abscesses,  a  surgical  operation  becomes  necessary  to  afford  relief.  To 
revive  the  animal  if  he  become  partially  or  totally  unconscious  cold 
water  should  be  dashed  on  the  head,  and  if  this  does  not  afford  ready 
relief  recourse  must  be  had  to  bleeding  to  lessen  arterial  tension.  Tinct- 
ure of  veratrum  viride  or  of  aconite  root  may  be  given  in  twenty-drop 
doses  every  hour  until  consciousness  returns.  If  the  limbs  are  cold 
tincture  of  capsicum  or  strong  mustard  water  should  be  applied  to  them. 
If  symptoms  of  paralysis  remain  after  two  or  three  days,  an  active 


191 

cathartic  aud  iodide  of  potassa  will  be  indicated,  to  be  given  as  pre- 
scribed for  inflammation  of  the  brain. 

Prevention. — Well  adjusted  collar,  with  strap  running  from  the  collar 
to  the  girth,  to  hold  down  the  collar  when  pulling  up  grade;  regular 
feed  aud  exercise,  without  allowing  the  animal  to  become  excessively 
plethoric;  moderate  checking,  allowing  a  free  aud  easy  movement  of 
the  head;  well  ventilated  stabling,  proper  cleanliness,  pure  water,  etc. 

SUNSTROKE— HEAT   EXHAUSTION. 

The  term  sunstroke  is  applied  to  affections  occasioned  not  exclusively 
by  exposure  to  the  sun's  rays,  as  the  word  signifies,  but  by  the  action 
of  great  heat  combined  generally  with  other  causes,  such  as  dryness 
and  rarefaction  of  the  air  aud  an  unusual  accumulation  of  electricity. 
Exhaustion  produced  by  a  long  continued  heat  is  often  the  essential 
factor,  and  is  called  heat  exhaustion.  Horses  on  the  race  track  uuder- 
goiug  protracted  and  severe  work  in  hot  weather  often  succumb  to  heat 
exhaustion.  Draught  horses  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  suu  for 
many  hours,  which  do  not  receive  proper  care  in  watering,  feeding,  rest 
in  shady  places,  suffer  very  frequently  from  sunstroke. 

St/mpfoms.—S'unstio]Le  is  manifested  suddenly.  The  animal  stops, 
drops  his  head,  bagins  to  stagger,  and  soon  falls  to  the  ground  uncon- 
scious. The  breathing  is  marked  with  great  stertor,  the  pulse  is  very 
slow  and  irregular,  cold  sweats  break  out  in  patches  on  the  surface  of 
the  body,  and  the  animal  often  dies  without  recovering  consciousness. 

In  heat  exhaustion  the  animal  usually  requires  urging  for  some  time 
previous  to  the  appearance  of  any  other  symptoms,  generally  per- 
spiration is  checked,  and  then  he  becomes  weak  in  his  gait,  the 
breathing  hurried  or  panting,  eyes  watery  and  bloodshot,  nostrils 
dilated  and  highly  reddened,  assuming  a  dark,  purple  color ;  the  pulse 
is  rapid  and  weak,  the  heart  bounding,  followed  by  uuconsciousuess 
and  death.  If  recovery  takes  place  convalescence  extends  over  a  long 
period  of  time,  during  which  incoordination  of  movement  may  persist. 

Fathology.— Sunstroke,  virtually  active  congestion  of  the  brain,  often 
accompanied  by  effusion  and  blood  extravasation,  characterizes  this 
condition,  with  often  rapid  and  fatal  lowering  of  all  the  vital  functions. 
The  death  may  be  due  in  many  instances  to  the  complete  stagnation  in 
the  circulation  of  the  brain,  inducing  aua3mia  or  want  of  nourishment 
of  that  organ.  In  other  cases  it  may  be  directly  due  to  the  excessive 
compression  of  the  nerve  matter  controlling  the  heart's  action,  and 
cause  paralysis  of  that  organ. 

Treatment.— JJnder  no  circumstances  is  blood-letting  permissible  in 
sunstroke.  Ice  or  very  cold  water  should  be  applied  to  the  head  and 
along  the  spine  and  half  an  ounce  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  or  6  ounces 
of  whisky  should  be  given  in  a  pint  of  water.  Injections,  per  rectum, 
of  moderately  strong  ginger  tea  or  weak  ammonia  water  may  be  used 
I        with  benefit.    Brisk  friction  of  the  limbs  and  the  application  of  spirits 


192 

of  camphor  often  yield  good  results.  The  administration  of  the  stimu- 
lants should  be  repeated  in  one  hour  if  the  pulse  has  not  become 
stronger  and  slower.  If  the  animal  is  suffering  from  heat  exhaustion 
similar  treatment  may  be  used,  with  the  exception  of  cold  to  the  head 
and  spine,  for  in  this  case  cloths  wrung  out  in  hot  water  should  be  ap- 
plied. In  either  case,  when  reaction  has  occurred  preparations  of  iron 
and  general  tonics  may  be  given  during  convalescence :  Sulphate  of 
iron  1  dram,  gentian  3  drams,  red  cinchona  bark  2  drams ;  mix  and 
give  in  the  feed  morning  and  evening. 

Prevention. — In  very  hot  weather  horses  should  have  wet  sponges  or 
light  sun-shades  on  the  head  when  at  work,  or  the  head  may  be  sponged 
with  cold  water  as  many  times  a  day  as  possible.  Proper  attention 
should  be  given  to  feeding  and  watering,  never  in  excess.  During 
the  warm  mouths  all  stables  should  be  cool  and  well  ventilated,  and  if 
an  animal  is  debilitated  from  exhaustive  work  or  disease  he  should  re- 
ceive such  treatment  as  will  tend  to  build  up'the  system. 

An  animal  which  has  been  affected  with  sunstroke  is  very  liable  to 
have  subsequent  attacks  when  exposed  to  the  necessary  exciting  causes. 

APOPLEXY — CEREBRAL  HEMORRHAGE.  - 

Apoplexy  is  often  confounded  with  cerebral  congestion,  but  true 
apoplexy  always  consists  in  rupture  of  cerebral  blood-vessels,  with 
blood  extravasation  and  formation  of  blood  clot. 

Causes. — Two  causes  are  involved  in  the  production  of  apoplexy,  the 
predis]}osing  and  the  exciting  cause.  The  predisposing  cause  is  degen- 
eration or  disease  which  weakens  the  blood-vessel,  the  exciting  cause 
is  any  one  which  tends  to  induce  cerebral  congestion. 

i^ymptoms. — Apoplexy  is  characterized  by  a  sudden  loss  of  sensation 
and  motion,  profound  coma,  and  stertorous  and  difficult  breathing.  The 
action  of  the  heart  is  little  disturbed  at  first,  but  soon  becomes  slower, 
then  quicker  and  feebler,  and  after  a  little  time  ceases.  If  the  rupture 
is  one  of  a  small  artery  and  the  extravasation  limited,  sudden  paraly- 
sis of  some  part  of  the  body  is  the  result.  The  extent  and  location  of 
the  paralysis  depend  upon  the  location  within  the  brain  which  is 
functionally  deranged  by  the  pressure  of  the  extravasated  blood  j  hence 
these  conditions  are  very  variable. 

In  the  absence  of  any  premonitory  symptoms  or  an  increase  of  tem- 
perature in  the  early  stage  of  the  attack  we  may  be  reasonably  certain 
in  making  the  distinction  between  this  disease  and  congestion  of  the 
brain  or  sunstroke. 

Pathology. — In  apoplexy  we  are  generally  able  to  find  an  atheromatous 
condition  of  the  cerebral  vessels  with  weakening  and  degeneration  of 
their  walls.  When  a  large  artery  has  been  ruptured  it  is  usually  fol- 
lowed by  immediate  death,  and  large  rents  may  be  found  in  the  cere- 
brum, with  great  destruction  of  brain  tissue,  induced  by  the  forcible 
pressure  of  the  liberated  blood.    In  small  extravasations  producing 


193 

local  paralysis  without  marked  general  distur  jance,  the  animal  may- 
recover  after  a  time;  in  such  cases  gradual  absorption  of  the  clot  takes 
place.  In  large  clots  atrophy  of  the  brain  substance  may  follow,  or 
softening  and  abscess  from  want  of  nutrition  may  result,  and  render  the 
animal  worthless,  ultimately  resulting  in  death. 

Treatment.— FluGG  the  animal  in  a  quiet,  cool  place,  avoid  all  stimu- 
lating food.  Administer,  in  his  drinking  water  or  feed,  2  drams  of  the 
iodide  of  potassa  twice  a  day  for  several  weeks  if  necessary.  Medical 
interference  with  sedatives  or  stimulants  is  more  apt  to  be  harmful  than 
of  benefit,  and  blood-letting  in  an  apoplectic  fit  is  extremely  hazardous. 
From  the  fact  that  cerebral  apoplexy  is  due  to  diseased  or  weakened 
blood-vessels,  the  animal  remains  subject  to  subsequent  attacks. 

COMPRESSION   OF   THE   BRAIN. 

Causes. — In  injuries  from  direct  violence  a  piece  of  broken  bone  may 
press  upon  the  brain,  and  according  to  its  size  the  brain  is  robbed  ol 
its  normal  space  within  the  cranium.  It  may  also  be  due  to  an  extrava- 
sation of  blood  or  to  exudation  in  the  subdural  or  arachnoid  spaces. 
Death  from  active  cerebral  congestion  results  through  compression. 
The  occurrence  may  sometimes  be  traced  to  the  direct  cause,  which 
will  give  assurance  for  the  correct  diagnosis. 

Symptoms.— lmiya.inueut  of  all  the  special  senses  and  localized  paraly- 
sis. All  the  symptoms  of  lessened  functional  activity  of  the  brain  are 
manifested  to  some  degree.  The  paralysis  remains  to  be  our  guide  for 
the  location  of  the  cause,  for  it  will  be  found  that  the  paralysis  occurs 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  body  from  the  location  of  the  injury,  and 
the  parts  suffering  paralysis  will  denote,  to  an  expert  veterinarian  or 
physician,  the  part  of  the  brain  which  is  suffering  compression. 

Treatment.— Treph'miug,  by  a  skillful  operator,  for  the  removal  of 
the  cause  when  due  to  depressed  bone  or  the  presence  of  foreign  bodies. 
When  the  symptoms  of  compression  follow  other  acute  diseases  of  the 
brain,  apoplectic  fits,  etc.,  the  treatment  must  be  such  as  the  exigencies 
of  the  case  demands. 

CONCUSSION   OF   THE   BRAIN. 

Causes. — This  is  generally  caused  by  an  animal  falling  over  back- 
ward and  striking  his  poll,  or  perhaps  falling  forward  on  his  nose;  by 
a  blow  on  the  head,  etc. 

Symptoms.— Qoncxx&'&ion  of  the  brain  is  characterized  by  giddiness, 
stupor,  insensibility,  or  loss  of  muscular  power,  succeeding  immediately 
upon  a  blow  or  severe  injury  involving  the  cranium.  The  animal 
may  rally  quickly,  or  not  for  hours ;  death  may  occur  on  the  spot  or 
after  a  few  days.  When  there  is  only  slight  concussion  or  stunning 
the  animal  soon  recovers  from  the  shock.  When  more  severe,  insen- 
sibility may  be  complete  and  continue  for  a  considerable  time;  the 
animal  lies  as  if  in  a  deep  sleep;  the  pupils  are  insensible  to  light; 
the  pulse  fluttering  or  feeble  j  the  surface  of  the  body  cold,  muscles 
11035 13 


194 

relaxed,  and  the  breathing  scarcely  perceptible.  After  a  variable  in- 
terval  partial  recovery  may  take  place,  which  is  marked  by  paralysis 
of  some  parts  of  the  bodj-,  often  of  a  limb,  the  lips,  ear,  etc.  Con- 
valescence is  usually  tedious,  and  frequently  permanent  impairment 
of  some  organs  remains. 

Pathology. — Concussion  produces  laceration  of  the  brain,  or  at  least 
a  jarring  of  the  nervous  elements,  which  if  not  sufficiently  severe  to 
produce  sadden  death  may  lead  to  softening  or  inflammation,  with 
their  respective  symptoms  of  functional  derangement. 

Treatment. — The  first  object  in  treatment  will  be  to  establish  reac- 
tion or  to  arouse  the  feeble  and  weakening  heart.  This  can  often  be 
accomplished  by  dashing  cold  water  en  the  head  and  body  of  the 
animal;  frequent  injections  of  weak  ammonia  water,  ginger  tea,  or 
oil  and  turpentine  should  be  given  per  rectum.  In  the  majority  of 
cases  this  will  soon  bring  the  horse  to  a  state  of  consciousness.  In 
more  severe  cases  mustard  poultices  should  be  applied  along  the 
spine  and  above  the  fetlocks.  As  soon  as  the  animal  gains  i)artial 
consciousness  stimulants,  in  the  form  of  whisky  or  capsicum  tea, 
should  be  given.  Owing  to  severity  of  the  structural  injury  to  the 
brain  or  the  jiossible  rupture  of  blood-vessels  and  blood  extravasa- 
tion, the  reaction  may  often  be  followed  by  encephalitis  or  cerebritis, 
and  will  then  have  to  be  treated  accordingly.  For  this  reason  the 
stimulants  should  not  be  administered  too  freely,  and  they  must  be 
abandoned  as  soon  as  reaction  is  established.  There  is  no  need  for 
further  treatment  unless  complications  develop  as  a  secondary  result. 
Bleeding,  which  is  so  often  practiced,  proves  almost  invariably  fatal  in 
this  form  of  brain  attection.  We  should  also  remember  that  it  is  never 
safe  to  drench  a  horse  with  large  quantities  of  medicine  when  he  is  un- 
conscious, for  he  is  very  liable  to  draw  the  medicine  into  the  lungs  in 
inspiration. 

Prevention. — "Young  horses,  when  harnessed  or  bitted  for  the  first  few 
times,  should  not  have  their  heads  checked  up  high,  for  it  frequently 
causes  them  to  rear  up,  and,  being  unable  to  control  their  balance,  they 
are  liable  to  fall  over  sideways  or  backwards,  thus  causing  brain  con- 
cussion when  they  strike  the  ground. 

ANEMIA   OF   THE  BEAIN. 

This  is  a  physiological  condition  in  sleep. 

Causes. — It  is  considered  a  disease  or  may  give  rise  to  disease  when 
the  circulation  and  blood  su^jply  of  the  brain  are  interfered  with.  In 
some  diseases  of  the  heart  the  brain  becomes  anaemic,  and  fainting  fits 
occur,  with  temporary  loss  of  consciousness.  Tumors  growijig  within 
the  cranium  may  jjress  ui)on  one  or  more  arteries  and  stop  the  supply 
of  blood  to  certain  parts  of  the  brain,  thus  inducing  anamia,  ultimately 
atrophy,  softening,  or  sui>puration.  Probably  the  most  frequent  cause 
is  found  in  plugging  or  occlusion  of  the  arteries  by  a  blood-clot. 


195 

Symptoms. — Imperfect  vision,  constantly  dilated  pupils,  frequently  a 
feeble  and  staggering  gait,  and  occasionally  cramps,  convulsions,  or 
epileptic  fits  occur. 

Pathology. — Tlie  exact  opposite  of  cerebral  hypersemia.     The  blood- 
vessels are  found  empty,  the  membranes  blanched,  and  the  brain  sub 
stance  softened. 

Treatment. — Kemoval  of  the  remote  cause  when  possible.  General 
tonics,  nutritious  food,  rest,  and  removal  from  all  causes  of  uervous 
excitement. 

ATROPHY   OF   THE   BRAIN. 

This  condition  is  produced  by  a  fault  in  nutrition,  embracing  the 
causes  which  induce  anosmia.  Gradual  absorption  and  shrinking  of 
brain  substance  may  arise  from  the  constant  and  increasing  pressure 
arising  from  the  growth  of  tumors,  degeneration  in  the  arterial  walls, 
hydrocephalus,  etc.  AtrojDhy  of  the  brain  may  be  general  or  localized. 
The  cerebrum  may  waste  away  in  a  remarkable  degree  before  any  indi- 
cation of  disease  becomes  manifest. 

Symptoms. — It  may  give  rise  to  viciousness,  paralysis,  disorders  of 
special  sensation,  coma,  etc.     Treatment  is  of  no  avail. 

HYDROCEPHALUS — BRAIN  DROPSY. 

This  disease  is  most  often  seen  in  young  foals  and  is  manifested  by 
an  unnaturally  large  forehead.  The  forehead  bulges  out,  and  the  cra- 
nial bones  may  be  separated  from  their  connections,  and  a  part  of  the 
brain  be  covered  by  the  skin  only.  Foals  seldom  survive  this  affection, 
and  treatment  is  useless.  In  horses  hydrocephalus  is  a  result  of 
chronic  meningitis,  when  an  effusion  of  serum  is  poured  out  into  the 
ventricles  and  arachnoid  spaces  of  tbe  brain.  The  disease  is  some- 
times indicated  by  a  difficulty  in  controlling  voluntary  movements, 
coma,  etc.  When  effusion  as  a  result  of  meningitis  is  suspected,  iodide 
of  potassa  in  2-dram  doses  may  be  given  twice  a  day  and  a  strong 
blister  applied  behind  the  ears. 

TUMORS   WITHIN   THE   CRANIUM. 

Tumors  within  the  cranial  cavity  and  the  brain  occur  not  infrequently, 
and  give  rise  to  a  variety  of  symptoms,  imperfect  control  of  voluntary 
movement,  local  paralysis,  epilepsy,  etc. 

Osseous  tumors,  growing  from  the  walls  of  the  cranium,  are  not  very 
uncommon. 

Dentigerous  cysts,  containing  a  formation  identical  to  that  of  a  tooth, 
growing  from  the  temporal  bone,  sometimes  are  found  lying  loose  within 
the  cranium. 

Tumors  of  the  choroid  plexus,  known  as  brain  sand,  are  frequently  met 
with  on  postmortem  examinations,  but  seldom  give  rise  to  any  appreci- 


196 

able  symptoms  during  life.  They  are  foimd  in  horses  at  all  ages,  and 
are  of  slow  develoi^meut.  The}"  are  found  in  one  or  both  of  the  lateral 
ventricles,  enveloped  in  the  folds  of  the  choroid  plexus. 

Melanotic  tumors  have  been  found  in  the  brain  and  meninges  in  the 
form  of  small,  black  nodules,  in  gray  horses,  and  in  one  instance  are 
believed  to  have  induced  the  condition  known  as  string-halt. 

Fibrous  tumors  may  develop  within  or  from  the  meningeal  structures 
of  the  brain. 

GHomatous  tumor  is  a  variety  of  sarcoma  very  rarely  found  in  the 
structure  of  the  cerebellum. 

Treatment  for  tumors  of  the  brain  is  be^'oud  our  ambition  in  the  pres- 
ent age. 

SPASMS — CRAMPS. 

Causes. — Spasm  is  a  marked  symptom  in  many  diseases  of  the  brain 
and  of  the  spinal  cord.  Spasms  may  result  from  irritation  of  the  motor 
nerves  as  conductors,  or  may  result  from  irritation  of  any  part  of  the 
sympathetic  nervous  system,  and  they  usually  indicate  an  excessive 
action  of  the  reflex-motor  centers.  Spasms  may  be  induced  by  various 
medicinal  agents  given  in  poisonous  doses,  or  by  eftete  materials  in  the 
circulation,  such  as  nux  vomica  or  its  alkaloid  strychnia,  lead  prepara- 
tions, or  an  excess  of  the  urea  products  in  the  circulation,  etc.  Spasms 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes:  tonic  spasm,  when  the  cramp  is  con- 
tinuous or  results  in  persistent  rigidity,  as  in  tetanus;  clonic  spasm, 
when  the  cramping  is  of  short  duration,  or  is  alternated  with  relaxa- 
tions. Cramps  may  be  distinguished  from  choleraic  movements  by  the 
extreme  pain  or  suflering  which  they  induce.  Spasms  may  afiect  invol- 
untary as  well  as  the  voluntary  muscles,  the  muscles  of  the  glottis, 
intestines,  and  even  the  heart.  They  are  always  sudden  in  their  devel- 
opment. 

SPASM    OF    THE    GLOTTIS. 

This  is  manifested  by  a  strangling  respiration  ;  a  wheezing  noise  is 
produced  in  the  act  of  inspiration ;  extreme  anxiety  and  suflering  for 
want  of  air.  The  head  is  extended,  the  body  j)rotusely  perspiring; 
pulse  very  rapid;  soon  great  exhaustion  becomes  manifest;  the  mucous 
membranes  become  turgid  and  very  dark-colored,  and  the  animal  thus 
may  suflbcate  in  a  short  time. 

SPASMS   OF   THE   INTESTINES. 

(See  "Grampcolic") 

SPASMS   OF   THE   NECK   OF   THE   BLADDER. 

This  may  be  due  to  spinal  irritation,  or  a  reflex  from  intestinal  irrita- 
tion, and  is  manifested  by  frequent  but  iueflectual  attempts  to  urinate. 


197 

SPASM   OF   THE   DIAPHRAGM — THUMPS. 

Spasmodic  contraction  of  the  diaphragm,  the  principal  muscle  used 
in  respiration,  is  generally  occasioned  by  extreme  and  prolonged  speed- 
ing on  the  ra<je-tracl£  or  road.  The  severe  strain  thus  put  upon  this 
muscle  finally  induces  irritation  of  the  nerves  coutrolliug  it,  and  the  con- 
tractions become  very  forcible  and  violent,  giving  the  jerking  charac- 
ter known  among  horsemen  as  thumps.  This  condition  may  be  distin- 
guished from  violent  beating  of  the  heart  by  feeling  the  pulse  beat  at 
the  angle  of  the  jaw,  and  at  the  saiuetime  watching  the  jerking  move- 
ment of  the  body,  when  it  will  be  discovered  that  the  two  bear  uo  rela- 
tion to  each  other.     (See  "Palpitation  of  the  Heart.") 

SPASM   OF   THE   THIGH,    OR   CRAMP    OF   A   HIND   LIMB. 

This  is  frequently  witnessed  in  horses  that  stand  on  sloping  plank 
floors — generally  in  cold  weather — or  it  may  come  on  soon  after  severe 
exercise.  It  is  probably  due  to  an  irritation  of  the  nerves  of  the  thigh. 
In  cramps  of  the  hind  leg  the  limb  becomes  perfectly  rigid,  and  at- 
tempts to  flex  the  leg  are  unsuccessful ;  the  animal  stands  on  the  affected 
limb,  but  is  unable  to  move  it;  it  is  unnaturally  cold;  it  does  uot,  how- 
ever, appear  to  cause  much  suffering  unless  attempts  are  made  to 
change  position.  This  cramp  may  beof  short  duration— a  few  minutes — 
or  it  may  persist  for  several  days.  This  condition  is  often  taken  for  a  dis- 
location of  the  stifle-joint.  In  the  latter  the  foot  is  extended  backward, 
and  the  horse  is  uuable  to  advance  it,  but  drags  the  limb  after  him.  An 
examination  of  the  joint  also  reveals  a  change  in  form.  Spasms  may 
affect  the  eye-lids,  by  closure  or  by  retraction.  Spasm  of  the  steruo- 
maxillaris  muscle  has  been  witnessed,  and  the  animal  was  unable  to 
close  the  jaws  until  the  muscle  became  relaxed. 

Treatment. — An  anodyne  liniment,  composed  of  chloroform  1  part 
and  soap  liniment  4  parts,  applied  to  cramped  muscles  will  usually 
cause  relaxation.  This  may  be  used  where  single  external  muscles  are 
affected.  In  spasm  of  the  glottis  inhalation  of  sulphuric  ether  will 
give  quick  relief.  In  spasm  of  the  diaphragm,  rest  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  half  an  ounce  of  chloroform  in  3  ounces  of  whisky,  with  a 
pint  of  water  added,  will  generally  suffice  to  bring  relief,  or  if  this  fails 
give  5  grains  of  sulphate  of  morphia  by  hypodermic  injection.  If 
spasms  result  from  organic  disease  of  the  nervous  system,  the  latter 
sbould  receive  such  treatment  as  its  character  demands.  In  cramp  of 
the  leg  compulsory  movement  usually  causes  relaxation  very  quickly; 
therefore,  the  animal  should  be  led  out  of  the  stable  and  be  forced  to  run 
or  trot.  Sudden  nervous  excitement,  caused  by  a  crack  of  the  whip  or 
smart  blow,  will  often  bring  about  immediate  relief.  Should  this  fail, 
the  anodyne  liniment  may  be  used  along  the  inside  of  the  thigh,  and 
chloroform,  ether,  or  laudanum  given  internally.  An  ounce  of  the 
chloral  hydrate  will  certainly  relieve  the  spasm  when  given  internally, 


198 

but  the  cramp  may  return  soon  after  the  effect  has  passed  off,  which 
in  many  cases  it  does  very  quickly. 

Convulsions. — Although  there  is  no  disease  of  the  nervous  system 
which  can  be  properly  termed  convulsive,  or  justify  the  use  of  the  word 
convulsion  to  indicate  any  particular  disease,  yet  it  is  often  such  a 
prominent  symptom  that  a  few  words  may  not  be  out  of  place.  Gen- 
eral, irregular  muscular  contractions  of  various  parts  of  the  body,  with 
unconsciousness,  characterize  what  we  regard  as  convulsions,  and  like 
ordinary  spasms  are  dependent  upon  some  disease  or  irritation  of  the 
nervous  structures,  chiefly  of  the  brain.  No  treatment  is  required;  in 
fact,  a  general  convulsion  must  necessarily  be  self-limited  in  its  dura- 
tion. Suspending,  as  it  does,  respiratory  movements,  checking  the 
oxygenation  and  decarbonization  of  the  blood,  the  rapid  accumulation 
of  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the  blood  and  the  exclusion  of  oxygen  quickly 
puts  the  blood  in  a  condition  to  produce  the  most  reliable  and  speedy 
sedative  effect  upon  the  nerve  excitability  that  could  be  found,  and 
consequently  furnishes  its  own  remedy,  so  far  as  the  continuance  of 
the  convulsive  paroxysm  is  concerned.  Whatever  treatment  is  insti- 
tuted must  be  directed  towards  a  removal  of  the  cause  of  the  convulsive 
paroxysm. 

CHOREA. 

Chorea  is  characterized  by  involuntary  contractions  of  voluntary 
muscles.  This  disease  is  an  obscure  disorder,  which  may  be  due  to 
pressure  upon  a  nerve,  cerebral  sclerosis,  small  aneurisms  in  the  brain, 
etc.  Choreic  symptoms  have  been  produced  by  injecting  granules  of 
starch  into  the  arteries  entering  the  brain.  Epilepsy  and  other  forms 
of  convulsions  simulate  chorea  in  appearance. 

Stringhalt  is  by  some  termed  chorea.  This  is  manifested  by  a  sudden 
jerking-up  of  one  or  both  hind  legs  when  the  animal  is  walking.  This 
symptom  may  be  very  slight  in  some  horses,  but  has  a  tendency  to  in- 
crease with  the  age  of  the  animal.  In  some  the  catching-up  of  the  af- 
fected leg  is  very  violent,  and  when  it  is  lowered  to  the  ground  the 
motion  is  equally  sudden  and  forcible,  striking  the  foot  to  the  ground 
like  a  pile-driver.  Very  rarely  chorea  may  be  found  to  affect  one  of  the 
fore  legs,  or  the  muscles  of  one  side  of  the  neck  or  the  upper  part  of  the 
neck.  Involuntary  jerking  of  the  muscles  of  the  hip  or  thigh  is  seen 
occasionally,  and  is  termed  shivering  by  horsemen. 

Chorea  is  often  associated  with  a  nervous  disposition,  and  is  not  so 
frequent  in  animals  with  a  sluggish  temperament.  The  involuntary 
muscular  contractions  cause  no  pain,  and  do  not  appear  to  produce 
much  exhaustion  of  the  affected  muscles,  although  the  jerking  may  be 
regular  and  persistent  whenever  the  animal  is  in  motion. 

Treatment.— In  a  few  cases,  early  in  the  appearance  of  this  affection, 
general  nerve  tonics  may  be  of  benefit,  viz,  iodide  of  iron,  1  dram ;  pul- 
verized nux  vomica,  1  dram  ;  pulverized  Scutellaria,  1  ounce.  Mix,  and 
give  in  the  feed  once  a  day  for  two  weeks.  If  the  cause  is  connected 
with  organic  brain  lesions  treatment  is  usually  unsuccessful. 


199 

EPILEPSY— FALLING  FITS. 

The.  cause  of  epilepsy  is  seldom  traceable  to  any  special  brain  lesions. 
In  a  few  cases  it  accompanies  disease  of  the  pituitary  body,  which  is 
located  in  the  under  surface  of  the  brain.  Softening  of  the  brain  may 
give  rise  to  this  affection.  Attacks  may  occur  only  once  or  twice  a  year, 
or  they  may  be  of  frequent  recurrence. 

Symptoms. — No  premonitory  symptoms  precede  an  epileptic  fit.  The 
animal  suddenly  staggers ;  the  muscles  become  cramped  ;  the  jaws  may 
be  spasmodically  opened  and  closed,  and  the  tongue  become  lacerated 
between  the  teeth  ;  he  foams  at  the  mouth  and  falls  down  in  a  spasm. 
The  urine  flows  away  involuntarily,  and  the  breathing  may  be  tempo- 
rarily arrested.  The  paroxysm  soon  passes  off,  and  the  animal  gets  on 
his  feet  in  a  few  minutes  after  the  return  of  consciousness. 

Treatment. — Dashing  cold  water  on  the  head  during  the  paroxysm. 
After  the  recovery  1  dram  of  oxide  of  zinc  may  be  given  in  his  feed 
twice  a  day  for  several  weeks,  or  benefit  may  be  derived  from  the  tonic 
prescribed  for  chorea.  * 

COMA — SLEEPY   STAGGERS. 

This  condition,  like  that  of  spasm  and  convulsion,  is  generally  not  a 
disease,  but  merely  a  symptom  manifested  as  a  result  of  a  variety  of 
brain  affections,  such  as  atrophy,  chronic  meningitis  with  effusion, 
tumors  in  the  lateral  ventricles,  etc.  Another  form  of  coma  is  that 
which  accompanies  acute  diseases  of  the  brain,  wherein  the  animal  may 
be  unconscious,  with  sterterous  breathing,  difficult  respiration,  etc.  We 
meet,  however,  with  a  type  of  coma  in  horses  which  can  not  easily  be 
attributed  to  any  special  disease  of  the  brain,  unless  it  be  a  modified 
form  of  congestion,  which  is  sometimes  amenable  to  treatment.  This 
condition  is  termed  immohilite  by  the  French,  and  sleepy  staggers  by 
our  stablemen.  It  is  usually  attributed  to  habitual  overloading  of  the 
stomach  with  bulky  food  and  want  of  exercise. 

8 ymxHoms.— Sleepy  staggers  is  characterized  by  drowsiness,  partial 
insensibility,  sluggish  and  often  staggering  gait.  The  animal  is  in- 
clined to  drop  his  head  in  the  manger  and  to  go  to  sleep  with  a  wad  of 
hay  in  his  mouth,  which  he  is  apt  to  drop  when  he  awakens.  He  will 
stand  for  a  long  time  with  his  legs  placed  in  any  awkward  position  in 
which  the  owner  may  choose  to  put  them.  The  bowels  are  constipated, 
the  pulse  slow  and  soft,  with  no  fever  or  pain.  The  animal  may  remain 
in  this  condition  for  many  mouths  without  much  variation  of  symptoms, 
or  he  may  become  entirely  comatose,  with  delirium  or  convulsions,  and 
die.  Chronic  cases  are  always  much  better  in  cold  weather  than  in  the 
summer. 

Treatment— Moderate  bleeding  from  the  jugular  vein,  1  gallon  from 
a  raedmm-sized  horse,  and  1^  or  2  gallons  from  a  very  large,  heavy 
horse.    This  should  be  immediately  followed  by  a  cathartic,  composed 


200 

of  aloes  6  drams,  croton  oil  6  drops,  and  1  dram  of  capsicum,  to  be 
made  iuto  a  ball  with  liard  soap,  molasses,  or  bread  soaked  in  water, 
and  given  on  an  empty  stomach.  After  the  cathartic  has  ceased  to 
operate  give  one  large  tablespoonful  or  half  an  ounce  of  the  following 
mixture  twice  a  day :  Pulverized  hydrastis,  pulverized  ginger,  sodium 
bicarbonate,  of  each  4  ounces;  mix. 

In  some  cases  iodide  of  potassa  in  dram  doses  twice  a  day,  alternated 
each  week  with  1  dram  of  calomel  twice  a  day,  will  prove  successful. 
In  cases  where  there  is  a  deep  coma  or  almost  continuous  unconscious- 
ness, ice  bags  or  cold-water  cloths  should  be  applied  to  the  head— be- 
tween the  ears,  dropping  well  down  over  the  forehead  and  extending 
backward  from  the  ears  for  4  or  5  inches. 

PARALYSIS — PALSY. 

Paralysis  is  a  weakness  or  cessation  of  the  muscular  contraction,  by 
diminution  of  loss  of  the  conducting  power  or  stimulation  of  the  mo.,or 
nerves.  Paralytic  affections  are  of  two  kinds,  fhe  perfect  and  the  im- 
perfect. The  former  includes  those  in  which  both  motion  and  sensi- 
bility are  affected  ;  the  latter  those  in  which  only  one  or  tlie  other  is 
lost  or  diminished.  Paralysis  may  be  general  or  partial,  The  latter  is 
divided  into  hemiplegia  and  paraplegia.  When  only  a  small  portion 
of  the  body  is  afi'ected,  as  the  face,  a  limb,  the  tail,  it  is  designated  by 
the  term  local  paralysis.  When  the  irritation  extends  from  the  pe- 
riphery to  the  center  it  is  termed  reflex  paralysis. 

Causes. — ^They  are  very  varied.  Most  of  the  acute  affections  of  the 
brain  and  spinal  cord  may  lead  to  paralysis.  Injuries,  tumors,  disease 
of  the  blood-vessels  of  the  brain,  etc.,  all  have  a  tendency  to  produce 
sus])ension  of  the  conducting  motive  power  to  the  muscular  structures. 
Pressure  upon,  or  the  severing  of,  a  nerve  causes  a  paralysis  of  the 
parts  to  which  such  a  nerve  is  distributed.  Apoplexy  may  be  termed 
a  general  paralysis,  and  in  non-fatal  attacks  is  a  frequent  cause  of  the 
various  forms  of  palsy. 

GENERAL   PARALYSIS. 

This  can  not  take  place  without  producing  immediate  death.  The 
term  is,  however,  usually  applied  to  paralysis  of  the  four  extremities, 
whether  any  other  portions  of  the  body  are  involved  or  not.  This  form 
of  palsy  is  due  to  compression  of  the  brain  by  congestion  of  its  vessels, 
large  clot  formation  in  apoplexy,  concussion  or  shock,  or  any  disease  in 
which  the  whole  brain  structure  is  involved  in  functional  disturbance. 

HEMIPLEGIA — PARALYSIS   OF  ONE  SIDE  OR  HALF  OF  THE  BODY. 

Hemiplegia  is  frequently  the  result  of  a  tumor  in  the  lateral  ventricles 
of  the  brain,  softening  of  one  hemisphere  of  the  cerebrum,  pressure 
from  extravasated  blood,  fracture  of  the  cranium,  or  it  may  be  due  to 


201 

poisons  in  tbe  blood,  or  to  reflex  origin.  When  hemiplegia  is  due  to  or 
the  result  of  a  prior  disease  of  the  brain,  especially  of  an  inflammatory 
character,  it  is  seldom  complete;  it  may  only  affect  one  limb  and  one 
side  of  the  head,  neck,  or  muscles  along  the  back,  and  may  pass  off  in 
a  few  days  after  the  disappearance  of  all  the  other  evidences  of  the 
primary  affection.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  however,  hemiplegia  arises 
from  emboli  obstructing  one  or  more  blood-vessels  of  the  brain,  or  the 
rupture  of  some  vessel  the  wall  of  which  had  become  weakened  by 
degeneration  and  the  extravasation  of  blood.  Sensibility  in  most  cases 
is  not  impaired,  but  in  some  there  is  a  loss  of  sensibility  as  well  as  of 
motion.  In  some  cases  the  bladder  and  rectum  are  involved  in  the 
paralysis. 

Sympto7ns.—Jn  hemiplegia  the  attack  may  be  very  sudden,  and  the 
animal  fall  down  powerless  to  move  one  side  of  the  body  ;  one  side  of 
the  lips  will  be  relaxed ;  the  tongue  may  hang  out  on  one  side  of  the 
mouth  ;  the  tail  curved  around  sideways ;  an  inability  to  swallow  food 
or  water  may  be  present,  and  oflen  the  urine  dribbles  away  as  fast  as  it 
collects  in  the  bladder.  Sensibility  of  the  affected  side  may  be  en- 
tirely lost  or  only  partial ;  the  limbs  may  be  cold,  and  sometimes  un- 
naturally warm.  In  cases  wherein  the  attack  is  not  so  severe  the  ani- 
mal may  be  able  to  maintain  the  standing  position,  but  will  have  great 
difficulty  in  moving  the  affected  side.  In  such  cases  the  animal  may 
recover  from  the  disability.  In  the  more  severe,  where  there  is  com- 
plete  loss  of  the  power  of  movement,  recoveries  are  rare. 

PARAPLEGIA — TRANSVERSE    PARALYSIS    OF   THE  HIND   EXTREMITIES. 

Paralysis  of  the  hind  extremities  is  usually  due  to  some  injury,  or 
inflammation  affecting  the  spinal  cord.  (See  "Spinal  Meningitis  "  and 
"Myelitis.")  It  may  also  be  due  to  a  reflex  irritation  from  disease  of 
peripheral  nerves,  to  spinal  irritation  or  congestion  caused  by  blood 
poisons,  etc. 

Symptoms. — When  due  to  mechanical  injury  of  the  spinal  cord,  from 
a  broken  back  or  spinal  hemorrhage,  it  is  generally  progressive  in  its  char- 
acter, although  it  may  be  sudden.  When  it  is  caused  by  agents  in  the 
blood  it  may  be  intermittent  or  recurrent. 

Paraplegia  is  not  difficult  to  recognize,  for  it  is  characterized  by  a 
weakness  and  imperfect  control  of  tiie  hind  legs,  and  powerless  tail. 
The  urine  usually  dribbles  away  as  it  is  formed  and  the  manure  is 
pushed  out,  ball  by  ball,  without  any  voluntary  effort,  or  the  passages 
may  cease  entirely.  When  paraplegia  is  complete,  large  and  ill-con- 
ditioned sores  soon  form  on  the  hips  and  thighs  from  chafing  and  bruis- 
ing, which  have  a  tendency  to  quickly  weaken  the  animal  and  necessi- 
tate his  destruction. 


202 

LOCOMOTOR   ATAXIA— INCOORDINATION   OF   MOVEMENT. 

This  is  cbaracterized  by  an  inability  to  properly  control  the  move- 
ment  of  the  limbs.  The  animal  appears  usually  perfectly  healthy,  but 
when  he  is  led  out  of  his  stall  his  legs  have  a  wobbly  movement,  and 
he  will  stumble  or  stagger,  especially  in  turning.  When  this  is  con- 
fined to  the  hind  parts  it  may  be  termed  a  modified  form  of  paraplegia, 
but  often  it  may  be  seen  to  aflect  nearly  all  the  voluntary  muscles  when 
they  are  called  into  play,  and  must  be  attributed  to  some  pressure  ex- 
erted on  the  base  of  the  brain. 

LOCAL   PARALYSIS. 

This  is  frequently  met  with  in  horses.  It  may  affect  many  parts  of 
the  body,  even  vital  organs,  and  it  is  very  frequently  overlooked  in 
diagnosis. 

FACIAL   PARALYSIS. 

This  is  a  frequent  type  of  local  paralysis,  and  is  due  to  impairment 
of  function  of  the  motor  nerve  of  the  facial  muscles,  the  portio  dura. 
The  cause  may  exist  at  the  base  of  the  brain,  compression  along  its 
course  after  it  leaves  the  medulla  oblongata,  or  to  a  bruise  after  it 
spreads  out  on  the  great  masseter  muscle. 

Symptoms. — A  flaccid  condition  of  the  cheek  muscles,  pendulous  lips, 
inability  to  grasp  the  food,  often  a  slow  and  weak  movement  in  chew- 
ing, and  difficulty  and  slowness  in  drinking. 

LARYNGISMUS    PARALYTICUS— ROARING. 

This  condition  is  characterized  by  roaring,  and  is  usually  caused  by 
an  inflamed  or  hypertrophied  bronchial  gland  pressing  against  the  left 
recurrent  laryngeal  nerve,  which  interferes  with  its  conducting  power. 
A  similar  condition  is  occasionally  induced  in  acute  pleurisy,  where  the 
recurrent  nerve  becomes  involved  in  the  diseased  process  or  compressed 
by  plastic  exudation. 

PARALYSIS  OF  THE  RECTUM  AND  TAIL. 

This  is  generally  the  result  of  a  blow  or  fall  on  the  rump,  which 
causes  a  fracture  of  the  sacrum  bone  and  injury  to  the  nerves  supply- 
ing the  tail  and  part  of  the  rectum  and  muscles  belonging  thereto. 
This  fracture  would  not  be  suspected,  were  it  not  for  the  loss  of  motion 
of  the  tail. 

INTESTINAL   PARALYSIS. 

Characterized  by  persistent  constipation ;  frequently  the  strongest 
purgatives  have  no  effect  whatever  on  the  movement  of  the  bowels. 
In  the  absence  of  symptoms  of  indigestion,  or  special  diseases  impli- 
cating the  intestinal  canal,  torpor  of  the  bowels  must  be  attributed  to 


203 

deficient  innervation.  This  condition  may  depend  upon  brain  affec- 
tions, or  be  dne  to  reflex  paral^'sis.  Sudden  checks  of  perspiration 
may  induce  excessive  action  of  the  bowels  or  paralysis. 

PARALYSIS  OF  THE  BLADDER. 

This  usually  affects  the  neck  of  t\ie  bladder,  and  is  characterized  by 
incontinence  of  urine — the  urine  dribbles  away  as  fast  as  it  is  secreted. 

The  cause  may  be  of  reflex  origin,  disease  of  the  rectum,  tumors  grow- 
ing within  the  pelvic  cavity,  injury  to  the  spinal  cord,  etc. 

PARALYSIS   OF   THE    OPTIC   NERVE — AMAUROSIS. 

A  paralysis  of  eyesight  may  occur  very  suddenly  from  rupture  of  a 
blood  vessel  in  the  brain,  acute  local  congestion  of  the  brain,  the  admin- 
istration of  excessive  doses  of  belladonna  or  its  alkaloid  atropia,  etc. 

Symptoms. — In  amaurosis  the  pupil  is  dilated  to  its  full  extent,  the 
eye  looks  clear,  but  does  not  respond  to  light. 

Paralysis  of  hearing,  of  the  external  ear,  of  the  eyelid,  partial  paral- 
ysis of  the  heart  and  organs  of  respiration,  of  the  blood  vessels  from 
injury  to  the  vaso  motor  nerves  of  the  oesophagus,  or  loss  of  deglutition, 
palsy  of  the  stomach,  all  may  be  manifested  when  the  supply  of  ner- 
vous influence  is  impaired  or  suspended. 

Treatment. — In  all  paralytic  affections  there  may  be  ancesthesia  or  im- 
pairment of  sensibility  in  addition  to  the  loss  of  motion,  or  there  may 
be  hypercvsthesia  or  increased  sensibility  in  connection  with  the  loss  of 
motion.  These  conditions  may  call  for  special  treatment  in  addition  to 
that  for  loss  of  motion.  Where  hypt  rajsthesia  is  well  marked  local 
anodynes  may  be  needed  to  relieve  suffering.  Chloroform  liniment  or 
hypodermic  injections  of  from  3  to  5  grains  of  sulphate  of  morphia  will 
allay  local  i^ain.  If  there  is  marked  anaesthesia  or  loss  of  sensibility  it 
may  become  necessary  to  secure  the  animal  in  such  a  way  that  he  can 
not  suffer  serious  injury  from  accidents  which  he  can  not  avoid  or  feel. 
In  the  treatment  of  any  form  of  paralysis  we  must  always  refer  to  the 
cause,  and  attempt  its  removal  if  it  can  be  discovered.  In  cases  where 
the  cause  can  not  be  determined  we  have  to  rely  solely  upon  a  general 
external  and  internal  treatment.  Externally,  fly-blisters  or  strong  irri- 
tant liniments  may  be  applied  to  the  paralyzed  parts.  In  hemiplegia 
they  should  be  applied  along  the  bony  part  of  the  side  of  the  neck;  in 
paraplegia,  across  the  loins.  In  some  cases  hot-water  cloths  will  be 
beneficial.  Internally,  it  is  well  to  administer  1  dram  of  powdered  nux 
vomica  or  2  grains  of  sulphate  of  strychnia  twice  a  day  until  twitch- 
ing of  some  of  the  voluntary  muscles  occur ;  then  discontinue  it  for  sev- 
eral days,  and  then  commence  again  with  a  smaller  dose,  gradually  in- 
creasing it  until  twitching  recurs.  In  some  cases  Fowler's  solution  of 
arsenic  in  teaspoonful  doses  twice  a  day,  in  the  drinking  water,  proves 
beneficial.     Occasionally  benefit  may  be  derived  from  the  application 


204 

of  the  electric  current,  especially  in  cases  of  roaring,  facial  paralysis, 
liaralysis  of  the  eyelid,  etc.  Nutritious  but  not  too  bulky  food,  good 
veutilation,  clean  stabling,  moderate  exercise  if  the  animal  is  capable 
of  taking  it,  good  grooming,  etc.,  should  be  observed  in  all  cases. 

SPINAL  MENINGITIS — INFLAMMATION   OF  THE   MEMBRANES  ENVELOP- 

INa   THE   SPINAL   CORD. 

Causes. — This  may  be  induced  by  the  irritant  properties  of  blood- 
poisons,  exhaustion,  and  exposure,  spinal  concussion,  all  forms  of  injury 
to  the  spine,  tumors,  caries  of  the  vertebrse,  rheumatism,  etc. 

Symptoms. — A  chill  may  be  the  precursor,  a  rise  in  temperature,  or  a 
general  weakness  and  shifting  of  the  legs.  Soon  a  painful,  convulsive 
twitching  of  the  muscles  sets  in,  followed  by  muscular  rigidity  along  the 
spine,  in  which  condition  the  animal  will  move  very  stifliy  and  evince 
great  pain  in  turning.  Evidences  of  paralysis  or  paraplegia  develop, 
retention  or  incontinence  of  urine,  and  oftentimes  sexual  excitement  is 
present.  The  presence  of  marked  fever  at  the  beginning  of  the  attack, 
associated  with  spinal  symptoms,  should  lead  us  to  suspect  spinal  men- 
ingitis or  myelitis.  These  two  conditions  usually  appear  together,  or 
myelitis  follows  inflammation  of  the  meninges  so  closely  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  separate  the  two  ;  practically  it  does  not  matter  much,  for 
the  treatment  will  be  about  the  same  in  both  cases.  Spinal  meningitis 
generally  becomes  chronic,  and  is  then  marked  principally  by  paralysis 
of  that  portion,  or  parts  of  it,  posterior  to  the  seat  of  the  disease. 

Pathology. — In  spinal  meningitis  we  will  find  essentially  the  same  con- 
dition as  in  cerebral  meningitis ;  there  will  be  an  effusion  of  serum  be- 
tween the  membranes,  and  often  a  plastic  exudation  firmly  adherent  to 
the  pia  mater  serves  to  maintain  a  state  of  paralysis  for  a  long  time 
after  the  acute  symptoms  have  disappeared  by  compressing  the  cord. 
Finally,  atrophy,  softening,  and  even  abscess  may  develop  within  the 
cord.     Unlike  in  man,  it  is  usually  found  localized  in  horses. 

Treatment. — Bags  filled  with  ice  should  be  applied  along  the  spine,  to 
be  followed  later  on  bj'^  strong  blisters.  The  fever  should  be  controlled 
as  early  as  possible  by  giving  20  drops  of  Norwood's  tincture  of  vera- 
trum  viride  every  hour,  until  the  desired  result  is  obtained.  One  dram 
of  the  fluid  extract  of  belladonna,  to  control  pain  and  vascular  excite- 
ment of  the  spinal  cord,  may  be  given  every  five  or  six  hours  until  the 
pupils  of  the  eyes  become  pretty  well  dilated.  If  the  pain  is  very  in- 
tense 5  grains  of  sulphate  of  morphia  should  be  injected  hypodermically. 
The  animal  must  be  kept  as  free  from  excitement  as  possible.  If  the 
urine  is  retained  in  the  bladder  it  must  be  drawn  off  every  four  or  six 
hours.  In  very  acute  attacks  the  disease  generally  proves  fatal  in  a 
few  days.  If,  however,  the  animal  grows  better  some  form  of  paraly- 
sis is  apt  to  remain  for  a  long  time  and  the  treatment  will  have  to 
be  directed  then  toward  a  removal  of  the  exudative  products  and  a 


205 

strengtLening  of  the  systemaad  stimulation  of  the  nervous  functions.' 
To  induce  absorptiou  iodide  of  potassa  in  2  dram  doses  may  be  given 
dissolved  in  the  driukiug  water  twice  a  day.  To  strengthen  the  sys- 
tem, iodide  of  iron  1  dram  twice  a  day  and  1  dram  of  uux  vomica  once 
a  day  may  be  given  in  the  feed.  Electricity  to  the  paralyzed  and 
weakened  muscles  is  advisable;  the  current  should  be  weak,  but  be 
continued  for  half  an  hour  two  or  three  times  daily.  If  the  disease  is 
due  to  a  broken  back,  caries  of  the  vertebrte,  or  some  other  irremedi- 
able cause,  the  animal  should  be  destroyed  at  once. 

MYELITIS — INFLAMMATION  OF   THE  SUBSTANCE  OF  THE  SPINAL  CORD. 

This  is  a  rare  disease,  except  as  a  secondary  result  of  spinal  menin- 
gitis or  injuries  to  the  spine.  Poisoning,  by  lead,  arsenic,  mercury, 
phosphorus,  carbonic-acid  gas,  etc.,  has  been  known  to  produce  it. 
Myelitis  may  be  confined  to  a  small  spot  in  the  cord  or  may  involve  the 
whole  for  a  variable  distance.  It  may  lead  to  softening,  abscess,  or  de- 
generation. 

Symjjtoms. — The  attack  may  begin  with  a  chill  or  convulsions;  the 
muscles  twitch  or  become  cramped  very  envly  in  the  disease,  and  the 
bladder  usually  is  affected  in  the  outset,  in  which  there  may  be  either 
retention  or  incontinence  of  urine.  These  conditions  are  followed  by 
complete  or  partial  paralysis  of  the  muscles  posterior  to  the  locality  of 
the  inflamed  cord,  and  the  muscles  begin  to  waste  away  rapidly.  The 
paralyzetl  limb  becomes  cold  and  dry,  due  to  the  suspension  of  proper 
circulation;  the  joints  may  swell  and  become  cedematous;  vesicular 
eruptions  appear  on  the  skin,  and  frequently  gangrenous  sloughs  form 
on  the  paralyzed  parts.  It  is  exceedingly  seldom  that  recovery  takes 
place.  In  a  few  instances  it  may  assume  a  chronic  type,  when  all  the 
symptoms  become  mitigated,  and  thus  continue  for  some  time  until 
septicemia,  pysemia,  or  exhaustion  causes  death. 

Pathology. — The  inflammation  may  involve  nearly  the  whole  length 
of  the  cord,  but  generally  it  is  more  intense  in  some  places  than  others; 
when  due  to  mechanical  injury  the  inflammation  may  remain  confined 
to  a  small  section.  The  cord  is  swollen  and  congested,  reddened,  often 
softened  and  infiltrated  with  pus  cells,  and  the  nerve  elements  are  de- 
generated. 

Treatment. — Similar  to  that  of  spinal  meningitis. 

SPINAL   SCLEROSIS. 

This  is  the  sequence  of  myelitis,  when  some  mild  form  of  the  disease 
has  been  existing.  Thickening  and  hardening  of  the  interstitial  tissues 
of  the  cmd,  the  result  of  inflammatory  products,  constitute  sclerosis. 
The  affected  section  has  a  gray  appearance,  is  firmer  than  the  surround- 
ing tissue,  sometimes  presents  a  depressed  surface  and  at  other  times 
may  be  elevated  above  the  general  level  of  the  cord. 


206 

Symptoms. — Paralysis  of  sensatioQ  or  motion  in  local  muscles,  and 
when  located  in  the  region  of  the  neck  may  present  the  symptoms  of 
locomotor  ataxia  or  inco-ordination  of  movement.  Spinal  sclerosis  may 
be  suspected  when  these  symptoms  succeed  an  attack  of  myelitis. 

Treatment. — The  iodide  of  iron  may  be  given  in  dram  doses  twice  a 
day  for  a  week,  alternating  with  two- grain  doses  of  sulphate  of  strych- 
nia twice  a  day  for  a  week. 

SPINAL   CONGESTION   AND   SPINAL   HYPEREMIA. 

The  distinction  between  congestion  and  hyperaemia  is  one  of  degree 
rather  than  kind.  Tn  both  we  tiud  an  excess  of  blood.  In  hyperaemia 
the  current  is  unusually  rapid,  in  cougestiou  it  is  unusually  slow.  The 
distinction  between  hyperemia  and  inflammation  is  also  difficult  to 
m;ike;  one  is  only  the  forerunner  of  the  other.  As  the  blood  vessels  of 
the  pia  mater  are  the  principal  source  of  supply  to  the  spinal  cord,  hy- 
peroemia  of  the  cord  and  of  the  meninges  usually  go  together.  The  symp- 
toms are,  therefore,  closely  allied  to  those  of  spinal  meningitis  and 
myelitis-  When  the  pia  mater  is  diseased  the  spinal  cord  is  almost  in- 
variably affected  also. 

Cause. — Sadden  checking  of  the  perspiration,  violent  exercise,  blows, 
and  falls. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  may  vary  somewhat  with  each  case,  and 
closely  resemble  the  first  symptoms  of  spinal  meningitis,  spinal  tumors, 
and  myelitis.  First,  some  disturbance  in  movement,  lowering  of  the 
temperature,  and  partial  loss  of  sensibility  posterior  to  the  seat  of  the 
congestion.  If  in  the  cervical  region  it  may  cause  interference  in 
breathing  and  the  action  of  the  heart.  When  in  the  region  of  the  loins 
there  may  be  loss  of  control  of  the  bladder.  •  When  the  congestion  is 
sufficient  to  produce  compression  of  the  cord,  paraplegia  may  be  com- 
plete. Usually  fever,  spasms,  muscular  twitching,  or  muscular  rigidity 
are  absent,  which  will  serve  to  distinguish  spinal  cougestiou  from  spinal 
•  meningitis. 

Treatment. — Hot- water  applications  to  the  spine,  one-dram  doses  fluid 
extract  of  belladonna  repeated  every  four  hours,  and  tincture  of  aconite 
root  20  drops  every  hour  until  the  symptoms  become  ameliorated.  If 
no  inflammatory  products  occur  the  animal  is  likely  to  recover. 

SPINAL  ANEMIA. 

This  may  be  caused  by  extreme  cold,  exhausting  diseases,  spinal  em- 
bolism or  plugging  of  a  spinal  blood-vessel,  an  interference  with  the 
circulation  through  the  abdominal  aorta,  from  compression,  thrombosis, 
or  aneurism  of  that  vessel ;  the  spinal  vessels  may  be  caused  to  contract 
through  vaso-motor  influence,  a  result  of  peripheral  irritation  of  some 
nerve. 


207 

Symptoms.— Bpiual  anaemia  causes  paralysis  of  the  muscles  used  in 
exteudiug  the  limbs.  When  the  bladder  is  aflected  it  precedes  the  weak- 
ness of  motion,  while  in  spinal  congestion  it  follows,  and  increased  sen- 
sibility, in  |>lace  of  diminished  sensibility,  as  in  spinal  congestion,  is  ob- 
served.   Pressure  along  the  spine  causes  excessive  pain. 

Treatment. — If  the  exciting  cause  can  be  removed  the  animal  recov- 
ers; if  this  fails,  the  spinal  cord  may  undergo  softening. 

SPINAL   COMPEESSION. 

When  caused  by  tumors  or  otherwise  when  pressure  is  slight,  it  pro- 
duces a  paralysis  of  the  muscles  used  in  extending  a  limb  and  contrac- 
tion of  those  which  flex  it.  When  compression  is  great  it  causes  com- 
plete loss  of  sensibility  and  motion  posterior  to  the  compressed  part  of 
the  cord. 

Compression  of  a  lateral  half  of  the  cord  produces  motor  paralysis, 
disturbance  in  the  circulation,  and  difficulty  of  movement,  an  increased 
sensibility  on  the  side  corresponding  to  the  compressed  section,  and  a 
diminished  sensibility  and  some  paralysis  on  the  opposite  side. 

Treatment. — When  it  occurs  as  a  sequence  of  a  preceding  inflammatory 
disease,  iodide  of  potassa  and  general  tonics  are  indicated.  When  due 
to  tumors  growing  within  the  spinal  canal,  or  to  pressure  from  dis- 
placed bone,  no  form  of  treatment  will  result  in  any  benefit. 

SPINAL   HEMORRHAGE. 

This  may  occur  from  changes  in  the  wall  of  the  blood-vessels,  in  con- 
nection with  tumors,  acute  myelitis,  traumatic  injuries,  etc.  The  blood 
may  escape  througli  the  pia  m  ater  into  the  sub-arachnoid  cavity,  and 
large  clots  be  formed. 

Sijmptomfi. — The  symptoms  are  largely  dependent  upon  the  seat  and 
extent  of  the  hemori'hage,  as  they  are  principally  due  to  the  compres- 
sion of  the  cord.  A  large  clot  may  produce  sudden  paraplegia  accom- 
panied by  severe  pain  along  the  spine  ;  usually,  however,  the  paralysis 
of  both  motion  and  sensation  is  not  very  marked  at  first;  on  the  second 
or  third  day  fever  is  apt  to  appear,  and  increased  or  diminished  sensi- 
bility along  the  spine  posterior  to  the  seat  of  the  clot.  When  the 
bladder  and  rectum  are  involved  in  the  symptoms  it  indicates  that  the 
spinal  cord  is  compressed. 

Treatment. — In  the  occurrence  of  injuries  to  the  back  of  a  horse, 
whenever  there  is  any  evidence  of  paralysis,  it  is  always  advisable  to 
apply  bags  of  ice  along  the  spine  to  check  or  prevent  hemorrhage  or 
congestion,  and  2  drams  of  the  fluid  extract  of  ergot  and  20  drops  of 
tincture  of  digitalis  may  be  given  every  hour  until  three  doses  have 
been  taken.  Subsequently  tincture  of  belladonna  in  half-ounce  doses 
may  be  given  three  times  a  day.  If  there  is  much  pain,  5  grains  of 
sulphate  of  morphia,  injected  under  the  skin,  will  afford  relief  and  lessen 
the  excitability  of  the  animal.  In  all  cases  the  animal  should  be  kept 
perfectly  quiet. 


208 

SPINAL   CONCUSSION. 

This  is  rarely  observed  in  the  horse,  and  unless  it  is  sufficiently  se- 
vere to  produce  well-marked  symptoms  it  would  not  be  suspected.  It 
may  occur  in  saddle-horses  from  jumping-,  or  it  may  be  produced  by 
falling  over  an  embankment,  or  a  violent  fall  upon  the  haunches  may 
produce  it.  Concussion  may  be  followed  by  j^artial  paralysis  or  spinal 
hemorrhage,  generally,  however,  it  is  confined  to  a  jarriug  and  some 
disturbance  of  the  nerve  elements  of  the  cord,  and  the  paralytic  effect 
which  ensues  soon  passes  off.  Treatment  consists  in  rest  until  the  ani- 
mal has  completely  recovered  from  the  shock.  If  secondary  effects  fol- 
low from  hemorrhage,  or  compression,  they  have  to  be  treated  as  here- 
tofore directed. 

SPINAL   TUMORS. 

Within  the  substance  of  the  cord  glioma,  or  the  mixed  gliosarcomata, 
is  found  to  be  the  most  frequent,  tumors  may  form  from  the  meninges 
and  the  vertebrae,  being  of  a  fibrous  or  bony  nature,  and  affect  the  spi- 
nal cord  indirectly  by  compression.  In  the  meninges  we  may  tiud  gli- 
oma, cancers,  psammoma,  fibromata ;  and  aneurisms  of  the  spinal 
arteries  have  been  discovered  in  the  spinal  canal. 

Symptoms. — Tumors  of  the  spinal  canal  cause  symptoms  of  spinal  irri- 
tation, or  compression  of  the  cord.  The  gradual  and  slow  development 
of  symptoms  of  paralysis  of  one  or  both  hind  limbs  or  certain  muscles 
may  lead  to  a  suspicion  of  spinal  tumors.  The  paralysis  induced  is 
progressive,  but  not  usually  marked  with  atrophy  of  the  muscles,  or  in- 
creased sensibility  along  the  spine.  When  the  tumor  is  within  the  spi- 
nal cord  itself  all  the  symptoms  of  myelitis  may  be  jiresent. 

Treatment. — General  tonics  and  dram  doses  of  nux  vomica  may  be 
given;  iodide  of  iron  or  iodide  of  potassa  in  dram  doses,  three  times  a 
day  in  feed,  may,  in  a  very  few  cases,  give  some  temporary  benefit. 
Usually  the  disease  progresses  steadily  until  it  proves  fatal. 

NEURITIS— INFLAMMATION   OF  A  NERVE. 

This  is  caused  by  a  bruise  or  wound  of  a  nerve,  or  to  strangulation 
in  a  ligature  when  it  is  included  in  the  ligation  of  an  artery.  Tbe 
changes  in  an  inflamed  nerve  are  an  enlargement,  reddening  of  the 
nerve  sheath,  spots  of  extra vasated  blood,  and  sometimes  an  infiltration 
of  serum  mixed  with  pus. 

Symptoms. — Acute  pain  of  the  parts  supplied  by  the  nerve,  and  absence 
of  swelling  or  increased  heat  of  the  part. 

Treatment.— B-yDodermiG  injections  of  from  3  to  5  grains  of  morphia 
to  relieve  pain,  hot  fomentations,  and  rest.  If  it  is  due  to  an  inclusion 
of  a  ligature,  the  nerve  should  be  divided  above  and  below  the  ligature. 


209 

NEUROMA — TUMOR  OF  A  NEKVE. 

Neuroma  may  be  from  enlargementof  the  end  of  a  divided  nerve,  or  da© 
to  fibrous  degeneration  of  a  nerve  which  has  been  bruised  or  wounded. 
Its  most  frequent  occurrence  is  found  after  the  operation  of  neurotomy 
for  foot  lameness,  and  it  may  appear  only  after  the  lapse  of  months, 
or  even  years.  Neuroma  usually  develop  within  the  sheath  of  the  nerve 
with  or  without  implicating  the  nerve  fibers.  They  are  oval,  running 
lengthwise  with  the  direction  of  the  nerve. 

Symptoms. — Pain  of  the  atfected  limb  or  part  is  manifested,  more  es- 
pecially after  resting  awhile,  and  when  pressure  is  made  upon  the 
tumor  it  causes  extreme  suffering. 

Trentment — Excision  of  the  tumor,  including  part  of  the  nerve  above 
and  below,  and  then  treat  it  like  any  other  simple  wound. 

INJURY   TO   NERVES. 

These  may  consist  in  wounding,  bruising,  laceration,  stretching,  com- 
pression, etc.  The  symptoms  which  are  produced  will  depend  upoa 
the  extent,  seat,  and  character  of  the  injury.  Recovery  may  quickly 
take  place,  or  it  may  lead  to  neuritis,  neuroma,  or  spinal  or  cerebral  irri- 
tation, which  may  result  in  tetanus,  paralysis,  and  other  serious  de- 
rangements. In  all  diseases,  whether  produced  by  some  form  of  ex- 
ternal violence  or  intrinsic  causes,  the  nerves  are  necessarily  involved, 
and  sometimes  it  is  to  a  primary  injurj^  of  them  that  the  principal  fault 
in  movement  or  change  of  nutrition  of  a  part  is  due.  It  is  often  diffi- 
cult or  impossible  to  discover  that  an  injury  to  a  nerve  has  been  in- 
flicted, but  whenever  this  is  possible  it  may  enable  us  to  remedy  that 
which  otherwise  would  result  in  permanent  evil.  Treatment  should 
consist  in  relieving  compression,  in  hot  fomentations,  the  api)licatiott 
of  anodyne  liniments,  excision  of  the  injured  part,  and  rest. 

CEREBROSPINAL    MENINGITIS. 

This  may  occur  sporadically  as  an  encephalitis,  with  implications  of 
the  spinal  cord  and  its  meninges.  Usually,  however,  it  appears  as  aB 
enzooty  in  a  stable,  city,  or  farming  district,  not  infrequently  extend- 
ing long  distances  in  certain  well-defined  lines,  along  rivers,  valleys, 
or  along  ridges  and  mountains.  For  this  reason  the  enzootic  cerebro- 
spinal meningitis  has  been  attributed  by  some  veterinarians  to  atmos- 
pheric influences.  The  first  written  history  we  have  of  this  disease  was 
published  about  thirty  years  ago  by  Dr.  Isaiah  Michener,  of  Carners- 
villo.  Pa.,  in  a  pamphlet  entitled  "  Paralysis  of  the  Par-Vagum."  Sev- 
eral years  later  Prof.  A.  Large,  of  Brooklyn,  IST.  Y.,  gave  it  the  name  of 
"  cerebro-spinal  meningitis  "  on  account  of  its  similarity  to  that  disease 
in  the  human  family.  Dr.  J.  C.  Michener,  of  Colmar,  Pa.,  in  1882, 
suggested  the  name  of  "  Fungosus  Toxicum  Paralyticus,"  in  view  of 
the  exciting  cause  being  found  in  foods  undergoing  fermentation.  la 
1103  J 14 


210 

England  a  similar  disease  has  been  called  "  grass  staggers,"  due  to 
eating  rye  grass  when  it  is  ripening  or  when  it  is  cut  and  eaten  wbile 
it  is  heating  and  undergoing  fermentation.  In  eastern  Pennsylvania 
it  was  formerly  known  by  the  name  of  "  putrid  sore  throat "  and 
"  choking  distemj)er."  A  disease  similar  in  many  respects,  which  is 
very  prevalent  in  Virginia,  especially  along  the  eastern  border,  is  com- 
monly known  by  the  name  of  "  blind  staggers,"  and  in  many  of  the 
southern  States  this  has  been  attributed  to  the  consumption  of  worm- 
eaten  corn.  Professor  Large  attributed  the  cause  of  the  disease  to  a 
lack  of  sanitary  conditions,  poisonous  gases,  or  emanations  depending 
upon  defective  sewerage  in  cities,  defective  drainage  on  lauds  in  the 
country,  and  deficient  stable  ventilation. 

These  reputed  causes,  however,  are  inadequate  to  account  for  so-called 
enzootic  or  epidemic  cerebro-spinal  meningitis.  It  frequently  proves  as 
fatal  on  the  hills  and  table-lands  of  Hunterdon  County,  isT.  J.,  Bucks, 
Montgomery,  Lehigh,  and  Northampton  Counties,  Pa.,  as  it  does  in  the 
dark,  damp,  illy  ventilated  stables  in  New  York  or  Philadelphia.  It 
attacks  animals  which  have  been  running  at  pasture,  where  drainage 
has  been  perfect,  as  well  as  animals  which  have  been  stabled  and  kept 
on  dry  food,  regardless  of  variation  in  any  appreciable  sanitary  condi- 
tion. It  afi'ects  horses  of  all  ages  and  both  sexes ;  temperament  or  con- 
dition does  not  alter  their  susceptibility.  Mules  are  attacked  as  well 
as  horses,  and  the  mortality  is  equally  as  great.  There  is,  however,  a 
variable  severity  of  symptoms  and  degree  of  fatality  in  different  out- 
breaks. 

That  there  is  some  specific  cause  which  induces  this  disease  is  cer- 
tain, for  it  is  neither  contagious  nor  infectious.  Personally,  I  believe 
the  cause  is  connected  with  the  food,  either  developed  in  it  through 
some  fermentative  process  or  upon  it  in  the  form  of  one  of  the  many 
parasitic  fungi  which  grow  on  plants,  grains,  and  vegetation.  That 
these,  when  they  are  consumed  at  certain  stages  of  their  development, 
make  a  poisonous  impression  upon  the  brain  and  ultimately  induce 
structural  changes  is  shown,  I  think,  by  the  history  of  the  outbreaks 
wherever  they  can  be  traced.  In  manj-  instances  the  outbreak  of  the 
disease  has  been  simultaneously  witnessed  where  brewers'  grains,  oats, 
and  hay  have  been  fed,  which  could  be  traced  from  i)laceto  place,  from 
one  diseased  center  to  another.  That  they  were  the  carriers,  if  not 
the  prime  factors,  can  not  be  denied. 

Symptoms. — The  symi)toms  which  typify  sporadic  or  epidemic  cerebro- 
spinal meningitis  in  man  are  seldom  witnessed  in  equal  distinctness 
among  horses,  viz :  excessive  pain,  high  fever,  and  early  muscular 
rigidity.  In  the  recognition  of  the  severity  of  the  attack  we  may  divide 
the  symptoms  into  three  grades.  In  the  most  rapidly  fatal  attacks,  the 
animal  may  first  indicate  it  by  weak,  staggering  gate,  partial  or  total 
inability  to  swallow  solids  or  liquids,  impairment  of  eyesight ;  twitch- 
ing of  the  muscles,  and  slight  cramps  may  be  observed.     This  is  soon 


211 

followed  by  a  paralysis  of  the  whole  body, inability  to  stand,  delirium  in 
which  the  animal  sometimes  goes  through  a  series  of  automatic  move- 
ments as  if  trotting  or  running;  the  delirium  may  become  very  violent 
and  the  animal  in  his  unconsciousness  bruise  his  head  in  his  struggles 
very  seriously,  but  usually  a  deep  coma  renders  him  quiet  until  he  expires. 
Death  in  these  cases  usually  takes  place  in  from  four  to  twenty-four 
hours  from  the  time  the  first  symptoms  became  manifest.  The  pulse  is 
variable  during  the  progress  of  tlie  disease;  it  may  be  almost  imper- 
ceptible at  times,  and  then  again  very  rapid  and  irregular ;  the  res- 
pirations generally  are  quick  and  catching.  When  attacked  in  this 
rapidly  fatal  form  we  may  be  able  only  to  distinguish  it  from  encepha- 
litis when  other  animals  in  the  same  stable  or  neighborhood  are  simi- 
larly aflFected.  In  the  next  form  in  which  it  may  develop,  it  first  be- 
comes manifest  by  a  difficulty  in  swallowing  and  slowness  in  mastica- 
tion, and  a  weakness  which  may  be  first  noticed  in  the  strength  of  the 
tail ;  the  animal  will  be  unable  to  switch  it  or  to  offer  resistance  when 
we  bend  it  up  over  the  croup.  The  pulse  is  often  a  little  slower  than 
normal.  There  is  no  evidence  of  pain  ;  the  respirations  are  unchanged, 
and  the  temperature  little  less  than  normal  ;  the  bowels  may  be  some- 
what constipated.  These  symptoms  may  remain  unchanged  for  two  or 
three  days  and  then  gradual  improvement  take  place,  or  the  power  to 
swallow  may  become  entirely  lost  and  the  weakness  and  uncertainty 
in  gait  more  and  more  perceptible ;  then  sleepiness  or  coma  may  ap- 
pear;  the  pulse  becomes  depressed,  slow  and  weak,  the  breathing  ster- 
terous,  and  paroxysms  of  delirium  develop,  with  inability  to  stand,  and 
some  rigidity  of  the  spinal  muscles  or  partial  cramp  of  the  neck  and 
jaws.  In  such  cases  death  may  occur  in  from  six  to  ten  days  from  the 
commencement  of  the  attack.  In  many  cases  there  is  no  evidence  of 
pain,  spasm,  or  fever  at  any  time  during  the  progress  of  the  disease, 
and  finally  profound  coma  develops  and  death  follows,  painless  and 
without  a  struggle. 

In  the  last  or  mildest  form,  the  inability  of  voluntary  control  of  the 
limbs  becomes  but  slightly  marked,  the  power  of  swallowing  never  en- 
tirely lost,  and  the  animal  has  no  fever,  pain,  or  unconscious  movements. 
Generally  the  animal  will  begin  to  improve  about  the  fourth  day  and 
recover. 

In  a  few  cases  the  spinal  symptoms,  manifested  by  paraplegia,  may 
be  the  most  prominent  symptoms  ;  in  others  they  may  be  altogether  ab- 
sent and  the  main  symptoms  be  difficulty  in  mastication  and  swallow- 
ing; rarely  it  may  affect  one  limb  only.  In  all  cases  where  coma  re- 
mains absent  for  six  or  seven  days  the  animal  is  likely  to  recover. 
When  changes  toward  recovery  take  place,  the  symptoms  usually  leave 
in  the  reverse  order  in  which  they  developed,  but  local  paralysis  may 
remain  for  some  time,  rarely  persistent. 

One  attack  does  not  give  immunity,  for  it  may  recur  at  some  later 
time  and  prove  fatal.  Horses  have  been  known  to  pass  through  three 
attacks,  being  affected  for  a  week  or  longer  each  time. 


212 

Treatment. — Ta  the  worst  class  of  cases  treatmeut  is  very  seldom 
successful,  and  it  is  dangerous  to  attempt  the  admiuistratioii  of  medi- 
cine by  tbe  mouth,  on  account  of  the  inability  of  the  animal  to  swallow. 
Cold  shower  baths  may  possibly  induce  revulsive  action  in  connection 
with  stimulants  per  rectum,  4  to  6  ounces  of  whisky  in  2  pints  of  milk; 
the  inhalation  of  ammonia  vapor  from  a  sponge  saturated  with  dilute 
aqua  ammonia  may  arouse  consciousness 

In  the  second  class  of  cases  the  treatment  recommended  by  Professor 
Large  consists  in  giving  a  cathartic  composed  of  1  ounce  of  aloes  and 
the  administration  of  1  to  2  drams  of  the  solid  extract  of  belladonna, 
alternated  every  three  hours  with  30  drops  of  tincture  of  aconite  root, 
and  the  application  of  blisters  to  the  neck,  spine,  and  throat.  When 
the  animal  is  unable  to  swallow,  oue-fourth-graiu  doses  of  sulphate  of 
atropia  may  be  injected  under  the  skin  every  four,  six,  or  eight  hours, 
as  the  ease  may  demand.  The  atropia  is  a  heart  stimulant,  increases 
capillary  circulation,  and  quiets  pain  and  excitability.  This  treatment 
has  been  followed  by  very  gratifying  results  in  the  hands  of  Professor 
Large  and  others.  VVheu  the  most  ])rominent  symptoms  abate  give 
such  food  as  they  may  be  able  to  eat,  keep  fresh,  cool  water  constantly 
before  them,  support  them  in  slings  if  necessary ;  clean  stabling  and 
plenty  of  fresh  air  are  of  the  utmost  importance. 

Pathology. — Post  mortem  examination  reveals  more  or  less  congestion 
of  the  blood  vessels  at  the  base  of  the  brain,  effusion  in  the  ventricles 
and  in  the  subarachnoid  space  both  in  the  cranial  and  the  spinal  cavi- 
ties. Plastic  exudation  is  often  found  adherent  to  the  pia  mater  of  the 
brain,  anterior  part  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  in  the  region  of  the  loins. 
The  brain  and  cord  appear  softened  in  some  cases  where  the  greatest 
evidence  of  inflammatory  action  existed. 

Hygienic  measures  needful— Whenever  this  disease  appears  in  a  stable 
all  the  animals  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  possible.  They  should 
be  provided  with  clean,  well-ventilated,  and  well-drained  stables,  and 
each  animal  should  receive  1  dram  of  the  extract  or  half  an  ounce  of 
the  tincture  of  belladonna  twice  a  day  for  several  days.  The  abandoned 
stable  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed  from  all  waste  matters,  receive  a 
coat  of  whitewash  containing  4  ounces  of  carbolic  acid  to  the  gallon, 
and  should  have  time  to  dry  thoroughly  before  the  horses  are  replaced* 
A  complete  change  of  food  is  of  the  very  greatest  importance,  on  ac- 
count of  the  belief  that  the  cai>se  resides  in  diseased  grain,  hay,  and 
grass. 

TETANUS — LOCK-JAW- 

This  disease  is  characterized  by  spasms  affecting  the  muscles  of  the 
face,  neck,  body,  and  limbs,  of  all  the  muscles  supplied  by  the  cerebro- 
spinal nerves.  The  spasms  or  muscular  contractions  are  rigid  and  per- 
sistent, yet  mixed  with  occasional  more  inter se  coutraciions  of  convul- 
sive violence.' 


213 

Causes. — The  causes  are  classified  under  two  beads,  traumatic  where 
it  is  the  result  of  injury,  and  idiopathic  where  it  is  due  to  other  causes 
than  injuries,  such  as  cold  and  damp,  excessive  fright,  nervous  exhaust- 
ion from  overwork,  chronic  irritation  caused  by  worms  in  the  intestines, 
etc.  In  the  majority  of  instances  the  cause  of  tetanus  can  be  traced 
to  wounds,  especially  pricks  or  wounds  of  the  feet  or  of  tendinous 
structiires.  It  sometimes  follows  castration,  docking,  the  introduction 
of  setons,  inclusion  of  a  nerve  in  a  ligature,  etc.  It  may  come  on  a 
long  time  after  the  wound  is  healed,  three  or  four  months.  In  some 
countries  where  tetanus  appears  to  be  enzootic  the  presumption  is  that 
it  is  due  to  a  specific  germ.  Horses  with  a  nervous,  excitable  disposition 
are  more  i^redisposed  than  those  of  a  more  sluggish  nature.  Stallions 
are  more  subject  to  develop  tetanus  as  the  result  of  wounds  than  geld- 
ings, and  geldings  more  than  mares. 

Synqytoms. — The  attacks  may  be  acute  or  subacute.  In  an  acute  at- 
tack the  animal  usually  dies  within  four  days.  The  first  symptoms 
which  attract  the  attention  of  the  owner  is  difficulty  in  chewing  and 
swallowing,  an  extension  of  the  head  and  protrusion  over  the  inner 
part  of  the  eye  of  themembrana  nictitans  or  haw.  An  examination  of 
the  mouth  will  reveal  an  inability  to  open  the  jaws  to  their  full  extent, 
and  the  endeavor  to  do  so  will  produce  great  nervous  excitability  and 
increased  spasm  of  the  muscles  of  the  jaw  and  neck.  The  muscles  of 
the  neck  and  along  the  spine  become  rigid  and  the  legs  are  moved  in  a 
stiff  manner.  The  slightest  noise  or  disturbance  throws  the  animal 
into  increased  spasm  of  all  the  affected  muscles.  The  tail  is  usually 
elevated  and  held  immovable;  the  bowels  become  constipated  early  in 
the  attack.  The  temperature  and  pulse  are  not  much  changed.  These 
symptoms  in  the  acute  type  become  rapidly  aggravated  until  all  the 
muscles  are  rigid — in  a  state  of  tonic  spasm — with  a  continuous  tremor 
running  through  them  ;  a  cold  perspiration  breaks  out  on  the  body ; 
the  breathing  becomes  i^ainful  from  the  spasm  of  the  muscles  used  in 
respiration  ;  the  jaws  are  completely  set,  eye-balls  retracted,  lijis drawn 
tightly  over  the  teeth,  nostrils  dilated,  and  the  animal  presents  a  pict- 
ure of  the  most  extreme  agony  until  death  relieves  him.  The  pulse, 
which  at  first  was  not  much  affected,  will  become  quick  and  hard,  or 
small  and  thready  when  the  spasm  affects  the  muscles  of  the  heart. 
In  the  subacute  cases  the  jaws  may  never  become  entirely  locked;  the 
nervous  excitability  and  rigidity  of  muscles  are  not  so  great.  There  is, 
however,  always  some  stiffness  of  the  neck  or  spine  manifest  in  turn- 
ing ;  the  haw  is  turned  over  the  eye-ball  when  tbe  nose  is  elevated.  It 
is  not  uncommon  for  owners  to  continue  such  animals  at  their  work  for 
several  days  after  the  first  symptoms  have  been  observed.  All  the 
symptoms  may  gradually  increase  in  severity  for  a  period  of  ten  days, 
and  then  gradually  diminish  under  judicious  treatment,  or  they  may 
reach  the  stage  wherein  all  the  characters  of  acute  tetanus  become  de- 
veloped.    In  some  cases,  however,  we  find  the  muscular  crami^s  almost 


214 

solely  confined  to  the  head  or  face,  perhaps  involving  those  of  the  neck. 
In  such  cases  we  have  complete  trismus — lock  jaw — and  all  the  head 
symptoms  are  acutely  developed.  On  the  contrary,  we  may  find  the 
head  almost  exempt  in  some  cases,  and  have  the  body  and  limbs  per- 
fectly rigid  and  incapable  of  movement  without  falling. 

Tetanus  may  possibly  be  confounded  with  spinal  meningitis,  but  the 
character  of  the  spasm-locked  jaw,  retraction  of  the  eyeballs,  the  diffi- 
culty in  swallowing  due  to  spasms  of  the  muscles  of  the  pharynx,  and, 
above  all,  the  absence  of  paralysis,  should  serve  to  make  the  distinction. 

Treatment. — The  animal  should  be  placed  in  a  box-stall  without  bed- 
ding, as  far  away  as  possible  from  other  horses.  If  in  a  country  district, 
the  animal  should  be  put  into  an  outbuilding  or  shed,  where  the  noise  of 
other  animals  will  not  reach  him  ;  if  the  place  is  moderately  dark  it  is 
all  the  better;  in  fly  time  he  should  be  covered  with  a  light  sheet.  The 
attendant  must  be  very  careful  and  quiet  about  him,  to  prevent  all  un- 
necessary excitement  and  increase  of  spasm. 

A  cathartic,  comjjosed  of  Barbadoes  aloes,  6  to  8  drams,  with  which 
may  be  mixed  2  drams  of  the  solid  extract  of  belladonna,  should  be 
given  at  once.  This  is  best  given  in  a  ball  form  ;  if,  however,  the  ani- 
mal is  greatly  excited  by  the  attempt  or  can  not  swallow,  the  ball  may 
be  dissolved  in  2  ounces  of  olive  oil  and  thrown  on  the  back  of  the 
tongue  with  a  syringe.  If  the  jaws  are  set,  or  nearly  so,  an  attempt  to 
administer  medicine  by  the  mouth  should  not  be  made.  In  such  cases 
one  quarter  of  a  grain  of  atropia,  with  5  grains  of  sulphate  of  morphia, 
should  be  dissolved  in  1  dram  of  pure  water  and  injected  under  the  skin. 
This  should  be  repeated  sufficiently  often  to  keep  the  animal  continually 
under  its  effect.  This  will  usually  mitigate  the  severity  of  the  spasmodic 
contraction  of  the  aifected  muscles  and  lessen  sensibility  to  pain.  Good 
results  may  be  obtained  sometimes  by  the  injection  per  rectum  of  the 
fluid  extract  of  belladonna  and  of  cannabis  indica,  of  each  1  dram,  every 
four  or  SIX  hours.  This  may  be  diluted  with  a  quart  of  milk.  When 
the  anima!  is  unable  to  shallow  liquids,  oat-meal  gruel  and  milk  should 
be  given  by  injection  i^er  rectum  to  sustain  the  strength  of  the  animal. 
A  pailful  of  cool  water  should  be  constantly  before  him,  placed  high 
enough  for  him  to  reach  it  without  special  effort;  even  if  he  can  not 
drink,  the  laving  of  the  mouth  is  refreshing.  Excellent  success  fre- 
quently may  be  obtained  by  clothing  the  upper  part  of  the  head,  the 
neck,  and  greater  part  of  the  body  in  woolen  blankets  kept  saturated 
with  very  warm  water.  This  treatment  should  be  continued  for  six  or 
eight  hours  at  a  time.  It  often  relaxes  the  cramped  muscles  and  gives 
them  rest  and  the  animal  almost  entire  freedom  from  pain ;  but  it 
should  be  used  every  day  until  the  acute  spasms  have  permanently 
subsided  in  order  to  be  of  any  lasting  benefit. 

If  the  cause  is  due  to  the  inclusion  of  a  nerve  in  a  ligature,  the  divi- 
sion of  the  nerve  becomes  necessary.  When  it  is  due  to  a  wound  all 
foreign  substances  should  be  searched  for  and  be  removed;  if  from  a 


215 

wound  which  has  healed  an  excision  of  the  cicatrix  may  be  beneficial. 
In  all  cases  it  is  not  uncommon  to  have  a  partial  recovery  followed  by 
relapse  when  the  animal  becomes  excited  from  any  cause. 

RABIES — HYDROPHOBIA — MADNESS. 

This  disease  does  not  arise  spontaneously  among  horses,  but  is  the  re- 
sult of  a  bite  from  a  rabid  animal— generally  a  dog  or  cat.  The  devel- 
opment of  the  disease  follows  the  bite  in  from  three  weeks  to  three 
mouths — very  rarely  in  twelve  or  fourteen  days. 

Symptoms. — The  first  manifestation  of  the  development  of  this  disease 
may  be  an  increased  excitability  and  viciousness;  very  sbght  noises  or 
the  approach  of  a  person  incites  the  animal  to  kick,  strike,  or  bite  at 
any  object  near  him.  Very  often  the  horse  will  bite  his  own  limbs  or 
sides,  lacerating  the  flesh  and  tearing  the  skin.  The  eyes  appear  star- 
in '^,  bloodshot :  the  ears  are  on  the  alert  to  catch  all  sounds  :  the  head 
is  held  erect.  In  some  cases  the  animal  will  continually  rub  and  bite 
the  locality  of  the  wound  inflicted  by  the  rabid  animal.  This  symptom 
may  precede  all  others.  Generally  the  bowels  become  constipated  and 
he  makes  frequent  attempts  at  urination,  which  is  painful  and  the  urine 
very  dark  colored.  The  furious  symptoms  appear  in  paroxysms;  at 
other  times  the  animal  may  eat  and  drink,  although  swallowing  ap- 
pears to  become  painful  towards  the  latter  stage  of  the  disease,  and 
may  cause  renewed  paroxysms.  The  muscles  of  the  limbs  or  back  may 
be  subject  to  intermittent  spasms,  or  spasmodic  tremors ;  finally  the 
hind  limbs  become  paralyzed,  breathing  very  difiicult,  and  convulsions 
supervene,  followed  by  death.  The  pulse  and  respirations  are  increased 
in  frequency  from  the  outset  of  the  attack.  Rabies  may  possibly  be 
mistaken  for  tetanus.  In  the  latter  disease  we  find  tonic  spasms  of  the 
muscles  of  the  jaws,  or  sLitfness  of  the  neck  or  back  very  early  in  the 
attack,  and  evidence  of  viciousness  is  absent. 

Treatment. — As  soon  as  the  true  nature  of  the  disease  is  ascertained 
the  animal  should  be  killed. 

Prevention.— When  a  horse  is  known  to  have  been  bitten  by  a  rabid 
animal  immediate  cauterization  of  the  wound  with  a  red-hot  iron  may 
possibly  destroy  the  virus  before  absorption  of  it  takes  place. 

PLUMBISM — LEAD-POISONma. 

This  disease  is  not  of  frequent  occurrence.  It  may  be  due  to  habitu- 
ally drinking  water  which  has  been  standing  in  leaden  conductors  or 
in  old  paint  barrels,  etc.  It  has  been  met  with  in  enzootic  form  near 
smelting  works,  where,  by  the  fumes  arising  from  such  works,  lead  in 
the  form  of  oxide,  carbonate,  or  sulphate  was  deposited  on  the  grass 
and  herbage  which  the  horses  ate. 

Symptoms. — Lead  poisoning  produces  derangement  of  the  functions 
of  digestion  and  locomotion,  or  it  may  affect  the  lungs  principally.     In 


216 

whatever  system  of  organs  the  lead  is  deposited  mostly  there  will  we 
have  the  symptoms  of  nervous  debility  most  manifest.  If  in  the  lungs 
the  breathing  becomes  difiQcult  aud  the  animal  gets  out  of  breath  very 
quickly  when  he  is  compelled  to  run.  Roaring  also  is  very  frequently 
a  symptom  of  lead-poisoning.  When  it  affects  the  stomach  the  animal 
gradually  falls  away  in  flesh,  the  hair  becouies  rough,  the  skin  tight, 
and  colicky  symptoms  develop.  When  the  deposit  is  j^rincipally  in  the 
muscles  partial  or  complete  paralysis  gradually  develops.  When  large 
quantities  of  lead  have  been  taken  in  and  absorbed,  symptoms  resem- 
bling epilepsy  may  result,  or  coma  aud  delirium  develop  and  prove 
fatal.  In  lead-poisoning  there  is  seldom  any  increase  in  temperature. 
A  blue  line  forms  along  the  gums  of  the  front  teeth,  aud  the  breath 
assumes  a  peculiar  offensive  odor.  Lead  can  always  be  detected  in  the 
urine  by  chemical  tests. 

Treatment. — The  administration  of  2-dram  doses  of  iodide  of  potassa, 
three  times  a  day.  This  will  form  iodide  of  lead  in  the  system,  which 
is  rapidly  excret^ed  by  the  kidneys.  If  much  muscular  weakness  or 
paralysis  is  present,  sulphate  of  iron  in  dram  doses,  and  strychnia  in  2- 
grain  doses  may  be  given  twice  a  day.  In  all  cases  of  suspected  lead- 
poisoning  all  utensils  which  have  entered  into  the  supply  of  feed  or 
water  should  be  examined  for  the  piesence  of  soluble  lead.  If  it  occurs 
near  lead  works  great  care  must  be  given  to  the  supply  of  uncoutam- 
iuated  fodder,  etc. 

UREMIA. 

Urfemic  poisoning  may  affect  the  brain  in  nephritis,  acute  albuminu- 
ria, or  when,  from  any  cause,  the  functions  of  the  kidneys  become  im- 
paired or  suppressed  aud  urea  (a  natural  product)  is  no  longer  elimi- 
nated from  these  organs,  causing  it  to  accumulate  in  the  system  and  give 
rise  to  uraemic  poisoning. 

Symptoms. — Urtemic  poisoning  is  usually  preceded  by  dropsy  of  the 
limbs  or  abdomen  ;  a  peculiar  fetid  breath  is  often  noticed  ;  then  drow- 
siness, attacks  of  diarrhea,  and  general  debility  ensue.  Suddenly  ex- 
treme stupor  or  coma  develops  ;  the  surface  of  the  body  becomes  cold  ; 
the  pupils  are  insensible  to  light ;  the  pulse  slow  and  intermitting ;  the 
breathing  labored,  and  death  su[)ervenes.  The  temperature  through- 
out the  disease  is  seldom  increased,  unless  the  disease  becomes  compli- 
cated with  acute  inflammatory  disease  of  the  brain  or  respiratory 
organs,  which  often  occur  as  a  result  of  the  urea  in  the  circulation. 
Albumen  and  tube  casts  may  frequently  be  found  in  the  urine.  The 
disease  almost  invariably  proves  fatal. 

Treatment. — This  must  be  directed  to  a  removal  of  the  cause.  (See 
''Diseases  of  the  Kiduey.") 

ELECTRIC   SHOCK. 

Electric  shock,  from  coming  in  contact  with  electric  wires,  is  becom- 
ing a  matter  of  rather  frequent  occurrence,  and  has  a  similar  effect  upon 


217 

the  animal  system  to  a  shock  from  lightning.  Two  degrees  of  electric 
or  lightning  shock  may  be  observed,  one  producing  temporary  contrac- 
tion of  muscles  and  insensibility,  from  which  recovery  is  possible,  the 
other  killing  directly,  by  producing  a  condition  of  nervous  and  general 
insensibility.  In  shocks  which  are  not  immediately  fatal  the  animal  is 
usually  insensible,  the  respiration  slow,  labored  or  gasping,  the  pulse 
slow,  feeble,  and  irregular,  and  the  pupils  dilated  and  not  sensitive,  or 
they  may  be  contracted  and  sensitive.  The  temi)erature  is  lowered. 
There  may  be  a  tendency  to  convulsions  or  spasms.  The  predominat- 
ing symptoms  are  extreme  cardiac  and  respiratory  depression. 

Treatment. — Sulphate  of  atropia  should  be  given  hypodermically  in 
one  quarter  grain  doses  every  hour  or  two  hours  until  the  heart  beats 
are  invigorated,  the  number  and  fullness  of  the  respirations  increased, 
and  consciousness  returns.  Stimulating  injections  per  rectum  may  also 
be  useful  in  arousing  the  circulation  3  for  this  purpose  whisky  or  am- 
monia water  may  be  used. 


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DISEASES  OF  THE  HEART  AND  BLOODVESSELS. 


By  M.   R.  TRUMBOWER,  V.  S.,  Sterling,  III. 


REMARKS   ON  THE   ANATOMY   AND   PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE   HEART   AND 

BLOOD  VESSELS. 

The  heart  is  a  hollow,  involuntary,  muscular  organ,  situated  as  nearly 
as  possible  in  the  center  of  the  chest,  though  its  impulse  is  felt  on  the 
left  side  from  the  rotary  movement  of  the  organ  in  action.  It  is  cone- 
shaped,  with  the  base  upwards;  the  apex  points  downwards,  backwards, 
and  to  the  left  side.  It  extends  from  about  the  third  to  the  sixth  ribs 
inclusive.  The  average  weight  is  about  6  J  pounds.  In  horses  used  for 
speed  the  heart  is  relatively  larger,  according  to  the  weight  of  the  ani- 
mal, than  in  horses  used  for  slow  work.  It  is  suspended  from  the  spine 
by  the  large  blood-vessels,  and  held  in  position  below  by  the  attach- 
ment of  the  pericardium  to  the  sternum.  It  is  inclosed  in  a  sac,  the 
pericardium,  which  is  composed  of  a  dense,  fibrous,  membrane,  lined  by 
a  delicate  serous  membrane,  which  is  reflected  over  the  heart;  the  inner 
layer  is  firmly  adherent  to  the  heart,  the  outer  to  the  fibrous  sac,  and 
there  is  an  intervening  space  known  as  the  pericardial  space,  in  which 
a  small  amount  of  serum — a  thiu  translucent  liquid — is  present  con- 
stantly. 

The  heart  is  divided  by  a  shallow  fissure  into  a  right  and  left  side ; 
each  of  these  is  again  subdivided  by  a  transverse  partition  into  two 
compartments,  which  communicate.  Thus  there  are  four  cardiac  cavi- 
ties, the  superior  or  upper  ones  called  the  auricles,  the  inferior  or 
lower  ones  the  ventricles.  These  divisions  are  marked  on  the  outside 
by  grooves,  which  contain  the  cardiac  blood-vessels,  and  are  generally 
filled  with  fat. 

The  right  side  of  the  heart  may  be  called  the  venous,  the  left  the  ar- 
terial side,  named  from  the  kind  of  blood  which  passes  through  them. 
The  auricles  are  thin- walled  cavities  placed  at  the  base,  and  are  con- 
nected with  the  great  veins,  the  vena  cavse  and  pulmonary  veins,  through 
which  they  receive  blood  from  all  parts  of  the  body.  The  auricles  com- 
municate with  the  ventricles  each  by  a  large  aperture,  the  auriculo- 
ventricular  orifice,  which  is  furnished  with  a  remarkable  mechanism  of 

219 


220 

valves,  allowing  the  transmission  of  blood  from  the  auricles  into  the 
ventricles,  but  preventing  a  reverse  course.  The  ventricles  are  thick- 
walled  cavities,  forming  the  more  massive  portion  of  the  heart  towards 
the  apex.  They  are  separated  by  a  partition,  and  are  connected  with 
the  great  arteries,  the  pulmonary  artery  and  the  aorta,  by  which  they 
send  blood  to  all  parts  of  the  body.  At  the  mouth  of  the  aorta  and  at 
the  mouth  of  the  pulmonary  artery  is  au  arrangement  of  valves  in  each 
case  which  prevents  the  reflux  of  blood  into  the  ventricles.  The  auri- 
culo-ventricular  valves  in  the  left  side  are  composed  of  two  flaps,  hence 
it  is  called  the  bicuspid  valve.  In  the  right  side  this  valve  has  three 
flaps,  and  is  called  the  tricuspid  valve.  The  flaps  which  form  these 
valves  are  connected  with  a  tendinous  ring  between  the  auricles  and 
ventricles  ;  and  each  flap  of  the  auriculo-ventricular  valves  is  supplied 
with  tendinous  cords,  which  are  attached  to  the  free  margin  and  under 
surface,  so  as  to  keep  the  valves  tense  when  closed ;  a  condition  which 
is  produced  by  the  shortening  of  muscular  pillars  with  which  the 
cords  are  connected.  The  arterial  openings,  both  on  the  right  and 
on  the  left  side,  are  provided  with  three-flapped  semi-lunar  shaped 
valves,  to  prevent  the  regurgitation  of  blood  when  the  ventricles  con- 
tract. The  veins  emptying  into  the  auricles  are  not  capable  of  closure, 
but  the  posterior  vena  cava  has  an  imperfect  valve  at  its  aperture. 

The  inner  surface  of  the  heart  is  lined  by  a  serous  membrane,  the 
endocardium,  which  is  smooth  and  firmly  adherent  to  the  muscular 
structure  of  the  heart.  This  membrane  is  continuous  with  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  blood  vessels,  and  it  enters  into  the  formation  of  the 
valves. 

The  circulation  through  the  heart  is  as  follows :  The  venous  blood  is 
carried  into  the  right  auricle  by  the  anterior  and  posterior  venae  cavae. 
It  then  passes  through  the  right  auriculo  ventricular  opening  into  the 
right  ventricle,  thence  through  the  pulmonary  artery  to  the  lungs.  It 
returns  by  the  pulmonary  veins  to  the  left  auricle,  then  is  forced  through 
the  auriculo- ventricular  opening  into  the  left  ventricle,  which  propels  it 
through  the  aorta  and  its  branches  into  the  system,  the  veins  returning 
it  again  to  the  heart.  The  circulation,  therefore,  is  double,  the  pulmon- 
ary or  lesser  being  performed  by  the  right,  and  the  systemic  or  greater 
by  the  left  side. 

As  the  blood  is  forced  through  the  heart  by  forcible  contractions  of 
its  muscular  walls  it  has  the  action  of  a  force  pump,  and  gives  the  im- 
pulse at  each  beat,  which  we  call  the  pulse — the  dilatation  of  the  arteries 
throughout  the  system.  The  contraction  of  the  auricles  is  quickly  fol- 
lowed by  that  of  the  ventricles,  and  then  a  slight  pause  occurs;  this 
takes  i)lace  in  regular  rythmical  order  during  health. 

The  action  of  the  heart  is  governed  and  maintained  by  the  pneumo-gas- 
tric  nerve  (tenth  pair  of  cranial  nerves) ;  it  is  the  inhibitory  nerve  of  the 
heart,  and  regulates,  slows,  and  governs  its  action.  When  the  nerve  is 
cut  the  heart-beats  increase  rajjidly,  and  in  fact  the  organ  works  without 


221 

control.  When  the  nerve  is  unduly  irritated  the  bold-back  or  inhibitory 
force  is  increased,  and  the  heart  slows  up  in  the  same  measure.  The 
left  cavities  of  the  heart,  the  pulmonary  veins,  and  the  aorta  or  systemic 
artery,  contain  red  or  Horid  blood,  fit  to  circulate  through  the  body. 
The  right  cavities  of  the  heart,  with  the  venae  cavee  or  systemic  veins 
and  pulmonary  artery,  contain  dark  blood,  which  must  be  transmitted 
through  the  lungs  for  renovation. 

The  arteries,  commencing  in  two  great  trunks,  the  aorta  and  the  pul. 
monary  artery,  undergo  division  as  in  the  branching  of  a  tree.  Their 
branches  mostly  come  off  at  acute  angles,  and  are  commonly  of  uni- 
form diameter  in  each  case,  but  successively  diminish  after  and  incon- 
sequence of  division,  and  in  this  manner  gradually  merge  into  the 
capillary  system  of  blood  vessels.  As  a  general  rule,  the  combined  area 
of  the  branches  is  greater  than  that  of  the  vessels  from  which  they 
emanate,  and  hence  the  collective  capacity  of  the  arterial  system  is 
greatest  at  the  capillary  vessels.  The  same  rule  applies  to  the  veins. 
The  effect  of  the  division  of  the  arteries  is  to  make  the  blood  move  more 
slowly  along  their  branches  to  the  capillary  vessels,  and  the  effect  of 
the  union  of  the  branches  of  the  veins  is  to  accelerate  the  speed  of  the 
blood  as  it  returns  from  the  capillary  vessels  to  the  venous  trunks. 

In  the  smaller  vessels  a  frequent  running  together  or  anastoniosls  oc- 
curs. This  admits  of  a  free  communication  between  the  currents  of 
blood,  and  must  tend  to  promote  equability  of  distribution  and  of  press- 
ure, and  to  obviate  the  effects  of  local  interruption.  The  arteries  are 
highly  elastic,  being  extensile  and  retractile  both  in  length  and  breadth. 
During  life  they  are  also  contractile,  being  provided  with  muscular  tis- 
sue. When  cut  across  they  present,  although  empty,  an  open  orifice  j 
the  veins,  on  the  other  hand,  collapse. 

In  most  parts  of  the  body  the  arteries  are  inclosed  in  a  sheath  formed 
of  connective  tissue,  but  are  connected  so  loosely'  that  when  the  vessel 
is  cut  across  its  ends  readily  retract  some  distance  within  the  sheath. 
Independently  of  this  sheath  arteries  are  usually  described  as  being 
formed  of  three  coats,  named,  from  their  relative  j)ositions,  external^ 
middle,  and  internal.  This  applies  to  their  structure  so  far  as  it  is 
discernable  by  the  naked  eye.  The  internal,  serous  or  tunica  intima 
is  the  thinnest,  and  continuous  with  the  lining  membrane  of  the  heart. 
It  is  made  up  of  two  layers,  an  inner,  consisting  of  a  layer  of  epithelial 
scales,  and  an  outer,  transparent,  whitish,  highly-  elastic,  and  perforated. 
The  middle  coat,  tunica  media,  is  elastic,  dense,  and  of  a  yellow  color, 
consisting  of  non-striated  muscular  and  elastic  fibers,  thickest  in  the 
largest  arteries  and  becoming  thinner  in  the  smaller.  In  the  smallest 
vessels  it  is  almost  entirely  m  uscular.  The  external  coat,  tunica  ad- 
ventitia,  is  composed  mainly  of  fine  and  closely- woven  bundles  of  white 
connective  tissue,  which  chiefly  run  diagonally  or  obliquely  round  the 
vessel.  In  this  coat  the  nutrient  vessels,  the  vasa  vasorum,  form  a  cap- 
illary net-work,  from  which  a  few  penetrate  as  far  as  the  muscular  coat. 


222 

The  veins  differ  from  arteries  ia  possessing  thinner  walls,  less  elastic 
and  muscular  tissue,  and  for  the  most  part  a  stronger  tunica  adventitia. 
They  collapse  when  cut  across  or  when  they  are  empty.  The  majority 
of  veins  are  provided  with  valves ;  these  are  folds  of  the  lining  mem- 
brane, strengthened  by  fibrous  tissue.  They  favor  the  course  of  the 
blood  and  prevent  its  reflux.  The  nerves  which  supply  both  the  ar- 
teries and  the  veins  come  from  the  sympathetic  system.  The  smaller 
arteries  terminate  in  the  system  of  minute  vessels,  known  as  the  cap- 
illaiies,  which  are  interposed  between  the  termination  of  the  arteries 
and  the  commencement  of  the  veins.  Their  average  diameter  is  about 
one  three-thousandth  of  an  inch. 

SOUNDS   OF   THE   HEART. 

By  placing  the  ear  behind  the  elbow  against  the  left  side  of  the  chest 
two  distinct  sounds  can  be  heard  at  each  heart-beat  in  health.  The  first 
is  rather  muffled  and  prolonged,  the  second  is  short  and  sudden.  The 
first  is  caused  by  the  contraction  of  the  ventricles,  the  closing  of  the 
auriculo-ventricular  valves,  and  the  forcible  propulsion  of  the  blood  into 
the  arteries;  the  second  follows  immediately,  and  is  due  to  the  reflux 
of  the  blood  just  forced  into  the  arteries,  and  the  sudden  closure  of  the 
valves  which  prevent  its  return  to  the  heart.  In  disease  of  the  heart 
or  valves  these  sounds  are  generally  modified,  or  supplanted  by  others, 
which  vary  so  much  in  character  and  are  so  diflicult  to  describe  that  we 
can  not  consider  them  here  ;  long  and  extensive  experience  is  required 
to  distinguish  them  practically. 

CHARACTERS   OF   THE   PULSE. 

The  circulation  of  the  blood  through  the  heart  is  constant,  and  is 
maintained  by  the  propelling  activity  of  this  organ.  In  the  horse  the 
heart  beats  from  thirty-six  to  forty-six  times  a  minute,  varying  with  the 
disposition,  breed,  and  temperament  of  the  animal.  In  the  foal  the 
pulse  is  about  three  times  as  rapid  as  in  the  adult,  from  six  months  to 
a  year  about  twice  as  quick,  and  in  the  two-year-old  about  one-quarter 
faster.  The  pulse  is  usually  taken  at  the  angle  of  the  jaw,  where  the 
artery  crosses  the  bone,  and  its  force  or  character  is  often  indicative  of 
the  nature  of  the  disease  from  which  an  animal  may  besufl"ering.  The 
pulse,  therefore,  is  named  in  accordance  with  its  character  as  slow,  soft, 
small,  full,  weak,  quick,  hard,  irregular,  intermittent,  venous,  etc. 

Slow  pulse  is  one  where  the  number  of  beats  are  less  than  normal,  and 
is  often  found  in  certain  diseases  of  the  brain. 

Soft  or  compressible  pulse  is  one  where  the  beat  is  rather  weak,  bat  not 
abnormally  rapid.  It  is  often  found  in  debility  due  to  want  of  assimi- 
lation or  proper  nourishment.  When  accompanied  with  fever  or  loss 
of  appetite  it  is  usually  indicative  of  derangement  of  the  digestive 
organs. 


223 

Small  pulse  is  one  where  the  sensation  conveyed  to  the  linger  is  one  of 
lessened  diameter  of  the  artery ;  it  may  be  normal  in  frequency  or 
slightly  increased.     Generally  due  to  eiihaustion  from  worlv  or  disease. 

Full  or  strong  pulse  is  one  which  imparts  a  bounding  sensation  as  if 
from  over  distention  of  the  artery  at  each  heart  beat.  It  is  usually 
increased  in  frequency.  This  character  may  be  felt  immediately  suc- 
ceeding fast  work,  or  in  very  plethoric  horses  wben  slightly  excited. 
Often  it  may  indicate  a  general  systemic  disturbance  or  disease  of  the 
lungs. 

WeaTc  or  feeble  pulse  is  one  which  is  hardly  perceptible.  This  may 
indicate  organic  disease  of  the  heart,  or  denote  general  weakness  from 
loss  of  blood,  prolonged  sickness,  starvation,  etc. 

Quick  or  frequent  pulse  is  one  where  the  heart-beats  are  more  rapid 
than  normal,  without  any  special  change  in  its  character.  It  is  found 
in  the  early  stage  of  nearly  all  inflammatory  diseases. 

Hard  or  wiry  pulse  is  one  which  is  tense,  incompressible,  or  vibrating, 
and  is  always  increased  in  frequency'.  It  usually  denotes  acute  disease 
of  serous  membranes,  such  as  pleuritis,  peritonitis,  meningitis,  etc. 

Irregular  pulse  is  one  in  which  several  pulsations  follow  in  quick  suc- 
cession and  then  a  pause  ensues.  This  may  indicate  disease  of  the 
heart,  or  of  the  nervous  system,  sometimes  observed  in  lingering,  ex- 
hausting diseases. 

Intermittent  pulse  is  one  where  a  beat  is  lost  at  regular  intervals. 
This  is  almost  invariably  an  indication  of  disease  of  the  heart. 

Venous  pulse  may  be  seen  along  the  side  of  the  ueck  in  the  jugular 
furrow,  and  has  the  appearance  of  blood  regurgitating  in  the  vein  at 
each  beat  of  the  heart.  It  usually  denotes  disease  of  the  heart,  or  an 
obstruction  to  the  flow  of  blood  within  the  chest,  from  the  pressureof  a 
tumor,  dropsy,  etc. 

DISEASES   OF   THE   HEART    AND   BLOOD-VESSELS. 

In  considering  diseases  of  the  heart  we  meet  with  many  difiQculties, 
depending  much  upon  the  position  which  this  organ  occupies  in  the 
animal.  The  shoulders  cover  so  much  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the 
chest,  and  often  in  very  heavy  muscled  horses  the  chest  walls  are  so 
thick,  that  a  satisfactory  examination  of  the  heart  caunoi  be  made. 
Diseases  of  the  heart  are  not  uncommon  among  horses;  the  heartand  its 
membranes  are  frequently  involved  in  diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs, 
diseases  of  the  kidneys,  rheumatism,  influenza,  etc.  Some  of  the  dis- 
eases of  this  organ  are  never  suspected  by  the  ordinary  observer 
during  life,  and  are  so  diflQcult  to  diagnose  with  any  degree  of  certainty 
that  we  will  have  to  confine  ourselves  to  a  general  outline,  giving  at-  [ 
tentionto  such  symptoms  as  may  serve  to  lead  to  a  knowledge  of  their 
existence,  with  directions  for  treatment,  care,  etc. 

Nervous  affections  often  produce  prominent  heart  symptoms  by  caus- 
ing functional  disturbance  of  that  organ,  which,  if  removed,  will  leave 


224 

tbe  heart  restored  to  perfect  vigor  and  normal  action.  Organic  changes 
involving  the  heart  or  valves,  however,  usually  grow  worse  and  event- 
ually prove  fatal.  Therefore  it  is  necessary  that  we  arrive  at  an  appre- 
ciation of  the  true  nature  and  causes,  so  that  we  may  be  able  to  form  a 
true  estimate  of  the  possibilities  for  recovery  or  encouragement  for 
medical  treatment. 

Disease  of  the  heart  may  occur  at  any  age,  but  it  is  witnessed  most 
frequently  in  young  horses,  which,  when  being  trained  for  fast  work, 
are  often  subjected  to  excessive  hardship  and  fatigue.  Nervous  or  timid 
animals  also  suffer  from  such  diseases  more  frequently  than  those  of  a 
sluggish  disposition.  Any  cause  which  induces  a  violent  or  sudden 
change  in  the  circulation  may  result  in  injury  to  tbe  heart.  Symptoms 
which  may  frequently  denote  disease  of  the  heart  are  difiQcult  breath- 
ing or  short-windedness,  dropsies  of  the  limbs,  habitual  coldness  of  the 
extremities,  giddiness  or  fainting  attacks,  inability  to  stand  work  al- 
though tbe  general  appearance  would  indicate  strength  and  ability,  etc. 

INFLAMMATORY   DISEASES   OF   THE   HEART. 

This,  will  embrace  myocarditis,  endocarditis,  and  pericarditis. 

MVOCARDITIS — IXFLA.MMATION   OF   THE   MUSCULAR   STRUCTURE   OF   THE   HEART. 

This  is  of  rare  occurrence  without  implication  of  the  endocardium  or 
pericardium.  That  inflammation  of  the  muscular  wallsof  tbe  heart  may 
frequently  exist  to  some  slight  degree,  induced  by  excessive  action,  can 
not  be  doubted.  Post-mortem  examinations  occasionally  reveal  abscess 
and  degeneration  within  the  walls  of  this  organ,  which  were  not  sus- 
pected during  life.  Myocarditis  primarily  involves  the  interstitial  mus- 
cular tissue  and  the  blood  vessels,  and  presents  itself  in  a  sub-acute  or 
chronic  type,  which  often  leads  to  induration  or  bypertropby,  occasion- 
ally to  tbe  formation  of  pus  and  abscess.  It  may  also  lead  to  a  dilata- 
tion of  the  heart  and  rupture. 

Causes. — Over-exertion  or  heart  strain,  influenza,  rheumatism,  pyae- 
mia, extension  of  endocarditis  or  pericarditis,  etc.  Myocarditis  usually 
involves  the  endocardial  membrane  very  early  in  the  attack,  and  devel- 
ops all  the  symptoms  of  endocarditis.  Hence  we  will  consider,  as  most 
distinctive  of  inflammation  of  the  heart,  endocarditis. 

ENDOCARDITIS — INFLAMMATION  OF  THE   LINING  MEMBRANE  OF   THE  HEART,  U8UALLT 

INVOLVING   THE   MUSCULAR   STRUCTURE. 

It  is  frequently  found  in  general  rheumatism,  involving  the  serous 
membrane,  some  of  the  specific  or  zymotic  fevers,  septic  poisoning,  etc. 
Endocarditis  is  a  much  more  frequent  disease  among  horses  than  we 
are  generally  aware,  and  often  gives  rise  to  symptoms  which,  at  first, 
are  obscure  and  unnoticed.  I  have  witnessed  two  enzootics  of  influenza 
in  which  20  per  cent,  of  the  animals  attacked  developed  symptoms  of 


225 

either  endocarditis  or  pericarditis.  A  certaiD  number  of  these  cases 
subsequently  developed  the  condition  known  as  heaves,  or  gradually 
failed  in  strength,  with  recurrence  of  attacks  of  heart  failure  upon  the 
slightest  exertion,  rendering  many  of  them  valueless.  In  th\)  rheumatic 
type  of  influenza  we  may  often  find  the  heart  becoming  involved  in  the 
disease,  in  consequence  of  the  morbid  material  conveyed  through  the 
heart  in  the  blood-stream.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  many  affections,  ia 
even  remote  portions  of  the  body,  may  be  traced  directly  to  a  primary 
endocardial  disease,  we  shall  feel  justified  in  inviting  special  attention 
to  this  disease. 

Endocarditis  may  be  acute  or  assume  various  degrees  of  severity. 
In  acute  inflammation  we  find  a  thickening  and  a  roughened  appear- 
ance of  the  endocardium  throughout  the  cavities  of  the  heart.  This 
condition  is  soon  followed  by  a  coagulation  of  fibrine  upon  the  inflamed 
surface,  which  adheres  to  it,  and  by  attrition  soon  becomes  worked  up 
into  shreddy-like  granular  elevations  ;  this  may  lead  to  the  formation, 
of  fibrinous  clots  in  the  heart  and  sudden  death  early  in  the  disease, 
the  second  or  third  day.  This  acute  type  of  the  disease,  however,  does 
not  always  affect  the  whole  interior  of  the  heart,  but  is  often  confined 
to  one  ventricle  or  may  be  in  patches ;  it  may  extend  through  the  ventri- 
cle into  the  aorta  or  the  pulmonary  vein  ;  it  may  affect  the  valves  prin- 
cipally, which  are  composed  of  but  little  else  than  the  endocardium 
folded  upon  itself. 

In  acute  endocarditis  we  invariably  will  find  myocarditis  develop 
corresponding  to  the  same  space,  which  in  intensity  may  i^roduce  seri- 
ous results  through  the  destruction  of  functional  ability  or  lead  to 
weakness,  abscess,  or  rupture.  Immediately  upon  the  swelling  of  this 
membrane  we  will  find  an  abnormal  action  and  abnormal  sounds  of  the 
heart. 

Subacute  endocarditis,  which  is  the  most  common  form  we  meet, 
may  not  become  appreciable  for  several  days  after  its  commencement. 
It  is  characterized  by  being  confined  to  one  or  more  anatomical  divisions 
of  the  heart,  and  all  the  successive  morbid  changes  follow  each  other 
in  a  comparatively  slow  process.  Often  we  would  not  be  led  to  suspect 
heart  affection  were  it  not  for  the  distress  in  breathing,  which  it  gen- 
erally occasions  when  the  animal  is  exercised,  especially  if  the  valves  are 
much  involved.  When  the  disease  extends  into  the  arteries,  atherom- 
atous deposits  usually  develop;  when  the  inflammation  is  severe  at  the 
origin  of  the  tendinous  cords  they  may  become  softened  and  ruptured. 
When  much  fibrinous  coagula  or  cellular  vegetations  form  upon  the 
inflamed  membrane,  either  in  minute  shreds  or  jiatches,  or  when  forma- 
tion of  fibrinous  clots  occurs  in  the  cavity  affected,  some  of  these  mate- 
rials may  be  carried  from  the  cavity  of  the  heart  by  the  blood-current 
into  remote  organs,  constituting  emboli  that  are  liable  to  suddenly  plug 
vessels  and  thereby  interrupt  important  functions.  In  the  great  major- 
ity of  either  acute  or  subacute  grades  of  endocarditis,  whatever  the 
11035 15 


226 

exciting  cause,  the  most  alarming  symptoms  disappear  in  a  week  or  ten 
days,  often  leaving,  however,  such  changes  in  the  interior  lining  or 
valvular  structures  as  to  cause  impairment  in  the  circulation  for  a  much 
longer  period  of  time.  These  changes  usually  consist  of  thickening  or 
induration  of  the  inflamed  structures.  But  while  the  effects  of  the 
inflammation  in  the  membrane  lining  the  walls  of  the  ventricles  may 
subside  to  such  a  degree  as  to  cause  little  or  no  inconvenience,  or  even 
wholly  disappear,  yet  after  the  valvular  structures  have  been  involved, 
causing  them  to  be  thicker,  less  flexible  than  normal,  they  usually 
remain,  obstructing  the  free  passage  of  the  blood  through  the  openings 
of  the  heart,  thereby  inducing  secondary  changes  which  take  place 
slowly  at  first,  but  ultimately  seriously  impair  the  animal's  usefulness. 
What  was  but  a  slight  obstruction  to  the  circulation  during  the  first 
few  weeks  after  the  subsidence  of  the  cardiac  inflammatory  attack 
becomes  in  process  of  time  so  much  increased  as  to  induce  increased 
growth  in  the  muscular  structure  of  the  heart,  constituting  hypertrophy 
of  the  walls  of  the  ventricles,  more  particularly  of  the  left,  with  corre- 
sponding fullness  of  the  left  auricle  and  pulmonary  veins,  thereby  pro- 
ducing fullness  of  the  capillaries  in  the  lungs,  pressure  ui)on  the  air 
cells,  difficult  or  asthmatic  breathing — greatly  increased  in  attempts  to 
work — until  in  a  few  months  many  of  these  cases  become  entirely  dis- 
abled for  work.  Sometimes,  too,  dropsical  effusions  in  the  limbs  or  into 
the  cavities  of  the  body  result  from  the  irregular  and  deficient  circula- 
tion. Derangement  of  the  urinary  secretion,  with  passive  congestion  of 
the  kidneys,  may  akso  appear. 

Endocardial  inflammation  is  seldom  fatal  in  its  early  stages,  but  in 
many  cases  the  recovery  is  incomplete,  for  a  large  proportion  are  left 
with  some  permanent  thickening  of  the  valves,  which  constitute  the  be- 
ginning of  valvular  disease. 

/Symptoms. — As  already  stated,  myocarditis  is  seldom  recognized  until 
p'ericarditis  or  endocarditis  supervenes.  Staggering  gait  with  painful 
'  movement  of  the  forc-lirabs,  a  constant  irregularity  of  the  heart's  action, 
but  equality  of  strength  regardless  of  the  rapidity  of  the  heart-beats, 
constitute  perhaps  the  most  prominent  symptoms  which  characterize 
myocarditis.  When  the  disease  is  associated  with  rheumatism,  influ- 
enza, or  other  zymotic  diseases,  these  symptoms  may  not  be  sufficiently 
well  defined  to  attract  the  attention  they  deserve,  and  medical  treat- 
ment prescribed  for  the  mitigation  of  such  disease  often  serves  to  ag- 
gravate the  cardiac  affection.  In  chronic  myocarditis  we  generally 
find  a  persistent  palpitation  with  irregularity  of  beat,  which,  upon  ex- 
ercise, becomes  greatly  intensified.  Change  in  the  sounds  of  the  heart 
do  not  occur  unless  pericarditis,  endocarditis,  or  disease  of  the  valves 
are  associated  with  myocarditis.  When  it  leads  to  hypertrophy  we  may 
find  an  abnormally  increased  area  of  dullness  on  percussion.  In  endo- 
carditis, when  the  attack  is  sudden  and  severe,  we  may  find  many  of  the 
symptoms  which  characterize  pericarditis  and  pleuritis,  but  a  close  ex- 
amination will  reveal  notable  differences. 


227 

Endocarditis  may  be  ushered  in  by  a  cbill,  with  sudden  and  marked 
rise  in  temperature.  Tlie  pulse  rapidly  decreases  in  strength  or  may 
become  irregular,  while  the  heart  beats  more  or  less  tumultuously.  In 
the  early  stages  soft  blowing  sounds  may  be  heard  by  placing  the  ear 
over  the  heart  on  the  left  side,  which  correspond  in  number  and  rhythm 
to  the  heart's  action.  Excessive  pain,  though  not  so  great  as  in  acute 
pleuritis,  is  manifested  when  the  animal  is  compelled  to  trot;  very  often 
difficulty  in  breathing— shortness  of  breath— on  the  slightest  exertion 
develops  early  in  the  attack.  When  the  valves  are  involved  in  the  in- 
flammatory process  the  visible  mucous  membranes  become  either  very 
pale  or  very  dark  colored,  and  fainting  may  occur  when  the  head  is 
suddenly  elevated.  When  the  valves  of  the  right  side  are  afiected  we 
may  have  a  regurgitant  pulsation  in  the  jugular  vein.  In  some  cases 
we  find  marked  lameness  of  the  left  shoulder,  and  when  the  animal  is 
turned  short  to  the  left  side  he  may  groan  with  pain,  and  the  heart's 
action  become  violently  excited,  although  pressure  against  the  chest- 
wall  will  not  produce  pain  unless  roughly  api^lied.  The  animal  is  not 
disposed  to  eat  or  drink  much ;  the  surface  of  the  body  and  legs  are 
cold— rarely  excessively  hot  -and  frequently  the  body  of  the  animal  is 
in  a  subdued  tremor.  In  nearly  all  cases  there  is  partial  suppression 
of  the  urinary  secretion.  The  symptoms  may  continue  with  very  little 
modification  for  three  or  four  days,  sometimes  seven  days,  without 
any  marked  changes.  If  fibrinous  clots  lorm  in  the  heart  the  change 
will  be  sudden  and  quickly  prove  fatal  unless  they  become  loosened  and 
are  carried  away  in  the  circulation;  then  apoplexy  may  result  from  the 
plugging  of  arteries  too  small  to  give  further  transmission.  If  the  ani- 
mal manifests  symptoms  of  improvement,  the  changes  usually  are  slow 
and  steady  until  he  feels  apparently  as  well  as  ever,  eats  well,  and 
moves  freely  in  his  stall  or  yard.  When  he  is  taken  out,  however,  the 
seeming  strength  often  proves  deceptive,  as  he  may  quickly  weaken  if 
urged  into  a  fast  gait,  the  breathing  become  quickened  with  a  double 
flank  movement  as  in  heaves,  and  all  the  former  symptoms  reappear  in 
a  modified  degree.  An  examination  at  this  stage  may  reveal  valvular 
insufficiency,  cardiac  hypertrophy,  or  pulmonary  engorgement. 

In  fatal  cases  of  endocarditis  death  often  occurs  about  the  fourth  day, 
from  the  formation  of  heart  clot  or  too  great  embarrassment  of  the 
circulation.  Endocarditis  may  be  suspected  in  all  cases  where  plain 
symptoms  of  cardiac  affection  are  manifested  in  animals  affected  with 
influenza,  rheumatism,  or  any  disease  in  which  the  blood  may  convey 
septic  matter. 

Acute  endocardial  inflammation  may  be  distinguished  from  pleuritis 
by  the  absence  of  any  friction  murmer,  absence  of  pain  when  the  chest 
wall  is  percussed,  and  the  absence  of  effusion  in  the  cavity  of  the  chest. 
It  may  be  distinguished  from  pericarditis  by  the  absence  of  the  friction 
sounds  and  want  of  an  enlarged  area  of  dullness  on  percussion. 

Treatment— The  treatment  will  be  similar  in  both  myocarditis  and 


228 

endocarditis.  The  objects  to  be  attained  will  be  to  remove  or  mitigate 
as  much  as  possible  the  cause  inducing  the  disease;  to  find  a  medicine 
which  will  lessen  the  irritability  of  the  heart  without  weakening  itj 
and  last,  to  maintain  a  free  urinary  secretion  and  prevent  exudation 
and  hypertrophy.  So  long  as  there  is  an  increase  of  temperature,  with 
some  degree  of  scantiness  of  the  urine,  it  may  be  safe  to  believe  that 
there  is  some  degree  of  inflammatory  action  existing  in  the  cardiac 
structures,  and,  as  long  as  any  evidence  of  inflammatory  action  remains, 
however  moderate  in  degree,  there  is  a  tendency  to  increase  or  hyper- 
trophy of  the  connective  tissue  of  the  heart  or  valves,  thereby  render- 
iufT  it  almost  certain  that  the  structural  changes  will  become  permanent 
unless  counteracted  by  persistent  treatment  and  complete  rest. 

The  tincture  of  digitalis,  in  20-drop  doses,  repeated  every  hour,  is 
perhaps  the  most  reliable  agent  we  know  to  control  the  irritability 
of  the  heart,  and  this  also  has  a  decided  influence  upon  the  uri- 
nary secretion.  After  the  desired  impression  upon  the  heart  is  ob- 
tained the  dose  may  be  repeated  every  two  or  three  hours,  or  as  the 
case  may  demand.  Fluid  extract  of  convallaria  majalis,  in  2-dram 
doses,  will  quiet  the  tumultuous  action  of  the  heart  in  some  cases  where 
the  digitalis  fails.  Some  veterinarians  recommend  bleeding,  others  cold 
packs  around  the  chest  or  over  the  heart.  The  former  is  decidedly 
objectionable,  because  of  its  tendency  to  favor  fibrinous  exudation  and 
clot  formation  ;  the  latter  is  too  risky  a  proceeding  in  the  majority  of 
cases  to  warrant  its  use,  for  we  find  this  disease  in  wet  and  damp  sta- 
bles in  the  most  aggravated  and  fatal  forms.  Blistering  and  stimulat- 
ing applications  to  the  chest  should  also  be  avoided.  They  serve  to 
irritate  the  animal  and  can  do  no  possible  good.  Chlorate  of  potassa, 
in  2  dram  doses,  may  be  given  in  the  drinking  water  every  four  hours 
for  the  first  five  or  six  days,  and  then  be  superceded  by  the  nitrate  of 
potassa,  in  half-ounce  doses,  for  the  following  week,  or  until  the  urinary 
secretion  becomes  abnormally  profuse.  Where  the  disease  is  associated 
with  rheumatism  2-dram  doses  of  salicylate  of  soda  may  be  substituted 
for  the  chlorate  of  potassa.  To  guard  against  chronic  induration  of  the 
valves  the  iodide  of  potassa,  in  one  to  2-dram  doses,  should  be  given 
early  in  the  disease,  and  may  be  repeated  two  or  three  times  a  day  for 
several  weeks.  When  chronic  eftects  remain  after  the  acute  stage  has 
passed  this  drug  becomes  indispensable. 

When  dropsy  of  the  limbs  develops,  it  is  due  to  weakened  circulation 
or  functional  impairment  of  the  kidneys.  When  there  is  much  weak- 
ness in  the  action  of  the  heart,  or  general  debility  is  marked,  the  iodide 
of  iron,  in  1  dram  doses,  combined  with  hydrastis,  3  drams,  may  be 
given  three  times  a  day.  Arsenic,  in  5-grain  doses  twice  a  day,  will  give 
excellent  results  in  some  cases  of  weak  heart  associated  with  difiicult 
breathing.  In  all  cases  absolute  rest  and  warm  stabling,  with  comfort- 
able clothing,  becomes  necessary,  and  freedom  from  work  should  be 
allowed  for  a  long  time  after  all  symptoms  have  disappeared. 


229 

AESCESS   IN   THE   HEART. 

This  is  a  result  of  rajocarditis,  or  it  may  arise  from  localized  pyaemic 
infection  or  embolism  of  a  coronary  vessel,  causing  disintegration  and 
death  of  a  part.  Such  abscess  may  be  single  and  large,  or  multiple 
and  small.  They  may  weaken  the  heart  sufficiently  to  cause  rupture 
of  its  walls,  or  may  embarrass  the  circulation  by  pressure  upon  the 
orifices  or  cavities  sufficient  to  produce  death. 

Abscess  of  the  heart  cannot  be  diagnosed  with  any  degree  of  cer- 
tainty. 

PERICARDITIS— INFLAMMATION   OF    THE   SAC  INCLOSING  THE  HEART. 

Causes.— Pericarditis  may  be  induced  by  cold  and  damp  stabling, 
exposure  and  fatigue,  from  wounds  caused  by  broken  ribs,  etc.  Gen- 
erally, however,  it  is  associated  with  au  attack  of  influenza,  rheuma- 
tism, pleuritis,  etc. 

Symptoms.— \Jsua,\\y  the  disease  manifests  itself  abruptly  by  a  brief 
stage  of  chills  coincident  with  pain  in  moving,  a  short  painful  cough, 
rapid  and  short  breathing,  and  high  temperature,  with  a  rapid  and 
hard  pulse.  The  fever  is  highest,  with  corresponding  pulse,  in  the 
evening  and  lowest  in  the  morning.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  disease 
the  pulse  is  regular  in  beat ;  later,  when  there  is  much  exudation  pres- 
ent in  the  pericardial  sac,  the  heart- beat  becomes  muffled,  and  may  be 
of  a  doubled  or  rebounding  character.  By  placing  the  ear  against  the 
left  side  of  the  chest  behind  the  elbow  a  rasping  sound  may  be  heard, 
corresponding  to  the  frequency  of  the  heart-beat.  This  is  known  as 
the  to-andfro  friction  sound.  Between  the  second  and  fourth  days  this 
sound  may  disappear,  due  to  a  distention  of  the  pericardium  by  an  exu- 
date or  serious  effusion.  As  soon  as  this  effusion  partly  fills  the  peri- 
cardium, percussion  will  reveal  an  abnormally  increased  area  of  dull- 
ness over  the  region  of  the  heart,  the  heartbeats  become  less  perceptible 
than  in  health,  and  in  some  cases  a  splashing  or  flapping  sound  may 
become  audible. 

If  the  efi'usiou  becomes  absorbed,  the  to-aud-fro  friction  sound  usually 
recurs  for  a  short  time ;  this  friction  may  often  be  felt  by  applying  the 
hand  to  the  side  of  the  chest.  In  a  few  cases  clonic  spasms  of  the  mus- 
cles of  the  neck  may  be  present.  In  acute  pericarditis,  when  the  eflu- 
sion  is  rapid  and  excessive,  the  animal  may  die  in  a  few  days,  or  recovery 
may  begin  equally  as  early.  In  subacute  or  in  chronic  cases  the  effu- 
sion may  slowly  become  augmented  until  the  pressure  upon  the  lungs 
and  interference  with  the  circulation  becomes  so  great  that  death  will 
result.  Whether  the  attack  is  acute,  subacute,  or  chronic,  the  charac- 
teristic symptoms  which  will  guide  us  to  a  correct  diagnosis  are  the 
to-and-fro  friction  sound,  which  is  always  synchronous  with  the  heart's 
action,  the  high  temperature  with  hard,  irritable  pulse,  and  in  cases  of 
pericardial  effusion  the  increased  area  of  dullness  over  the  cardiac 


230 

region.  "When  tlie  disease  is  associated  with  influenza  or  rheumatism 
some  of  the  symptoms  may  be  obscure,  but  a  careful  examination  will 
reveal  sufficient  upon  which  to  base  a  diagnosis.  "When  pericarditis 
develops  as  a  result  of  or  in  connection  with  i)leuritis,  the  distinction 
may  not  be  very  clearly  definable,  neither  will  many  recover.  When 
it  results  from  a  wound  or  broken  rib  It  almost  invariably  proves  fatal. 

Pathology. — Pericarditis  may  at  all  times  be  regarded  as  a  very  seri- 
ous affection.  At  first  we  will  find  an  intense  injection  or  accumula- 
tion of  blood  in  the  vessels  of  the  pericardium,  giving  it  a  red  and  swollen 
appearance,  during  which  we  have  the  friction  sound.  In  twenty-four 
or  forty-eight  hours  this  engorgement  is  followed  by  an  exudation  of 
serofibrinous  fluid,  the  fibrinous  portion  of  which  may  soon  form  acoat- 
ing  over  the  internal  surface  of  the  pericardial  sac,  and  may  ultimately 
form  a  union  of  the  opposing  surfaces.  Generally  this  adhesion  will 
only  be  found  to  occupy  a  portion  of  the  surfaces.  As  the  serous  or 
waterj"  portion  of  this  effusion  is  absorbed,  the  distinctness  of  the  fric- 
tion sound  recurs,  and  may  remain  peceptible  iy  varied  degree  for  a. 
long  time.  When  the  serous  effusion  is  very  great,  the  pressure  exerted 
upon  the  heart  weakens  its  action,  and  may  produce  death  soon  ;  when 
it  is  not  so  great,  it  may  cause  dropsies  of  other  portions  of  the  body. 
When  the  adhesions  of  the  pericardial  sac  to  the  body  of  the  heart  are 
extensive,  they  generally  lead  to  increased  growth  or  hypertrophy  of 
the  heart,  with  or  without  dilatation  of  its  cavities  ;  when  they  are  but 
slight,  they  may  not  cause  any  inconvenience. 

Treatment. — In  acute  or  subacute  pericarditis  the  tincture  of  digitalis 
and  tincture  of  aconite  root  may  be  mixed,  taking  equal  quantities,  and 
give  20  to  30  drop  doses  every  hour  until  the  pulse  and  temperature 
become  reduced.  Bandages  should  be  applied  to  the  legs;  if  they  are 
very  cold,  tincture  of  capsicum  should  be  first  applied;  the  body  should 
be  warmly  clothed  in  blankets,  to  promote  perspiration.  W^hen  the 
suffering  from  pain  is  very  severe,  2  ounces  of  tincture  of  opium  may 
be  given  once  or  twice  a  day;  nitrate  of  potassa,  half  an  ounce,  in 
drinking  water,  every  six  hours;  after  the  third  day,  iodide  of  potassa, 
in  2-dram  doses,  may  be  substituted.  Hot  packs  to  the  chest  in  the 
earl}'  stages  of  the  disease  may  give  marked  relief,  or  smart  blisters 
may  be  applied  to  the  sides  of  the  chest  with  benefit.  If  the  disease 
becomes  chronic,  iodide  of  iron  and  gentian  to  support  the  strength 
will  be  indicated,  but  the  iodide  of  potassa,  in  one  or  2-dram  doses, 
two  or  three  times  a  day,  must  not  be  abandoned  so  long  as  there  is  an 
evidence  of  effusion  or  plastic  exudate  accumulating  in  the  pericardial 
sac.  Where  tlie  effusion  is  great  and  threatens  the  life  of  the  patient, 
tapping,  by  an  expert  veterinarian,  may  save  the  animal. 

VA.LYIILAR  DISEASE   OF   THE  HEART. 

Acute  valvular  disease  can  not  be  distinguished  from  endocarditis, 
and  chronic  valvular  affections  are  generally  the  result  of  endocardial 
inflammation.     The  valves  of  the  left  side  are  the  most  subject — the 


231 

bicuspid  or  mitral,  and  the  aortic  or  semilunar.  It  may  consist  of  mere 
inflammation  and  swelling,  or  the  edges  of  the  valves  may  become 
agglutinated  hj  the  organization  of  the  exudation,  thus  narrowing  the 
passage.  Valvular  obstruction  and  adhesions  may  occur,  or  the  tendi- 
nous cords  may  be  lengthened  or  shortened,  thus  obstructing  the  orifices 
and  permitting  the  regurgitation  of  blood.  In  protracted  cases  the 
fibrous  tissue  of  the  valves  may  be  transformed  into  tibro-cartilage  or 
bone,  or  there  may  be  deposits  of  salts  of  lime  beneath  the  serous  mem- 
brane, which  may  terminate  in  ulceration,  rupture, or  fissures.  Some- 
times the  valves  become  covered  by  fibrinous,  fleshy,  or  cartilaginous 
vegetations  or  excrescences.  In  cases  of  considerable  dilatation  of  the 
heart  there  may  be  atrophy  and  shrinking  of  the  valves. 

Symptoms. — Valvular  disease  may  be  indicated  by  a  venous  pulse, 
jerking  pulse,  intermittent  pulse,  irregular  pulse;  palpitation;  constant 
abnormal  fullness  of  the  jugular  veins ;  difficulty  of  breathing  when  the 
animal  becomes  excited,  or  is  urged  out  of  a  walk  or  into  a  fast  trot; 
attacks  of  vertigo;  congestion  of  the  brain;  dropsical  swelling  of  the 
limbs.  A  blowing,  cooing,  or  bubbling  murmur  may  sometimes  be  heard 
by  placing  the  ear  over  the  heart  on  the  left  side  of  the  chest. 

Hypertrophy,  or  dilatation,  or  both,  usually  follows  valvular  disease. 

Treatment. — Wlieu  the  pulse  is  irregular,  or  irritable,  tonics,  such  as 
j)reparatiou8  of  iron,  gentian,  and  ginger  may  be  given.  When  the 
action  of  the  heart  is  jerking  or  violent,  20  to  30  drop  doses  of  tincture 
of  digitalis  or  of  veratrum  viride  may  be  given  until  these  symptoms 
abate.  As  the  disease  nearly  always  is  the  result  of  endocarditis,  the 
iodide  of  potassa  and  general  tonics,  sometimes  stimulants,  when  gen- 
eral debility  supervenes,  may  be  of  temporary  benefit.  Very  few  ani- 
mals recover,  or  remain  useful  for  any  length  of  time,  after  once  marked 
organic  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  valvular  structure  of  the  heart. 

ADVE?TTITIOUS   GROWTHS   IN   THE   HEART. 

Fibrous,  cartilaginous.,  and  hony  formations  have  been  observed  in 
some  rare  instances,  in  the  muscular  tissue.  Isolated  calcareous  masses 
have  sometimes  been  imbedded  in  the  cardiac  walls.  Fibrinous  coagula 
and  polypous  concretions  may  be  found  in  the  cavities  of  the  heart.  The 
former  consist  of  coagulated  fibrin,  separated  from  the  mass  of  blood,  of 
a  wliitifih  or  yellowish  white  color,  translucent,  of  a  jelly-like  consistence, 
and  having  a  nucleus  in  the  center.  They  may  slightly  adhere  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  cavity,  from  which  they  can  easily  be  separated  without 
altering  the  structure  of  the  endocardium.  They  probably  result  from 
an  excess  of  coagulability  of  fibrin,  which  is  i)roduced  by  an  organiza- 
tion of  the  lymph  during  exudation.  They  are  usually  found  in  the 
right  auricle  and  ventricle. 

Polypous  concretions  are  firmer  than  the  preceding,  more  opaque,  of 
a  fibrous  texture,  and  may  be  composed  of  successive  layers.  In  some 
instances  they  are  exceedingly  minute,  while  in  others  they  almost  fill 


232 

one  or  more  of  the  cavities.  Their  color  is  usually  white,  but  occa- 
sionally red  from  the  presence  of  blood.  They  firmly  adhere  to  the  en- 
docardium, and  when  detached  from  it  give  it  a  torn  appearance.  Occa- 
sionally, avascular  communication  seems  to  exist  between  them  and  the 
substance  of  the  heart.  They  may  be  the  result  of  fibrinous  exudation 
from  inflammation  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  heart,  or  the  coagulation 
of  a  portion  of  the  blood  which  afterwards  contracts  adhesion  with  the 
heart.  These  concretions  prove  a  source  of  great  inconvenience,  and 
often  danger,  no  matter  how  formed.  They  cause  a  diminution  in  the 
cavity  in  which  they  are  found,  thus  narrowing  the  orifice  through  which 
the  blood  i)asses,  or  preventing  a  proper  coaptation  of  the  valves,  which 
may  produce  most  serious  valvular  disease. 

Symptoms. — These  are  frequently  uncertain  ;  they  may,  however,  be 
suspected  when  the  action  of  the  heart  suddenly  becomes  embarrassed 
with  irregular  and  confused  pulsations,  great  difficulty  of  breathing, 
and  the  usual  signs  dependent  upon  the  imperfect  arterialization  of 

the  blood. 

Treatment— Stimulants,  whisty,  or  carbonate  of  ammonia,  may  be 

of  service. 

FUNCTIONAL   AND   ORGANIC  DISEASES   OF   THE   HEART. 

The  distinction  between  functional  and  organic  diseases  of  the  heart 
is  not  easily  made.  We  may  accept  as  a  guide  that  the  character  of 
organic  diseases  of  the  heart  is  to  progress,  and  that  of  functional  to 
occur  at  regular  intervals.  Active  exercise  almost  invariably  aggra- 
vates organic,  but  seldom  increases  the  symptoms  of  functional  disease, 
and  that  the  physical  signs  generally  are  soon  developed,  and  remain 
permanent  in  organic,  while  they  seldom  exist  in  functional. 

PALPITATION   OF    THE   HEART. 

This  is  a  tumultuous  and  usually  irregular  beating  of  the  heart. 
It  may  be  due  to  a  variety  of  causes,  both  functional  and  organic.  We 
will,  however,  exclude  the  organic  causes  which  lead  to  irregular  action, 
and  give  it  a  more  simple  specification.  It  may  occur  as  a  result  of 
indigestion,  fright,  increased  nervousness,  sudden  excitement,  exces- 
sive speeding,  etc.     (See  "  Thumps.") 

Symptoms.— The  heart  may  act  with  such  violence  that  each  beat  may 
jar  the  whole  body  of  the  animal,  very  commonly  it  may  be  heard  at  a 
short  distance  away  from  the  animal.  It  can,  usually,  be  traced  very 
readily  to  the  exciting  cause,  which  we  may  be  able  to  avoid  or  over- 
come in  the  future  and  thereby  obviate  subsequent  attacks.  Eest,  a 
mild  stimulant,  or  a  dose  or  two  of  tincture  of  digitalis  or  opium,  will 
generally  give  prompt  relief.  When  it  is  due  to  organic  impairment  of 
the  heart  it  must  be  regarded  as  a  symptom,  not  as  a  matter  for  pri- 
mary sx^ecific  treatment. 


233 

SYNCOPE — FAINTING-. 

Aetna!  fainting  rarely  occurs  among  horses.  It  may,  however,  be 
induced  by  a  rapid  and  great  loss  of  blood,  pain  of  great  intensity,  a 
mechanical  interference  with  the  circulaliion  of  the  brain,  etc. 

Symptoms. — Syncope  is  characterized  by  a  decrease  or  temporary  sus- 
pension of  the  action  of  the  heart  and  respiration,  with  partial  or  total 
loss  of  consciousness.  It  generally  occurs  suddenly,  though  there  may 
be  premonitory  symptoms,  as  giddiness  or  vertigo,  dilated  pupil,  stag- 
gering, blanching  of  the  visible  mucous  membranes,  a  rapidly  sinking 
pulse,  and  dropping  to  the  ground.  The  pulse  is  feeble  or  ceases  to 
beat;  the  surface  of  the  body  turns  cold;  breathing  is  scarcely  to  be 
perceived,  and  the  animal  may  be  entirely  unconscious.  This  state  is 
uncertain  in  duration  ;  generally  it  lasts  only  a  few  minutes  ;  the  circu- 
lation becomes  restored,  breathing  becomes  more  distinct,  and  con- 
sciousness and  muscular  strength  return.  In  cases  attended  with  much 
hemorrhage  or  organic  disease  of  the  heart,  the  fainting  fit  may  be  fatal, 
otherwise  it  will  prove  but  a  transient  occurrence.  In  jjaralysis  of  the 
heart  the  symptoms  may  be  exactly  similar  to  syncope.  Syncope  may 
be  distinguished  from  apoplexy  by  the  absence  of  stertorous  breathing, 
and  lividity  of  the  visible  mucous  membranes. 

Treatment. — Dash  cold  w^ater  on  the  head  ;  administer  a  stimulant,  4 
ounces  of  whisky  or  half  an  ounce  of  carbonate  of  ammonia.  Prevent 
the  animal  from  getting  up  too  soon,  or  the  attack  may  immediately 
recur.  Afterwards,  if  the  attack  was  due  to  weakness  from  loss  of 
blood,  impoverished  blood,  or  associated  with  debility,  general  tonics, 
rest,  and  nourishing  food  are  indicated. 

HYPERTROPHY  OF  THE  HEART — CARDIAC  ENLARGEMENT. 

Hypertrophy  of  the  heart  imijlies  augmentation  of  bulk  in  its  muscu- 
lar substance,  with  or  without  dilatation  or  contraction  of  its  cavities. 
It  may  exist  with  or  without  other  cardiac  affections.  In  valvular 
disease  or  valvular  iusufiticieucy  hypertrophy  frequently  results  as  a 
consequence  of  increased  demand  for  propelling  power.  The  difficul- 
ties with  which  it  is  most  frequently  connected  are  dilatation  and  ossi- 
fication of  the  valves.  It  may  also  occur  in  connection  with  atrophied 
kidneys,  weak  heart,  etc.  It  may  be  caused  by  an  increased  determi- 
nation of  blood  to  the  organ,  or  from  a  latent  form  of  myocarditis,  and 
it  may  arise  from  a  long-continued  increase  of  action  dependent  upon 
nervous  disease.  All  the  cavities  of  the  heart  may  have  their  walls  hy- 
pertrophied  or  the  thickening  may  involve  one  or  more.  While  the  wall 
of  a  ventricle  is  thickened  its  cavity  may  retain  its  normal  size — simple 
hypertrophy — or  be  dilated — eccentric  hypertrophy — or  it  may  be  con- 
tracted— concentric  hypertrophy.  Hypertrophy  of  both  ventricles  in- 
creases the  length  and  breadth  of  the  heart.  Hypertrophy  of  the  left 
ventricle  alone  increases  its  length,  of  the  right  ventricle  alone  in- 


234 

creases  its  breadth  toward  the  right  side.  Ilypertrophy  with  dilatation 
may  affect  the  chambers  of  the  heart  conjointly  or  separately.  This 
form  is  by  far  the  most  frequent  variety  of  cardiac  enlargement.  When 
the  entire  heart  is  affected  it  assumes  a  globular  appearance,  the  aj^ex 
being  almost  obliterated,  and  situated  transversely  in  the  chest.  The 
bulk  may  become  three  or  four  times  greater  than  the  average  size  of 
heart. 

Symptoms. — In  hypertrophy  of  the  heart,  in  addition  to  the  usual 
symptoms  manifested  in  organic  diseases  of  the  heart,  there  is  a  power- 
ful and  heaving  impulse  at  each  beat,  which  may  be  felt  on  the  left 
side,  often  also  on  the  right.  These  jjulsations  are  regular,  and  when 
full  and  strong  at  the  jaw  there  is  a  tendency  to  active  congestion  of 
the  capillary  vessels,  which  frequently  gives  rise  to  local  inflammation, 
active  haemorrhage,  etc.  If  the  pulse  is  small  and  feeble  at  the  jaw  we 
may  conclude  that  there  is  some  obstacle  to  the  escape  of  the  blood  from 
the  left  ventricle  into  the  aorta,  which  has  given  rise  to  the  hypertro- 
phy. In  case  of  hypertrophy  with  dilatation,  the  impulse  is  not  only 
powerful  and  heaving,  but  it  is  diffused  over  the  whole  region  of  the 
heart,  and  the  normal  sounds  of  the  heart  are  greatly  increased  in  in- 
tensity. Percussion  reveals  an  enlarged  area  of  dullness,  while  the  im- 
pulse is  usually  much  stronger  than  normal. 

Dropsy  of  the  pericardium  will  give  the  same  wide  space  of  dullness, 
but  the  impulse  and  sound  are  lessened.  An  animal  with  a  moderate 
degree  of  enlargement  may  j)ossibly  live  a  number  of  years  and  be 
capable  of  ordinary  work;  it  depends  largely  upon  concomitant  disease. 
As  a  rule,  an  animal  affected  with  hypertrophy  of  the  heart  will  soon 
be  incapacitated  for  work,  and  become  useless  and  incurable. 

Treatment. — If  the  cause  can  be  discovered  and  is  removable  it  should 
be  done.  The  iodide  of  i^otassa,  in  cases  of  valvular  thickening,  may 
be  of  some  benefit  if  continued  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time ;  it  may  be 
given  in  2-dram  doses,  twice  a  day,  for  a  month  or  more.  Hydrocyanic 
acid,  in  30  drop  doses  twice  a  day,  may  relieve  abnormal  muscular  ir- 
ritability. General  tonics,  freedom  from  excitement  or  fatigue,  avoid- 
ance of  bulky  food,  good  ventilation,  etc.,  are  indicated. 

DILATATION    OF    THE    HEART. 

This  is  an  enlargement  of  the  cavities  of  the  heart,  and  may  be  con- 
fined to  one  or  extend  to  all.  Two  forms  of  dilatation  may  be  men- 
tioned— simple  dilatation,  where  there  is  normal  thickness  of  the  walls, 
and  passive  or  attenuated  dilatation,  where  the  walls  are  simply  distended 
or  stretched  out  without  any  addition  of  substance. 

Causes. — Any  cause  producing  constant  and  excessive  exertion  of 
the  heart  may  lead  to  dilatation.  Valvular  disease  is  the  most  frequent 
cause.  General  anaemia  predisposes  to  it  by  producing  relaxation  of 
muscular  fiber.  Changes  in  the  muscular  tissue  of  the  heart-walls, 
serous  infiltration  from  pericarditis,  myocarditis,  fatty   degeneration 


235 

and  infiltration,  atrophy  of  the  muscular  fibers,  may  all  lead  to  dilata- 
tion. 

Symptoms. — The  movements  of  the  heart  are  feeble  and  prolonged,  a 
disposition  to  staggering  or  vertigo,  dropsy  of  the  limbs,  very  pale  or 
very  dark-colored  membranes,  and  difficult  breathing  on  the  slightest 
excitement. 

Treatment. — General  tonics,  rich  food,  and  rest. 

FATTY   DEGENERATION   OF    THE   HEART. 

Fatty  degeneration  may  involve  the  whole  organ,  or  may  be  limited 
to  its  walls,  or  even  to  circumscribed  patches.  The  latter  is  situated  at 
theexterior,  and  givesit  a  mottled  appearance.  When  generally  involved 
it  is  tiabby  or  flacci<l,  and  in  extreme  cases  collapses  when  emptied^r 
cut.  Upon  dissection  the  interior  of  the  ventricles  is  observed  to  be 
covered  with  buff-colored  spots  of  a  singular  zigzag  form.  This  ap- 
X)earance  may  be  noticed  beneath  the  pericardium,  and  pervading  the 
whole  thickness  of  the  ventricular  walls,  and  in  extreme  cases  those  of 
the  fleshy  columns  in  the  interior  of  the  heart.  These  spots  are  found 
to  be  degenerated  muscular  fibers  and  colonies  of  oil-globules.  Fatty 
degeneration  is  often  associated  with  other  morbid  conditions  of  the 
heart,  as  obesity,  <lilatation,  rupture,  aneurism,  etc.  It  may  be  con- 
nected with  fatty  diseases  of  other  organs,  as  the  liver,  kidneys,  etc. 
When  it  exists  alone  its  presence  is  seldom  suspected  previous  to  death. 
It  may  be  secondary  to  hypertrophy  of  the  heart,  to  myocarditis,  or  to 
pericarditis.  It  may  be  due  to  deteriorated  conditions  of  the  blood  in 
wasting  diseases,  excessive  hemorrhages,  etc.,  or  to  poisoning  with  ar- 
senic and  phosphorus. 

Symptoms. — The  most  prominent  symptoms  of  fatty  degeneration  are 
a  feeble  action  of  the  heart,  a  remarkably  slow  pulse,  general  debility, 
and  attacks  of  vertigo.  It  may  exist  for  a  long  time,  but  is  apt  to  sud- 
denly terminate  in  death  upon  the  occurrence  of  other  diseases,  surgical 
operations, etc.  It  may  involve  a  liability  to  sudden  death  from  rupture 
of  the  ventricular  walls. 

Treatment. — Confinement  in  feed  to  oats,  wheat  or  rye  bran,  and 
timothy  hay.  Twenty  drops  of  sulphuric  acid  may  be  given  in  drink- 
ing-water three  times  a  day,  and  hypophosphite  of  iron  in  2-dram  doses, 
mixed  with  the  feed  twice  a  day.  Other  tonics  and  stimulants  as  they 
may  be  indicated. 

ATROPHY   OF    THE   HEART — WASTING. 

A  diminution  of  muscular  substance  of  the  heart  and  consequent  de- 
crease in  bulk  and  weight.  It  is  generally'  due  to  imperfect  nutrition 
from  occlusion  of  the  blood-vessels  which  supply  it. 

Symptoms. — The  heart  beat  is  weak  and  hardly  perceptible  ;  the  area 
of  dullness  over  the  region  of  the  heart  is  lessened.     Further  than  this 


236 

it  furnishes  no  characteristic  symptoms  which  distinguish  it  from  some 
other  diseases  of  this  organ.     Treatment  is  of  no  avail. 

RUPTURE    OF    THE    HEART. 

This  may  occur  as  the  result  of  some  previous  disease,  as  fatty  de- 
generation, dilatation  with  weakness  of  the  muscular  walls,  etc.  It 
may  be  caused  by  external  violence,  a  crushing  fall,  pressure  of  some 
great  weight,  etc.  Usually,  death  follows  a  rupture  very  quickly, 
though  an  animal  may  live  for  some  time  when  the  rent  is  not  very 
large. 

WEAKNESS   OF   THE   HEART. 

This  may  arise  from  general  debility,  the  result  of  exhausting  disease, 
overwork  or  heart  strain,  or  loss  of  blood.  It  is  indicated  by  a  small, 
leeble,  but  generally  regular  pulse,  coldness  of  the  body,  etc. 

Treatment. — This  should  be  directed  to  support  and  increase  the 
strength  of  the  animal,  by  tonics,  rest,  and  nutritious  food.  Carbonate 
of  ammonia  may  be  given  to  stimulate  the  heart's  action  and  to  pre- 
vent the  formation  of  heart-clot. 

CONGESTION   OF   THE   HEART. 

Congestion,  or  an  accumulation  of  the  blood  in  the  cavities  of  the 
heart,  may  occur  in  consequence  of  fibrinous  deposits  interfering  with 
the  free  movements  of  the  valves,  usually  the  product  of  endocarditis. 

Symptoms. — Great  difficulty  of  breathing,  paleness  of  the  visible  mu- 
cous membranes,  great  anxiety,  frequently  accompanied  by  a  general 
tremor  and  cold  perspiration,  followed  by  death.  It  usually  results  in 
death  very  quickly. 

CYANOSIS. 

This  is  a  condition  sometimes  found  in  foals  immediately  after  birth, 
and  is  due  to  non-closure  of  the  for-amen  ovale,  which  allows  a  mixtuer 
of  the  venous  with  the  arterial  blood  in  the  left  cavities  of  the  heart. 
It  is  characterized  by  a  dark  purple  or  bluish  color  of  the  visible  mucous 
membranes,  shortness  of  breath,  and  general  feebleness.  Foals  thus 
affected  generally  live  only  a  few  hours  after  birth. 

DISEASES    OF    ARTERIES — ARTERITIS    AND   ENDARTERITIS. 

Inflammation  of  arteries  is  rarely  observed  in  the  horse  as  a  pri- 
mary affection.  Direct  injuries,  such  as  blows,  may  produce  a  contu- 
sion and  subsequent  inflammation  of  the  wall  of  an  artery ;  severe 
muscular  strain  may  involve  an  arterial  trunk;  hypertrophy  of  the 
heart,  by  increasing  arterial  tension,  may  result  in  the  production  of  a 
general  endarteritis.  Septic  infection  may  affect  the  inner  coat  and 
ultimately  involve  all  three,  or  it  may  be  the  result  of  an  inflammation 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  vessels,  etc.     Inflammation  of  arteries,  whatever 


237 

the  cause  may  be,  often  leads  to  very  serious  results  in  the  development 
of  secondary  changes  in  their  walls.  Arteritis  may  be  acute,  subacute, 
or  chronic ;  when  the  inner  coat  alone  is  affected  it  is  known  as  endar- 
teritis. 

Symptoms. — Arteritis  is  characterized  by  a  jjainful  swelling  along  the 
intiamed  vessel,  throbbing  pulse,  coldness  of  the  parts  supplied  by  the 
inflamed  vessel,  sometimes  the  formation  of  gangrenous  sloughs,  sup- 
puration, abscess,  etc.  In  an  inflammation  of  the  iliac  arteries  we  find 
coldness  and  excessive  lameness  or  i^aralysis  of  one  or  both  hind  limbs. 

Pathology. — In  acute  arteritis  we  find  swelling  along  the  vessel,  loss 
of  elasticity,  friability,  and  thickening  of  the  walls;  a  roughness  and 
loss  of  gloss  of  the  inner  coat,  with  the  formation  of  coagula  or  pus  in 
the  vessel.  Subacute  or  chronic  arteritis  may  affect  only  the  the  outer 
Qoat— periarteritis ;  both  the  outer  and  middle  coat,  or  the  inner  coat 
alone — endarteritis  ;  and  by  weakening  the  respective  coats  leads  to  rup- 
ture, aneurism,  or  to  degenerations,  such  as  bony,  calcareous,  fatty, 
atheromatous,  etc.  It  may  also  lead  to  sclerosis  or  increase  of  fibrous 
tissue,  especially  in  the  kidneys,  when  it  may  result  in  the  condition 
known  as  arterio-capillary  fibrosis.  Chronic  endarteritis  is  fruitful  in 
the  production  of  thrombus  and  atheroma.  Arteritis  may  be  limited  to 
single  trunks,  or  it  may  affect,  more  or  less,  all  the  arteries  of  the  body. 
Arteries  which  are  at  the  seat  of  chronic  endarteritis  are  liable  to  suf- 
fer degenerative  changes,  consisting  chiefly  of  fatty  degeneration,  cal- 
cification, or  the  breaking  down  of  the  degenerated  tissue,  and  the 
formation  of  erosions  or  ulcer-like  openings  in  the  inner  coat.  These 
erosions  are  frequently  called  atheromatous  ulcers,  and  fragments  of 
tissue  from  these  ulcers  may  be  carried  into  the  circulation,  forming 
emboli.  Fibrinous  thrombi  are  apt  to  form  upon  the  roughened  sur- 
face of  the  inner  coat,  or  upon  the  surface  of  the  erosions. 

Fatty  degeneration  and  calcification  of  the  middle  and  outer  coats 
may  occur,  and  large,  hard,  calcareous  plates  project  inward,  upon  which 
thrombi  may  form  or  maj^  exist  in  connection  with  atheroma  of  the  in- 
ner coat.  When  there  is  much  thickening  and  increase  of  new  tissue 
in  the  wall  of  the  affected  artery,  it  may  encroach  upon  the  capacity  of 
the  vessel,  and  even  lead  to  obliteration.  This  is  often  associated  with 
interstitial  inflammation  of  glandular  organs. 

Treatment. — Carbonate  of  potassa  in  dram  doses,  to  be  given  in  four 
ounces  liquor  acetate  of  ammonia  every  six  hours.  Scalded  bran  suffi- 
cient to  produce  loosening  of  the  bowels,  and  complete  rest.  Exter- 
nally, applications  of  hot  water  or  hot  hop  infusion. 

ATHEROMA. 

Atheroma  is  a  direct  result  of  an  existing  chronic  endarteritis,  the 
lining  membrane  of  the  vessels  being  invariably  involved  to  a  greater 
or  less  degree.    It  is  most  frequently  found  in  the  arteries,  although 


238 

the  veins  may  develop  an  atlieromntons  condition  wLen  exposed  to  any 
source  of  prolonged  irritation.  Atheroma  may  affect  arteries  in  any 
jiart  of  the  body;  in  some  instances  almost  every  vessel  is  diseased,  in 
others  only  a  few,  or  even  parts  of  one  vessel.  It  is  a  very  common 
result  of  endocarditis  extending  into  the  aorta,  which  we  find  perhaps 
the  most  frequent  seat  of  atheroma.  As  a  result  of  this  condition  the 
affected  vessel  becomes  impaired  in  its  contractile  power,  loses  its  nat- 
ural strength,  and  in  consequence  of  its  inability  to  sustain  its  accus- 
tomed internal  pressure,  undergoes,  in  many  cases,  dilatation  at  the  seat 
of  disease,  constituting  awewmm.  In  an  atheromatous  vessel,  calcare- 
ous deposits  soon  occur,  whicli  render  it  rigid,  brittle,  and  subject  to 
ulceration  or  rupture.  In  such  vessels  the  contractility  is  destroyed, 
the  middle  coat  atrophied  and  beyond  repair.  Atheroma  in  the  vessels 
of  the  brain  is  a  frequent  cause  of  cerebral  apoplexy.  jS^o  symptoms 
are  manifested  by  which  we  can  recognize  this  condition  during  life. 

CONSTRICTION   OF   AN   AKTERY. 

This  is  usually  the  result  of  arteritis,  and  may  partly  or  wholly  be 
impervious  to  the  flow  of  blood.  When  this  occurs  in  a  large  vessel  it 
may  be  followed  by  gangrene  of  the  parts;  usually,  however,  collateral 
circulation  will  be  established  to  nourish  the  parts  previously  supplied 
by  the  obliterated  vessel.  In  a  few  instances  constriction  of  the  aorta 
has  i)roduced  death. 

ANEURISM. 

Aneurism  is  usually  described  as  true  and  false.  True  aneurism  is  a 
dilatation  of  the  coats  of  an  artery  over  a  larger  or  smaller  part  of  its 
course.  Such  dilatations  are  usually  due  to  chronic  endarteritis  and 
atheroma.  False  aneurism  is  formed  after  a  puncture  of  au  tirtery  by 
a  dilatation  of  the  adhesive  lymph  by  which  the  puncture  was  united. 

Symptoms. — If  the  aneurism  is  seated  along  the  neck  or  a  limb,  it  ap- 
pears as  a  tumor  in  the  course  of  an  artery,  and  pulsating  with  it.  The 
tumor  is  round,  soft,  and  compressible,  and  yields  a  peculiar  fluctuation 
upon  pressure.  By  applying  the  ear  over  it  a  peculiar  purring  or  hiss- 
ing sound  may  sometimes  be  heard.  Pulsation,  synchronous  with  the 
action  of  the  heart,  is  the  diagnostic  symptom.  It  is  of  a  slow,  expan- 
sive, and  heavy  character,  as  if  the  whole  tumor  were  enlarging  under 
the  hand.  Aneurisms  seated  internally  may  occupy  the  cavity  of  the 
cranium,  chest,  or  abdomen.  As  regards  the  first,  little  is  known  dur- 
ing life,  for  all  the  symptoms  which  they  produce  may  arise  from  other 
causes.  Aneurism  of  the  anterior  aorta  may  be  situated  very  closely  to 
the  heart  or  in  the  arch,  and  it  is  very  seldom  that  we  can  distinguish  it 
from  disease  of  the  lieart.  The  tumor  may  encroach  upon  the  wind-pipe 
and  produce  difficulty  in  breathing,  or  it  may  produce  pressure  upon  the 
venae  cavse  or  the  thoracic  duct,  obstructing  the  flow  of  blood  and  lymph. 


239 

In  fact,  whatever  parts  the  aneurism  may  reach  or  subject  to  its  pres- 
sure, may  have  their  functions  suspended  or  disturbed.  When  the 
tumor  in  the  chetst  is  large  we  generally  find  much  irregularity  in  the 
action  of  the  heart;  the  superficial  veins  of  the  neck  are  distended,  and 
there  is  usually  dropsical  swelling  under  the  breast  and  of  the  limbs. 
There  may  be  a  very  tr<>ublesorae  cough  without  any  evidence  of  lung 
affection.  Sometimes  pulsation  of  the  tumor  may  be  felt  at  the  lower 
part  of  the  neck  where  it  joins  the  chest.  When  ihe  aneurism  occurs 
in  the  posterior  aorta  no  diagnostic  symptoms  are  appreciable;  when  it 
occurs  in  the  internal  iliac  arteries  an  examination  per  rectum  will  re- 
veal it. 

There  is  one  form  of  aneurism  which  is  not  unfrequeutly  overlooked, 
aff"ecting  the  anterior  mesenteric  artery,  primarily  induced  by  a  worm — 
the  Strongylus  armafus.  This  worm  produces  an  arteritis,  with  atheroma, 
degeneration,  and  dilatation  of  the  mesenteric  arteries,  associated  with 
thrombus  and  aneurism.  The  aneurism  gives  rise  to  colic,  which  ap- 
pears periodically  in  a  very  violent  and  often  persistent  type.  Ordinary 
colic  remedies  have  no  effect,  and  after  a  time  the  animal  succumbs  to 
the  disease.  In  all  cases  of  animals  which  are  habitually  subject  to 
colicky  attacks,  parasitic  aneurism  of  the  anterior  mesenteric  artery 
may  be  suspected. 

Fathology. — Aneurisms  maybe  diff"use  or  sacculated.  The  diffuse  con- 
sists in  a  uniform  dilatation  of  all  the  coats  of  an  artery,  so  that  it  as- 
sumes the  shape  of  a  cylindrical  swelling.  The  wall  of  the  aneurism 
is  atheromatous  or  calcified ;  the  middle  coat  may  be  atrophied.  The 
sacculated  or  circumscribed  aneurism  consists  either  in  a  dilatation  of 
the  entire  circumference  of  an  artery  over  a  short  portion  of  its  length, 
or  in  a  dilatation  of  only  a  small  portion  of  one  side  of  the  wall.  Aneu- 
rism may  become  very  large;  as  it  increases  in  size  it  presses  upon  and 
causes  the  destruction  of  neighboring  tissues.  The  cavity  of  the  auen- 
rismal  sac  is  filled  with  fluid  or  clotted  blood,  or  with  layers  of  fibrin 
which  adhere  closely  to  its  wall.  Death  is  produced  usually  by  the 
pressure  and  interference  of  the  aneurism  with  adjoining  organs,  or  by 
rupture.  In  worm  aneurism  we  usually  find  large  thrombi  within  the 
aneurismal  dilatation  of  the  artery,  which  sometimes  plug  the  whole 
vessel  or  extend  into  the  aorta.  Portions  of  this  thrombus  or  clot  may 
be  washed  away  and  produce  embolism  of  a  smaller  artery.  The  effect 
in  either  case  is  to  produce  anaemia  of  the  intestinal  canal,  serous  or 
bloody  exudation  in  its  walls,  which  leads  to  paralysis  of  the  intestine 
and  resultant  colicky  symptoms. 

Treatment. — The  only  treatment  advisable  is  to  extirpate  or  ligate  the 
tumor  above  and  below. 

RUPTURE    OF   AN   ARTERY. 

Endarteritis,  with  its  subsequent  changes  in  the  walls  of  arteries,  is 
the  primary  cause  of  rupture  iu  the  majority  of  instances.     The  rupture 


240 

may  be  i)artifil,  involving  only  one  or  two  coats,  and  will  tben  form  an 
aneurism.  If  complete,  it  may  produce  death  when  it  involves  a  large 
vessel,  especially  if  it  is  situated  in  one  of  the  large  cavities  permitting 
an  excessive  escape  of  blood.  Kupture  may  be  produced  by  mechanical 
violence  or  accident. 

Symptoms. — In  fatal  rupture  associated  with  profuse  bleeding,  the 
animal  becomes  weak,  the  visible  mucuous  membranes  become  blauclied, 
the  breathing  hurried  or  gasping,  pupils  dilated,  staggering  in  gait, 
syncope,  death.  When  the  hemorrhage  is  limited,  the  symptoms  may 
not  become  noticeable  ;  if  it  is  near  the  surface  of  the  body  a  round  or 
diffuse  swelling  or  tumor  may  form,  constituting  a  hygroma.  If  the 
rupture  is  associated  with  an  external  wound  the  bleeding  artery  should 
be  ligated,  or  where  a  bandage  is  applicable,  pressure  may  be  applied 
by  tight  bandaging.  As  a  secondary  result  of  rupture  of  an  artery  we 
may  have  formation  of  abscess,  gangrene  of  a  part,  etc. 

Treatment. — When  rupture  of  a  deep-seated  artery  is  suspected,  large 
doses  of  fluid  extract  of  ergot  may  be  given  to  produce  contraction  of 
the  blood-vessels.  Tannin  and  iron  are  also  useful.  The  animal  should 
be  allowed  to  have  as  much  water  as  he  desires.  Afterwards  stimulants 
and  nourishing  food  are  indicated. 

THROMBUS  AND   EMBOLISM. 

By  thrombosis  is  generally  understood  the  partial  or  complete  closure 
of  a  vessel  by  a  morbid  product  developed  at  the  site  of  the  obstruc- 
tion. The  coagulum,  which  is  usually  fibrinous,  is  known  as  a  throm- 
bus. The  term  embolism  designates  an  obstruction  caused  by  any  body 
detached  and  transported  from  the  interior  of  the  heart,  or  of  some  ves- 
sel. Thrombi  occur  as  the  result  of  an  injury  to  the  wall  of  tbe  vessel, 
or  may  follow  its  compression  or  dilatation  ;  they  may  result  from  some 
alteration  of  the  wall  of  the  vessel  by  disease,  or  by  the  retardation  of 
the  circulation.  These  formations  may  occur  during  life,  in  the  heart, 
arteries,  veins,  or  in  the  i^ortal  system.  W' hen  a  portion  of  fibrin  coag- 
ulates in  one  of  the  arteries  and  is  carried  along  by  the  circulation,  it 
will  be  arrested,  of  course,  in  the  capillaries,  if  not  before  ;  when  in  the 
veins  it  may  not  be  sto^iped  until  it  reaches  the  lungs;  and  when  in  the 
portal  system  the  capillaries  of  the  liver  will  prevent  itsfurther  progress. 
The  formation  of  thrombi  may  act  primarily  by  causing  partial  or  com- 
l^lete  obstruction,  and  secondarily,  either  by  larger  or  smaller  frag- 
ments becoming  detached  from  their  end,  and  by  being  carried  along 
by  the  circulation  of  the  blood  to  remote  vessels,  embolism;  or  by  the 
coagulum  becoming  softened  and  converted  into  pus,  constituting  sup- 
purative phlebitis.  These  substances  occur  most  frequently  in  those 
affections  characterized  by  great  exhaustion  or  debility,  as  pneumonia, 
purpura  hoemorrhagica,  endocarditis,  phlebitis,  puerpural  fever,  hem- 
orrhages, etc.  These  concretions  may  form  suddenly  and  produce  in- 
stantaneous death  by  retarding  the  blood  current,  or  they  may  arise 


241 

gradually,  in  which  case  the  thrombi  may  be  organized  and  attached  to 
the  walls  of  the  heart,  or  they  may  soften,  and  fragments  of  them  (em- 
boli) may  be  carried  away.  The  small,  wart  like  excrescences,  occur- 
ring sometimes  in  endocarditis,  may  occasioually  form  a  foundation  on 
which  a  thrombi  may  develop. 

Symptoms. — When  heart  clot  or  thrombus  exists  in  the  right  side  the 
return  of  blood  from  the  body  and  the  aeration  in  the  lungs  is  im- 
peded, and  if  death  occurs  it  is  owing  to  syncope  rather  than  to  stran- 
gulation in  i)ulmonary  respiration.  There  will  be  hurried  and  gasping 
breathing,  paleness  and  coldness  of  the  surface  of  the  body,  a  feeble 
and  intermittent  or  fluttering  pulse,  and  fainting.  When  a  fibrinous 
coagulum  is  carried  into  the  pulmonary  artery  from  the  right  side  of  the 
heart,  the  indications  are  a  swelling  and  infiltration  of  the  lungs  and 
pulmonary  apoplexy.  When  the  clot  is  situated  in  the  left  cavities  of 
the  heart  or  in  the  aorta,  death,  if  it  occurs,  takes  place  either  suddenly 
or  at  the  end  of  a  few  hours  from  coma. 

Pathology. — When  a  coagulum  is  observed  in  the  heart  it  may  become 
a  question  whether  it  was  formed  during  life  or  after  death.  The  loose? 
dark  coagula,  so  often  found  after  death,  are  polypi.  If  the  deposition 
has  taken  place  during  the  last  moments  of  life,  the  fibrin  will  be  iso- 
lated and  soft,  but  not  adherent  to  the  walls;  if  it  be  isolated,  dense, 
and  adherent  or  closely  intertwined  with  the  muscles  of  the  papillag  and 
tendinous  cords,  the  deposition  has  occurred  more  or  less  remote  from 
the  act  of  dying.  Occasionally  the  fibrin  may  be  seen  lining  one  of  the 
cavities  of  the  heart,  like  a  false  endocardium,  or  else  forming  an  addi- 
tional coat  to  the  aorta  or  other  large  vessels  without  producing  much 
obstruction.  Thrombi,  in  some  iustau.'3es,  soften  in  their  centers,  and 
are  then  observed  to  contain  a  pus-like  substance.  If  this  softening  has 
extended  considerably  an  outer  shell  or  cyst  only  may  remain.  The 
sources  of  danger  exist  not  only  in  the  interruption  of  the  circulation  of 
the  blood,  but  also  in  a  morbid  state  of  the  system,  produced  by  the  dis- 
turbed nutrition  of  a  limb  or  organ,  as  well  as  the  mingling  of  purulent 
and  gangrenous  elements  with  the  blood. 

Treatment. — The  urgent  symptoms  should  be  relieved  by  rest,  stim- 
ulants, and  the  use  of  agents  which  will  act  as  solvents  to  the  fibrinous 
clots.  Alkalies  are  specially  useful  for  this  purpose.  Carbonate  of 
ammonia  may  be  administered  in  all  cases  of  thrombus,  and  should  be 
continued  for  a  long  time  in  small  doses  several  times  a  day.  In  cases 
of  great  debility  associated  with  a  low  grade  of  fever,  stimulants  and 
tonics,  and  nitro-muriatic  acid  as  an  antiseptic,  may  be  beneficial. 

DISEASES   OF   VEINS — PHLEBITIS. 

Intlammation  of  veins  may  be  simple  or  diffuse.    In  simple  phlebitis 
the  disease  of  the  vein  is  confined  to  a  circumscribed  or  limited  portion 
of  a  vein ;  in  diffuse  it  involves  the  vein  for  a  long  distance;  it  may  even 
extend  from  a  limb  or  foot  to  the  heart. 
11035 16 


242 

Cfltwsfis.— Phlebitis  may  be  induced  by  contusions  or  direct  injuries, 
an  extension  of  inflammation  from  surrounding  tissue,  as  in  abscess, 
formation  of  tumor,  or  malignant  growth.  It  is  often  due  to  embolism  of 
infective  material,  gangrenous  matter,  etc.  Blood-letting  from  the 
jugular  vein  is  occasionally  followed  by  dangerous  phlebitis. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  vary  according  to  the  extent  and  severity 
of  the  inflammation.  In  most  cases  the  vein  is  swollen,  thickened,  and 
indurated  to  such  a  degree  as  to  resemble  an  artery.  A  diffused 
swelling,  with  great  tenderness,  may  extend  along  the  affected  vessel 
and  the  animal  manifest  all  the  symptoms  connected  with  acute  fever 
and  general  functional  disturbance. 

Pathology. — The  disease  is  only  serious  when  large  veins  are  affected. 
The  coats  undergo  the  same  changes  as  in  arteritis,  clots  of  blood  and 
lymph  plug  the  inflamed  vessel,  and  if  the  inflammatory  process  con- 
tinues these  are  converted  into  pus,  which  ruptures  the  vessel  and  pro- 
duces a  deep  abscess  ;  or  it  may  be  carried  away  in  the  circulation  and 
produce  metastatic  abcess  in  the  lungs  or  other  remote  organs.  In 
mild  cases  the  clots  may  become  absorbed  and  the  vessel  restored  to 
health.  Phlebitis  in  the  course  of  the  veins  of  the  limbs  frequently  leads 
to  numerous  abscesses,  which  may  be  mistaken  for  farcy  ulcerations. 
A  very  common  result  of  phlebitis  is  an  obliteration  of  the  affected  por- 
tion of  the  vein,  but  as  collateral  circulation  is  readily  established  this 
is  seldom  of  any  material  inconvenience. 

Trefl^men./.— Phlebitis  should  be  treated  by  the  application  of  a  smart 
blister  along  the  course  of  the  inflamed  vessel ;  early  opening  of  any 
abscesses  which  may  form  ;  the  animal  should  have  complete  rest,  and 
the  bowels  be  kept  loose  with  bran  mashes.  When  the  fever  runs  high, 
half-ounce  doses  of  nitrate  of  potassa  may  be  given  in  the  drinking 
water,  which  may  be  changed  in  two  or  three  days  for  dram  doses  of 
the  iodide  of  potassa.  If  the  animal  becomes  debilitated,  carbonate  of 
ammonia,  1  dram,  and  powdered  gentian,  3  drams,  may  be  given  every 
six  hours. 

VARICOSE   VEINS — VARIX — DILATATION   OF   VEINS. 

This  may  be  a  result  of  weakening  of  the  coats  from  inflammatory 
disease  and  degeneration.  It  may  also  be  due  to  mechanical  obstruc- 
tion from  internal  or  external  sources.  It  is  sometimes  found  in  the 
vein  which  lies  superficial  over  the  inside  of  the  hock  joint,  and  may 
be  due  to  the  pressure  of  a  spavin.  Occasionally  it  may  be  observed 
in  stallions,  which  are  more  or  less  subject  to  varicocele  or  dilatation  of 
the  veins  of  the  testicular  cord.  Hemorrhoidal  veins  or  piles  are  occa- 
sionally met  with,  generally  in  horses  which  run  at  pasture.  Varicose 
veins  may  ulcerate  and  form  an  abscess  in  the  surrounding  tissues,  or 
they  may  rupture  from  internal  blood  pressure  and  the  blood  form 
large  tumors  where  the  tissues  are  soft. 

Treatment. — Stallions  which  manifest  a  tendency  to  varicocele  should 


243 

wear  suspensory  bags  when  they  are  exercised.  Piles  may  often  be  re- 
duced by  astringeut  washes — tea  made  from  white  oak  bark  or  a  satu- 
rated solution  of  alum.  Tlie  bowels  should  be  kept  loose  with  bran 
mashes  and  the  animal  kept  quiet  in  the  stable.  When  varicose  veins 
exist  superficially  and  threaten  to  produce  inconvenience,  they  may  be 
ligated  above  and  below  and  thus  obliterated.  Sometimes  absorption 
may  be  induced  by  constant  bandages. 

AIR   IN   VEINS— AIR   EMBOLISM. 

It  was  formerly  supposed  that  the  entrance  of  air  into  a  vein  at  the 
time  of  the  infliction  of  a  wound  or  in  blood-letting  was  extremely  dan- 
gerous  and  very  often  produced  sudden  death  by  interfering  with  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  through  the  heart  and  lungs.  Danger  from  air 
embolism  is  exceedingly  doubtful,  unless  great  quantities  were  forced 
into  a  large  vein  by  artificial  means. 

PURPURA   HEMORRHAGICA. 

Purpura  hemorrhagica  usually  occurs  as  a  sequel  to  debilitating  dis- 
eases, such  as  strangles,  influenza,  etc.  It  may,  however,  arise  in  the 
absence  of  any  previous  disease  in  badly  ventilated  stables,  among 
poorly-fed  horses,  and  in  animals  subject  to  exhausting  work  and  ex- 
treme temperatures.  It  is  apparently  due  to  a  primary  deterioration  of 
the  blood,  weakness  of  the  capillary  vessels,  and  general  debility  or  ex- 
haustion of  the  nervous  system.  Its  gravity  does  not  depend  so  much 
upon  the  amount  of  blood  extravasated  as  it  does  upon  the  disturbance 
or  diminished  action  of  the  vasomotor  centers. 

t>\jmptoms. — This  disease  becomes  manifested  by  the  occurrence  of 
sudden  swellings  on  various  parts  of  the  body,  on  the  head  or  lips,  limbs, 
abdomen,  etc.  They  may  be  diffused  or  very  markedly  circumscribed, 
though  in  the  advanced  stages  they  cover  large  areas.  They  pit  on 
pressure  and  are  but  slightly  painful  to  the  touch.  The  limbs  may 
swell  to  a  very  large  size,  the  nostrils  may  become  almost  closed,  and 
the  head  and  throat  may  swell  to  the  point  of  suffocation.  The  swell- 
ings not  infrequently  disappear  from  one  portion  of  the  body  and  de- 
velop on  another,  or  may  recede  from  the  surface  and  invade  the  intes- 
tinal mucous  membrane.  The  mucous  lining  of  the  nostrils  and  mouth 
is  covered  with  dark  red  or  purple  spots,  a  bloody  colored  serum  flows 
from  the  nostrils,  the  tongue  may  be  swollen  and  prevent  eating  or 
closing  of  the  jaws.  In  twenty-four  or  forty-eight  hours  bloody  serum 
may  exude  through  the  skin  over  the  swollen  parts,  and  finally  large 
gangrenous  sloughs  may  form.  Tlie  temperature  is  never  very  high, 
the  pulse  is  frequent  and  compressible,  and  becomes  feebler  as  the  ani- 
mal loses  strength.  A  cough  is  usually  present.  The  urine  is  scanty 
and  high  colored,  and  when  the  intestines  are  much  affected  a  bloody 
diarrhea  may  set  in,  with  colicky  pains.     Some  of  the  internal  organs 


244 

t)ecorae  implicated  in  the  disease,  the  Inng-s  may  become  oedematous^ 
extravasation  may  occur  in  the  intestinal  canal,  or  effusion  of  serum 
into  the  cavity  of  the  chest  or  abdomen ;  occasionally  the  brain  becomes 
affected.  A  few  cases  run  a  mild  course  and  recovery  may  commence 
in  three  or  four  days,  generally,  however,  the  outlook  is  unfavorable. 
In  severe  cases  septic  poisoning  is  liable  to  occur,  which  soon  brings 
the  case  to  a  fatal  issue. 

Pathology. — On  section  we  find  the  capillaries  dilated,  the  connective 
tissue  filled  with  a  coagulable  or  coagulated  lymph,  and  frequently  we 
may  discover  gangrenous  spots  beneath  the  skin  or  involving  the  skin. 
The  lymphatic  glands  are  swollen  and  inflamed.  Extensive  extravasa- 
tions of  blood  may  be  found  imbedded  between  the  coats  of  the  intes- 
tines, or  excessive  effusion  into  the  substance  of  the  lungs. 

Treatment. — Diffusible  stimulants  and  tonics  should  be  given  from 
the  very  start,  regardless  of  fever  or  frequency  of  the  pulse.  Carbon- 
ate of  ammonia,  1  dram;  fluid  extract  of  red  cinchona  bark,  2  drams,  and 
tincture  of  ginger  half  an  ounce,  with  half  a  pint  of  water;  thin  gruel  or 
milk  should  be  given  every  four  or  six  hours.  Sulphate  of  iron  in  dram 
doses  may  be  dissolved  in  water  and  given  every  six  hours.  Chlorate 
of  potassa  in  2-ounce  doses  may  be  given  every  eight  or  twelve  hours. 
When  the  discharges  from  the  mouth  and  nose  become  offensive  to  the 
smell,  10  drops  of  carbolic  acid  in  2  ounces  of  water  may  be  given  in  a 
drench,  or  thrown  on  the  root  of  the  tongue  with  a  syringe  several  times 
a  day.  Where  the  swelling  is  very  great,  incisions  half  an  inch  in 
length  penetrating  the  skin  should  be  made  with  a  sharp  knife,  to  per- 
mit drainage.  The  application  of  linimeuts  or  washes  externally  are  of 
no  use,  and  if  injudiciously  used  may  do  harm.  Complications,  when 
they  arise,  must  be  treated  with  proper  circumspection. 

DISEASES   OF   THE   LYMPHATIC    SYSTEM. 

The  lymphatic  or  absorbent  system  is  connected  with  the  blood  vas- 
cular system,  and  consists  of  a  series  of  tubes  which  absorb  and  convey 
to  the  blood  certain  fluids.  These  tubes  lead  to  lymphatic  glands, 
through  which  the  fluids  pass  to  reach  the  right  lymphatic  vein  and 
thoracic  duct,  both  of  which  enter  the  venous  system  near  the  heart. 
Through  the  excessively  thin  walls  of  the  capillaries  the  fluid  part  of 
the  blood  transudes,  to  nourish  the  tissues  outside  the  capillaries ;  at 
the  same  time  fluid  passes  from  the  tissues  into  the  blood.  The  fluid, 
after  it  passes  into  the  tissues,  constitutes  the  lymph,  and  acts  like  a 
stream  irrigating  the  tissue  elements.  Much  of  the  surplus  of  this 
lymph  passes  into  the  lymph  vessels,  which  in  their  commencement  can 
hardly  be  treated  as  independent  structures,  since  their  walls  are  so 
closely  joined  with  the  tissues  through  which  they  pass,  being  nothing 
more  than  spaces  in  the  connective  tissue  until  they  reach  the  larger 
lymph  vessels,  which  finally  empty  into  lymph  glands.  These  lymph 
glands  are  structures  so  placed  that  the  lymx)h  flowing  towards  the 


245 

larger  trunks  passes  through  them,  undergoing  a  sort  of  filtration.  From 
the  fact  of  this  arrangement  lymph  glands  are  subject  to  inflammatory 
diseases  in  the  vicinity  of  diseased  structures,  because  infective  mate- 
rial being  conveyed  in  the  lymph  stream  lodges  in  the  glands  and  pro- 
duces irritation. 

LOCAL   INFLAMMATION   AND   ABSCESS   OF   LYMPHATIC    GLANDS. 

Acute  inflammation  of  the  lymph  glands  usually  occurs  in  connection 
with  some  inflammatory  process  in  the  region  from  which  its  lymph  is 
gathered.  Several  or  all  of  the  glands  in  a  cluster  may  become  affected, 
as  in  strangles,  nasal  catarrh,  or  nasal  gleet,  diseased  or  ulcerated  teeth, 
the  lymph  glands  between  the  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  almost  inva- 
riably become  affected,  which  may  lead  to  suppuration  or  induration. 
Similar  results  obtain  in  other  portions  of  the  body;  in  pneumonia  the 
bronchial  glands  become  affected;  in  pharyngitis,  the  post-pharyugeal 
glands  lying  above  the  trachea  become  affected,  etc. 

8i/mj>toms. — The  glands  swell  and  become  painful  to  the  touch,  the 
connective  tissue  surrounding  them  becomes  involved,  suppuration 
usually  takes  place,  and  one  or  more  abscesses  form.  If  the  inflamma- 
tion is  of  a  milder  type,  resolution  may  take  place  and  the  swelling 
recede,  the  exudative  material  being  absorbed,  and  the  gland  restored 
without  the  occurrence  of  suppuration.  In  the  limbs  a  whole  chain  of 
the  glands  along  the  lymphatic  vessels  may  become  affected,  as  in  farcy, 
phlebitis,  or  septic  poisoning. 

Treatment. — Fomentation  with  hot  water,  the  application  of  cam- 
phorated soap  liniment,  or  camphorated  oil,  may  produce  a  revulsive 
action  and  prevent  suppuration.  If  there  is  any  indication  of  abscess 
forming,  poultices  of  linseed  meal  and  bran  made  into  a  paste  with  hot 
water  should  be  applied,  or  a  mild  blistering  ointment  rubbe  d  in  over 
the  swollen  gland.  As  soon  as  fluctuation  can  be  felt  a  free  opening 
must  be  made  for  the  escape  of  the  contained  pus.  The  wound  may 
subsequently  be  washed  out  with  a  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc,  5  grains 
to  the  ounce  of  water,  three  times  a  day. 

HYPERTROPHIED   LYMPHATICS. 

This  is  characterized  by  an  enlargement  and  growth  of  lymphatic 
glands ;  the  causes  are  obscure,  but  they  sometimes  attain  an  enormous 
size,  and  seriously  interfere  with  neighboring  organs.  This  condition 
is  sometimes  found  in  the  region  of  the  throat  above  the  larynx,  and 
produces  wheezing  or  roaring,  by  pressing  upon  the  recurrent  laryngeal 
nerve.  It  may  occur  in  the  bronchial  glands  of  the  chest,  and  interfere 
with  the  action  of  the  heart  and  respiration.  The  swelling  is  not  pain- 
ful or  feverish,  it  may  be  very  hard  or  may  be  rather  soft ;  occasionally 
they  contain  a  cheesy  deposit  or  even  undergo  calcification.  A  condition 
almost  similar  to  this  may  be  induced  by  chronic  inflammation.  In  such 
cases,  however,  the  glandular  structure  may  become  lessened,  as  the 


246 

result  of  pressure  by  an  increase  of  fibrous  or  connective  tissue,  altbougli 
a  large  tumor  at  the  site  of  the  gland  remains.  This  may  become  grad- 
ually absorbed,  more  often,  however,  recurrence  of  inflammation  takes 
place  and  frequently  small  abscesses  form. 

Treatment— Uei^eated  blistering  with  ointment  of  cantharides  8  parts, 
bin-iodide  of  mercury  1  part,  to  be  thoroughly  mixed  and  applied  once 
in  ten  days  or  two  weeks.  If  this  fails,  extirpation  will  become  neces- 
sary. 

LYMPHANGITIS. 

Specific  inflammation  of  the  lymphatic  structures,  usually  affecting  the 
hind  leg,  very  seldom  a  fore  leg.  This  disease  is  very  sudden  in  its 
attack,  exceedingly  painful,  accompanied  by  a  high  temperature,  and 
great  general  disturbance. 

Causes.— UoTses  of  lymphatic  or  sluggish  temperament  are  predis- 
posed to  this  affection.  It  usually  attacks  well-fed  animals,  and  in  such 
cases  may  be  due  to  an  excess  of  nutritive  elements  in  the  blood.  Sud- 
den changes  in  work  or  in  the  habits  of  the  animal  may  inducean  attack. 

8ymptoms.—It  is  usually  ushered  in  by  a  chill,  rise  in  temperature, 
and  some  uneasiness;  in  a  very  short  time  this  is  followed  by  lameness 
in  one  leg  and  swelling  on  the  inside  of  the  thigh.  The  swelling  gradu- 
ally surrounds  the  whole  limb,  continues  on  downward  until  it  reaches 
the  foot.  The  limb  is  excessively  tender  to  the  touch,  the  animal  per- 
spires, the  breathing  is  accelerated,  pulse  hard  and  quick,  and  the  tem- 
perature may  reach  lOG^  Fah.  The  bowels  early  become  constipated, 
and  the  urine  scanty.  The  symptoms  usually  are  on  the  increase  for 
about  two  days,  then  they  remain  stationary  for  the  same  length  of 
time ;  the  fever  then  abates ;  the  swelling  recedes  and  becomes  less 
painful.  It  is  very  seldom,  though,  that  all  the  swelling  leaves  the  leg; 
generally  it  leaves  some  permanent  enlargement,  and  the  animal  be- 
comes subject  to  recurrent  attacks.  Occasionally,  the  inguinal  lym- 
phatic glands  (in  the  groin)  undergo  suppuration,  and  pyasmia  may 
supervene  and  prove  fatal.  In  severe  cases  the  limb  becomes  denuded 
of  hair  in  patches,  the  skin  remains  indurated  with  a  fibrous  growth, 
which  is  known  by  the  name  of  elephantiasis. 

Treatment. — Fomentations  with  vinegar  and  water,  equal  parts,  to 
which  add  2  ounces  of  nitrate  of  potassa  for  each  gallon.  This  should  be 
applied  every  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  for  six  or  eight  hours,  then  the  leg 
may  be  dried  with  a  woolen  cloth  and  bathed  with  camphorated  soap 
liniment.  Internally,  administer  tincture  of  digitalis  and  aconite  root, 
equal  parts  of  each,  30  drops  every  hour  until  the  fever  and  pulse  be- 
come reduced.  Half-ounce  doses  of  nitrate  of  potassa  in  the  drinking- 
water  every  six  hours,  bran  m  ashes,  and  complete  rest.  This  treatment, 
if  instituted  early  in  the  attack,  very  frequently  brings  about  a  remark- 
able change  within  twenty-four  hours. 


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DISEASES  OF  THE  EYE. 


By  Dr.  JAMES  LAW,   F.  R.  C.  V.  S., 

Professor  of  Veterinary  Science,  etc.,  Cornell  University. 


We  can  scarcely  overestimate  the  value  of  sound  eyes  in  the  horse, 
and  hence  all  diseases  and  injuries  which  seriously  interfere  with  vision 
are  matters  of  extreme  gravity  and  apprehension,  for  should  they  prove 
permanent  they  invariably  depreciate  the  selling  price  to  a  considerable 
extent.  A  blind  horse  is  always  dangerous  in  the  saddle  or  in  single 
harness,  and  he  is  scarcely  less  so  when,  with  partially  impaired  vision, 
he  sees  things  imperfectly,  in  a  distorted  form  or  in  a  wrong  place,  and 
when  he  shies  or  avoids  objects  which  are  commonplace  or  familiar. 
When  we  add  to  this  that  certain  diseases  of  the  eyes,  like  recurring 
inflammation  (moon  blindness),  are  habitually  transmitted  from  parent 
to  offspring,  we  can  realize  still  more  fully  the  importance  of  these  mala- 
dies. Again,  as  a  mere  matter  of  beauty,  a  sound,  full,  clear,  intelligent 
eye  is  something  which  must  always  add  a  high  value  to  our  equine 
friends  and  servants. 

THE  EYEBALL. 

A  full  description  of  the  structure  of  the  eye  is  incompatible  with  our 
prescribed  limits,  and  yet  a  short  description  is  absolutely  essential  to 
the  clear  understanding  of  what  is  to  follow. 

The  horse's  eye  is  a  spheroidal  body,  flattened  behind,  and  with  its 
posterior  four-tifths  inclosed  by  an  opaque,  white,  strong  fibrous  mem- 
brane (the  sclerotic),  on  the  inner  side  of  which  is  laid  a  more  delicate 
friable  membrane,  consisting  mainly  of  blood-vessels  and  pigment  cells 
(the  choroid),  and  that  in  its  turn  is  lined  by  the  extremely  delicate  and 
sensitive  expansion  of  the  nerve  of  sight  (the  retina).  The  anterior  fifth 
of  the  globe  of  the  eye  bulges  forward  from  what  would  have  been  the 
direct  line  of  the  sclerotic,  and  thus  forms  a  segment  of  a  much  smaller 
sphere  than  is  inclosed  by  the  sclerotic.  Its  walls,  too,  have  in  health 
a  perfect  translucency  from  which  it  has  derived  the  name  of  trayisp are nt 
cornea.  This  transparent  coat  is  composed,  in  the  main,  of  fibres  with 
lymph  interspaces,  and  it  is  to  the  condition  of  these  and  their  conden- 
sation and  compression  that  the  translucency  is  largely  due.  This  may 
be  shown  by  comjiressing  with  the  fingers  the  eye  of  an  ox  which  has  just 

247 


248 

been  killed,  wlien  the  clear  transparent  cornea  will  suddenly  become 
clouded  over  with  a  whitish  blue  opacity,  and  this  will  remain  until  the 
compression  is  interrupted.  The  interior  of  the  eye  contains  three  trans- 
parent  media  for  the  refraction  of  the  rays  of  light,  on  their  way  from  the 
cornea  to  the  visual  nerve.  Of  these  media  the  anterior  one  (aqueous 
humor)  is  liquid,  the  posterior  (vitreous  humor)  is  semi-solid,  and  the 
intermediate  one  (crystalline  lens)  is  solid.  The  space  occupied  by  the 
aqueous  humor  corresponds  nearly  to  the  portion  of  the  eye  covered  by 
the  transparent  cornea.  It  is,  however,  divided  into  two  chambers,  an- 
terior and  posterior,  by  the  iris,  a  contractile  curtain  with  a  hole  in  the 
center  (the  pupil),  and  which  may  be  looked  on  as  in  some  sense  a  projec- 
tion inward  of  the  vascular  and  pigmentary  coat  from  its  anterior  margin 
at  the  point  where  the  sclerotic  or  opaque  outer  coat  becomes  continuous 
with  the  cornea  or  transparent  one.  This  iris,  or  curtain,  besides  its 
abundance  of  blood-vessels  and  pigment,  possesses  two  sets  of  muscular 
fibers,  one  set  radiating  from  the  margin  of  the  pupil  to  the  outer  border 
of  the  curtain  at  its  attach  ment  to  the  sclerotic  and  choroid,  and  the  other 
encircling  the  pupil  in  the  manner  of  a  ring.  The  action  of  the  two  sets 
is  necessarily  antagonistic,  the  radiating  fibers  dilating  the  pupil  and 
exposing  the  interior  of  the  eye  to  view,  while  the  circular  fibers  con- 
tract this  opening  and  shut  out  the  rays  of  light.  The  form  of  the  pupil 
in  the  horse  is  ovoid,  with  its  longest  diameter  from  side  to  side  and  its 
upper  border  is  fringed  by  several  minute  black  bodies  (corpora  nigra) 
projecting  forward  and  serving  to  some  extent  the  purpose  of  eyebrows 
in  arresting  and  absorbing  the  excess  of  rays  of  light  which  fall  upon 
the  eye  from  above.  These  pigmentary  projections  in  front  of  the  upper 
border  of  the  pupil  are  often  mistaken  for  the  products  of  disease  or  in- 
jury, in  place  of  the  normal  and  beneficient  protectors  of  the  nerve  of 
sight  which  they  are.  They  may,  like  all  other  parts,  become  the  seat  of 
disease,  but  so  long  as  they  and  the  iris  retain  their  clear,  dark  aspect, 
without  any  tints  of  brown  or  yellow,  they  may  be  held  to  be  healthy. 

The  vitreous  or  semi-solid  refracting  medium  occupies  the  posterior 
part  of  the  eye— the  part  corresponding  to  the  sclerotic,  choroid,  and 
retina— and  has  a  consistency  corresponding  to  that  of  the  white  of  an 
egg,  and  a  power  of  refraction  of  the  light-rays  correspondingly  greater 
than  the  aqueous  humor. 

The  third  or  solid  refracting  medium  is  a  biconvex  lens,  with  its  con- 
vexity greatest  on  its  posterior  surface,  which  is  lodged  in  a  depression 
in  the  vitreous  humor,  while  its  anterior  surface  corresponds  to  the 
opening  of  the  pupil.  It  is  inclosed  in  a  membranous  covering  (cap- 
sule), and  is  maintained  in  posirion  by  a  membrane  (suspensory  liga- 
ment) which  extends  from  the  margin  of  the  lens  outward  to  the  scle- 
rotic at  the  point  of  junction  of  the  choroid  and  iris.  This  ligament  is, 
in  its  turn,  furnished  with  radiating  muscular  fibers,  which  change  the 
form  or  position  of  the  lens  so  as  to  adapt  it  to  see  with  equal  clearness 
objects  at  a  distance  or  close  by. 


249 

Anotlier  point  wbicli  strikes  the  observer  of  tlie  horse's  eye  is  that  in 
the  darkuess  a  bright  bluish  tinge  is  reflected  from  the  widely-dilated 
pupil.  This  is  owing  to  a  comparative  absence  of  pigment  in  the  cho- 
roid coat  inside  the  upper  part  of  the  eyeball,  and  enables  the  animal 
to  see  and  advance  with  security  in  darkuess  where  the  human  eye 
would  be  of  little  use.  The  lower  part  of  the  cavity  of  the  horse's  eye, 
into  which  the  dazzling  rays  fall  from  the  sky,  is  furnished  with  an  in- 
tensely black  lining,  by  which  the  rays  penetrating  the  inner  nervous 
layer  are  instantly  absorbed. 

MUSCLES   OF   THE   EYE. 

These  consist  of  four  straight  muscles,  two  oblique  and  one  retractor. 
The  straight  muscles  pass  from  the  depth  of  the  orbit  forward  on  the 
inner,  outer,  upper,  and  lower  sides  of  the  eyeball,  and  are  fixed  to  the 
anterior  portion  of  the  fibrous  (sclerotic)  coat,  so  that  in  contracting 
singly  they  respectively  turn  the  eye  inward,  outward,  upward,  and 
downward.  When  all  act  together  they  draw  the  eyeball  deeply  into 
its  socket.  The  retractor  muscle  also  consists  of  four  muscular  slips, 
repeating  the  straight  muscles  on  a  smaller  scale,  but  as  they  are  only 
attached  on  the  back  part  of  the  eyeball  they  are  less  adapted  to  roll 
the  eye  than  to  draw  it  down  into  its  socket.  The  two  oblique  muscles 
rotate  the  eye  on  its  own  axis,  the  upper  one  turning  its  outer  surface 
upward  and  inward,  and  the  lower  one  turning  it  downward  and  inward. 

THE  HAW — THE  WINKING  CARTILAGE— CARTILAGO  NICTATANS. 

This  is  a  structure,  wliich,  like  the  retractor  muscle,  is  not  found  in 
the  eye  of  man,  but  it  serves  in  the  lower  animals  to  assist  in  removing 
foreign  bodies  from  the  front  of  the  eyeball.  It  consists,  in  the  horse, 
of  a  cartilage  of  irregular  form,  thickened  inferiorly  and  j)osteriorly 
where  it  is  intimately  connected  with  the  muscles  of  the  eyeball,  and 
the  fatty  material  around  them  ;  and  expanded  and  flattened  anteriorly 
where  its  upper  surface  is  concave,  and,  as  it  were,  moulded  on  the 
lower  and  inner  surface  of  the  eyeball.  Externally,  it  is  covered  by  the 
mucous  membrane  which  lines  the  eyelids  and  extends  over  the  front 
of  the  eye.  In  the  ordinary  restful  state  of  the  eye  the  edge  of  this 
cartilage  should  just  appear  as  a  thin  fold  of  membrane  at  the  inner 
angle  of  the  eye,  but  when  the  eyeball  is  drawn  deeply  into  the  orbit 
the  cartilage  is  pushed  forward,  outward,  and  upward  over  it  until  the 
entire  globe  may  be  hidden  from  sight.  This  protrusion  of  the  carti- 
lage, so  as  to  cover  the  eye,  may  be  induced  in  the  healthy  eye  by 
pressing  the  finger  and  thumb  on  the  upper  and  lower  lids,  so  as  to  cause 
retraction  of  the  eyeball  into  its  socket.  When  foreign  bodies,  such 
as  sand,  dust,  and  chaff,  or  other  irritants,  have  fallen  on  the  eyeball  or 
eyelids,  it  is  similarly  projected  to  push  them  off,  their  expulsion  being 
further  favored  by  a  profuse  flow  of  tears. 


250 

This  is  seen,  to  a  lesser  extent,  in  all  painful  inflammations  of  tlie  eye, 
and  to  a  very  marked  degree  in  lockjaw,  when  the  spasm  of  the  muscles 
of  the  eyeball  draws  the  latter  deeply  into  the  orbit  and  projects  for- 
ward the  masses  of  fat  and  the  cartilage.  The  brutal  practice  of  cut- 
ting off  this  apparatus,  whenever  it  is  projected,  necessitates  this  ex- 
planation which,  it  is  hoped,  may  save  to  many  a  faithful  servant  a 
most  valuable  appendage.  That  the  cartilage  and  membrane  may  be- 
come the  seat  of  disease  is  undeniable,  but  so  long  as  its  edge  is  thin 
and  even,  and  its  surface  smooth  and  regular,  the  mere  fact  of  its  pro- 
jection over  a  portion  or  the  whole  of  the  eyeball  is  no  evidence  of 
disease  in  its  substance,  nor  any  warrant  for  its  removal.  It  is  usually 
but  the  evidence  of  the  presence  of  some  pain  in  another  part  of  the 
eye,  which  the  suffering  animal  endeavors  to  assuage  by  the  use  of  this 
beneficient  provision.  For  the  diseases  of  the  cartilage  itself  see 
"  Encephaloid  Cancer." 

LACHRYMAL  APPARATUS. 

This  consists,  first,  of  a  gland  for  the  secretion  of  the  tears,  and,  sec- 
ond, of  a  series  of  canals  for  the  conveyance  of  the  superfluous  tears 
into  the  cavity  of  the  nose. 

The  gland  is  situated  above  the  outer  part  of  the  eyeball,  and  the 
tears  which  have  flowed  over  the  eye  and  reached  the  inner  angle  are 
there  directed  by  a  small  conical  papilla  (lachrymal  caruncle)  into  two 
minute  orifices,  and  thence  by  two  ducts  (lachrymal)  to  a  small  pouch 
(lachrymal  sac)  from  which  a  canal  leads  through  the  bones  of  the  face 
into  the  nose.  This  opens  in  the  lower  part  of  the  nose  on  the  floor  of 
the  passage,  and  a  little  outside  the  line  of  union  of  the  skin  which  lines 
the  false  nostril  with  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  nose.  In  the  ass 
and  mule  this  opening  is  situated  on  the  roof  instead  of  the  floor  of  the 
nose,  but  still  close  to  the  external  opening, 

EXAMINATION   OP   THE  EYE. 

To  avoid  unnecessary  repetition  the  following  general  directions  are 
given  for  the  examination  of  the  eye :  The  eye,  and  to  a  certain  extent 
the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  eyelids,  may  be  exposed  to  view  by 
gently  parting  the  eyelids  with  the  thumb  and  forefinger  pressed  on 
the  middle  of  the  respective  lids.  The  pressure,  it  is  true,  causes  the 
protrusion  of  the  haw  over  a  portion  of  the  lower  and  inner  part  of  the 
eye,  but  by  gentleness  and  careful  graduation  of  the  pressure  this  may 
be  kept  within  bounds,  and  oftentimes  even  the  interior  of  the  eye  can 
be  seen.  As  a  rule  it  is  best  to  use  the  right  hand  for  the  left  eye,  and 
the  left  hand  for  the  right,  the  finger  in  each  case  being  pressed  on  the 
upper  lid  while  the  thumb  depresses  the  lower  one.  In  cases  in  which 
it  is  desirable  to  examine  the  inner  side  of  the  eyelid  farther  than  is 
possible  by  the  above  means,  the  upper  lid  may  be  drawn  down  by  the 
eyelashes  with  the  one  hand  and  then  everted  over  the  tip  of  the  fore- 


251 

finger  of  the  otlier  hand,  or  over  a  probe  laid  flat  against  the  middle  of 
the  lid.  Where  the  interior  of  the  eye  must  be  examined  it  is  useless 
to  make  the  attempt  in  the  open  sunshine  or  under  a  clear  sky.  The 
■worst  cases,  it  is  true,  can  be  seen  under  such  circumstances,  but  for 
the  slighter  forms  the  horse  should  be  taken  indoors,  where  all  light 
from  above  will  be  shut  off,  and  should  be  placed  so  that  the  light  shall 
fall  on  the  eye  from  the  front  and  side.  Then  the  observer,  placing  him- 
self in  front  of  the  animal,  will  receive  the  reflected  rays  from  the  cor- 
nea, the  front  of  the  lens  and  the  back,  and  can  much  more  easily  detect 
any  cloudiness,  opacity,  or  lack  of  transparency.  The  examination 
can  be  made  much  more  satisfactory  by  placing  the  horse  in  a  dark 
chamber  and  illuminating  the  eye  by  a  lamp  placed  forward  and  out- 
ward from  the  eye  which  is  to  be  examined.  Any  cloudiness  is  thus 
easily  detected,  and  any  doubt  may  be  resolved  by  moving  the  lamp  so 
that  the  image  of  the  flame  may  be  passed  in  succession  over  the  whole 
surface  of  the  transparent  cornea  and  of  the  crystalline  lens.  Three 
images  of  the  flame  will  be  seen,  the  larger  one  upright,  reflected  from 
the  anterior  surface  of  the  eye ;  a  smaller  one  upright,  reflected  from 
the  anterior  surface  of  the  lens  ;  and  a  second  small  one  inverted  from 
the  back  surface  of  the  lens.  So  long  as  these  images  are  reflected 
from  healthy  surfaces  they  will  be  clear  and  perfect  in  outline,  but,  as 
soon  as  one  strikes  on  an  area  of  opacity,  it  will  become  diffused,  cloudy, 
and  indefinite.  Thus,  if  the  large  upright  image  becomes  hazy  and  im- 
perfect over  a  particular  spot  of  the  cornea,  that  will  be  found  to  be  the 
seat  of  disease  and  opacity.  Should  the  large  image  remain  clear,  but 
the  small  upright  one  become  diffuse  and  indefinite  over  a  given  point, 
it  indicates  opacity  on  the  front  of  the  capsule  of  the  lens.  If  both 
upright  images  remain  clear,  while  the  inverted  one  becomes  indistinct 
at  a  given  point,  then  the  opacity  is  in  the  substance  of  the  lens  itself 
or  in  the  posterior  part  of  its  capsule. 

If  in  a  given  case  the  pupil  remains  so  closely  contracted  that  the 
deeper  jiarts  of  the  eye  can  not  be  seen  the  eyelids  may  be  rubbed  with 
extract  of  belladonna,  and  in  a  short  time  the  pupil  will  be  found 
widely  dilated. 

DISEASES   OF   THE   EYELIDS. 

Congenital  disorders. — Some  faulty  conditions  of  the  eyelids  are  con- 
genital, as  division  of  an  eyelid  in  tico,  after  the  manner  of  harelip,  ab- 
normally small  opening  between  the  lids,  often  connected  with  imperfect 
development  of  the  eye,  and  closure  of  the  lids  by  adhesion.  The  first  is 
to  be  remedied  by  paring  the  edges  of  the  division  and  then  bringing 
them  together,  as  in  torn  lids.  The  last  two,  if  remediable  at  all,  re- 
quire separation  by  the  knife,  and  subsequent  treatment  with  a  cooling 
astringent  eye  wash. 

Nervous  disorders. — Spasm  of  the  eyelids  may  be  owing  to  constitutional 
susceptibility,  or  to  the  presence  of  local  irritants  (insects,  chemical 


252 

irritants,  sand,  etc.)  in  the  eye,  to  wounds  or  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membrane,  or  to  disease  of  the  brain.  When  due  to  local  irritation,  it 
may  be  temporarily  overcome  by  instilling  a  few  drops  of  a  4  per 
cent,  solution  of  cocaine  into  the  eye,  when  the  true  cause  may  be 
ascertained  and  removed.  The  nervous  or  constitutional  disease  must 
be  treated  according  to  its  nature. 

Drooping  eyelids— Ptosis. — This  is  usually  present  in  the  upper  lid,  or 
is  at  least  little  noticed  in  the  lower.  It  is  sometimes  but  a  symptom  of 
paralysis  of  one-half  of  the  face,  in  which  case  the  ear,  lips,  and  nostrils 
on  the  same  side  will  be  found  soft,  drooping,  and  inactive,  and  even 
the  half  of  the  tongue  may  partalie  of  the  palsy.  If  the  same  condition 
exists  on  both  sides  there  is  difficult  snuffling  breathing,  from  the  air 
drawing  in  the  flaps  of  the  nostrils  in  inspiration,  and  all  food  is  taken 
in  by  the  teeth,  as  the  lips  are  useless.  In  both  there  is  a  free  discharge 
of  saliva  from  the  mouth  during  mastication.  This  paralysis  is  a  fre- 
quent result  of  injury,  by  a  poke,  to  the  seventh  nerve,  as  it  passes  over 
the  back  of  the  lower  jaw.  In  some  cases  the  paralysis  is  confined  to 
the  lid,  the  injury  having  been  sustained  by  the  muscles  which  raise  it, 
or  by  the  supra-orbital  nerve  which  emerges  from  the  bone  just  above 
the  eye.  Such  injury  to  the  nerve  may  have  resulted  from  fracture  of 
the  orbital  process  of  the  frontal  bone  above  the  eye  ball. 

The  condition  may,  however,  be  due  to  spasm  of  the  sphincter  muscle, 
which  closes  the  lids,  or  to  inflammation  of  the  upper  lid,  usually  a  re- 
sult of  blows  on  the  orbit.  In  the  latter  case  it  may  run  a  slow  course 
with  chronic  thickening  of  the  lid. 

The  paralysis  due  to  the  poke  may  be  often  remedied  by,  first,  the 
removal  of  any  remaining  inflammation  by  a  wet  sponge  worn  beneath 
the  ear  and  kept  in  place  by  a  bandage;  second,  when  all  inflammation 
has  passed  by  a  blister  on  the  same  region,  or  by  rubbing  it  daily  with 
a  mixture  in  equal  proportions  of  olive  oil  and  strong  aqua  ammonia. 
Improvement  is  usually  slow,  and  it  may  be  months  before  complete 
recovery  ensues. 

In  paralysis  from  blows  above  the  eyes  the  same  treatment  may  be 
applied  to  that  part. 

Thickening  of  the  lid  may  be  treated  by  painting  with  tincture  of 
iodine,  and  that  failing,  by  cutting  out  an  ellipitical  strip  of  the  skin 
from  the  middle  of  the  upper  lid  and  stitching  the  edges  together. 

INFLAMMATION   OF   THE    EYELIDS. 

The  eyelids  suffer  more  or  less  in  all  severe  inflammations  of  the  eye, 
whether  external  or  internal,  but  inasmuch  as  the  disease  sometimes 
starts  in  the  lids  and  at  other  times  is  exclusively  confined  to  them,  it 
deserves  independent  mention. 

Among  the  causes  may  be  named:  exposure  to  draughts  of  cold  air, 
or  to  cold  rain  or  snow-stormsj  the  bites  or  stings  of  mosquitoes,  flies. 


253 

and  other  insects  5  snake-bites,  pricks  witli  thorns,  blows  of  whip  or  club; 
accidental  bruises  against  the  stall  or  ground,  especially  during  the  vio- 
lent struggles  of  colic,  enteritis,  phrenitis  (staggers),  and  when  thrown 
for  operations.  It  is  also  a  result  of  infecting  inoculations,  as  of  ery- 
sipelas, anthrax,  boil,  etc.,  and  is  noted  by  Leblanc  as  especially  preva- 
lent among  horses  kept  on  low  marshy  pastures.  Finally,  the  introduc- 
tion of  sand,  dust,  chaff,  beards  of  barley  and  seeds  of  the  finest  grasses, 
and  the  contact  with  irritant  chemical  powders,  liquids,  and  gases  (am- 
monia from  manure  or  factory,  chlorine,  strong  sulphur  fumes,  smoke, 
and  other  products  of  combustion,  etc.),  may  start  the  iniiammation. 
The  eyelids  often  undergo  extreme  infiammatory  and  dropsical  swelling 
in  urticaria  (nettlerash,  surfeit),  and  in  the  general  inflammatory  dropsy 
known  as  purpura  hemorrhagica. 

The  affection  will,  therefore,  readily  divide  itself  into  (1),  inflamma- 
tions due  to  constitutional  causes;  (2),  those  due  to  direct  injury,  me- 
chanical or  chemical;  and  (3),  such  as  are  due  to  inoculation  with  in- 
fecting material. 

(1)  Inflammations  due  to  constitutional  causes  are  distinguished  by 
the  absence  of  any  local  wound,  and  the  history  of  a  low  damp  pasture, 
exposure,  indigestion  from  unwholesome  food,  or  the  presence  elsewhere 
on  the  limbs  or  body  of  the  general  doughy  swellings  of  purpura 
hoemorrhagica.  The  lids  are  swollen  and  thickened,  it  may  be  slightly 
or  it  may  be  so  extremely  that  the  eye  ball  can  not  be  seen.  If  the  lid 
can  be  everted  to  show  its  mucous  membrane,  that  is  seen  to  be  of  a 
deep  red  color,  especially  along  the  branching  lines  of  the  blood  vessels. 
The  part  is  hot  and  painful,  and  a  profuse  flow  of  tears  and  mucus 
escapes  on  the  side  of  the  face,  causing  irritation  and  loss  of  the  hair. 
If  improvement  follows,  this  discharge  becomes  more  tenacious,  and 
tends  to  cause  adhesion  of  the  edges  of  the  upper  and  lower  lids  and 
to  mat  together  the  eyelashes  in  bundles.  This  gradually  decreases  to 
the  natural  amount,  and  the  redness  and  congested  appeai-ance  of  the 
eyes  disappears,  but  swelling,  thickening,  and  stiffness  of  the  lids  may 
continue  for  a  length  of  time.  There  may  be  more  or  less  fever  accord- 
ing to  the  violence  of  the  inflammation,  but  so  long  as  there  is  no  serioua 
disease  of  the  interior  of  the  eye  or  of  other  vital  organ  this  is  usually 
moderate. 

The  local  treatment  consists  in  astringent,  soothing  lotions  (sugar  of 
lead  30  grains,  laudanum  2  teaspoonsful,  rain  water — boiled  and  cooled — 
1  pint^,  applied  with  a  soft  cloth  kept  wet  with  the  lotion,  and  hung  over 
the  eye  by  tying  it  to  the  headstall  of  the  bridle  on  the  two  sides.  If 
the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  lids  is  the  seat  of  little  red  granular 
elevations,  a  drop  of  a  solution  of  2  grains  of  nitrate  of  silver  in  an  ounce 
of  distilled  water  should  be  applied  with  the  soft  end  of  a  clean  feather 
to  the  inside  of  the  lid  twice  a  day.  The  patient  should  be  removed 
from  all  such  conditions  (pasture,  faulty  food,  exposure,  etc.)  as  may 
have  caused  or  aggravated  the  disease,  and  from  dust  and  irritant 


254 

fumes  and  gases.  He  sliould  be  fed  from  a  manger  high  enough  to  favor 
the  return  of  blood  from  the  head,  and  shoukl  be  kept  from  work, 
especially  in  a  tight  collar,  which  would  prevent  the  descent  of  blood 
by  the  jugular  veins.  His  diet  should  be  laxative  and  non-stimulating 
(grass,  bran  mashes,  carrots,  turnips,  beets,  potatoes,  or  steamed  hay), 
and  any  costiveness  should  be  corrected  by  a  mild  dose  of  linseed  oil  (1 
to  1^  pints).  In  cold  weather  warm  blanketing  may  be  needful,  and 
even  loose  flannel  bandages  to  the  limbs,  and  heat  should  never  be 
sought  at  the  expense  of  pure  air. 

(2)  In  inflammations  due  to  local  irritants  of  a  non-infective  kind,  a 
careful  examination  will  usually  reveal  their  presence,  and  the  first  step 
must  be  their  removal  with  a  pair  of  blunt  forceps  or  the  point  of  a  lead 
pencil.  Subsequent  treatment  will  be  in  the  main  the  local  treatment 
advised  above. 

(3)  In  case  of  infective  inflammation,  there  will  often  be  found  a  prick 
or  tear  by  which  the  septic  matter  has  entered,  and  in  such  case  the 
inflammation  will  for  a  time  be  concentrated  at  that  point.  A  round 
or  conical  swelling  round  an  insect  bite  is  especially  characteristic.  A 
snake  bite  is  marked  by  the  double  prick  made  by  the  two  teeth  and 
by  the  violent  and  rapidly  spreadiug  inflammation.  Erysipelas  is  at- 
tended with  much  swelling,  extending  beyond  the  lids,  and  causing  the 
mucous  membrane  to  protrude  beyond  the  edge  of  the  eyelid  (chemosis). 
This  is  characterized  by  a  bright,  uniform,  rosy  red,  disappearing  on 
pressure,  or  later  by  a  dark,  livid  hue,  but  with  less  branching  redness 
than  in  noninfecting  inflammation,  and  less  of  the  dark,  dusky,  brown- 
ish or  yellowish  tint  of  anthrax.  Little  vesicles  may  appear  on  the 
skin,  and  j^us  may  be  found  without  any  distinct  limiting  membrane,  as 
in  abscess.  It  is  early  attended  by  high  fever  and  marked  general 
weakness  and  inappetence.  Anthrax  of  the  lids  is  marked  by  a  firm 
swelling,  surmounted  by  a  blister,  with  bloody  serous  contents,  which 
tends  to  burst  aud  dry  up  into  a  slough,  while  the  surrounding  parts 
become  involved  in  the  same  way.  Or  it  may  show  as  a  diff"use  dropsi- 
cal swelling,  with  less  of  the  hard  central  sloughing  nodule,  but  like 
that  tending  to  spread  quickly.  In  both  cases  alike  the  mucous  mem- 
brane and  the  skin,  if  white,  assume  a  dusky  brown  or  yellowish  brown 
hue,  which  is  largely  characteristic.  This  may  pass  into  a  black  color 
by  reason  of  the  extravasation  of  blood.  There  appears  early  great 
constitutional  disturbance,  with  much  prostration  and  weakness  and 
generalized  anthrax  symptoms. 

The  treatment  of  these  will  vary  according  to  the  severity.  Insect 
bites  may  be  touched  with  a  solution  of  equal  parts  of  glycerine  and 
aqua  ammonia,  or  a  10  per  cent,  solution  of  carbolic  acid  in  water. 
Snake  bites  may  be  bathed  with  aqua  ammonia,  and  the  same  agent 
given  in  doses  of  2  teaspoonfuls  in  a  quart  of  water.  Or  alcohol  may 
be  given  in  pint  or  quart  doses,  according  to  the  size  of  the  animal.  In 
erysipelas  the  skin  may  be  painted  with  tincture  of  muriate  of  iron,  or 


255 

■with  a  solution  of  20  grains  of  iodine  in  an  ounce  of  carbolic  acid,  and 
one-half  an  ounce  of  tincture  of  muriate  ot  iron  may  be  given  thrice 
daily  in  a  bottle  of  water.  In  anthrax  the  swelling  should  be  painted 
with  tincture  of  iodiue,  or  of  the  mixture  of  iodine  and  carbolic  acid, 
and  if  very  threatening  it  may  have  the  tincture  of  iodine  injected  into 
the  swelling  with  a  hypodermic  syringe,  or  the  hard  mass  may  be  freely 
incised  to  its  depth  with  a  sharp  lancet  and  the  lotion  applied  to  the 
exposed  tissues.  Internally  iodide  of  potassium  may  be  given  in  doses 
of  2  drams  thrice  a  day,  or  tincture  of  the  muriate  of  iron  every  four 
hours... 

STYE — FURUNCLE   (BOIL)  OF  THE   EYELID. 

This  is  an  inflammation  of  limited  extent,  advancing  to  the  formation 
of  matter  and  the  sloughing  out  of  a  small  mass  of  the  natural  tissue 
of  the  eyelid.  It  forms  a  firm,  rounded  swelling,  usually  near  the  mar- 
gin of  the  lid,  which  suppurates  and  bursts  in  four  or  five  days.  Its 
course  may  be  hastened  by  a  poultice  of  chamomile  flowers,  to  which 
have  been  added  a  few  drops  of  carbolic  acid,  the  whole  applied  in  a 
very  thin  muslin  bag.  If  the  swelling  is  slow  to  open  after  having  be- 
come yellowisli-white,  it  may  be  opened  by  a  lancet,  the  incision  being 
made  at  right  angles  to  the  margin  of  the  lid. 

ENTROPION  AND  ECTROPION — INVERSION  AND  EVERSION  OF  THE  EYE 

LID. 

These  are  respectively  caused  by  wounds,  sloughs,  ulcers,  or  other 
causes  of  loss  of  substance  of  the  mucous  membrane  on  the  inside  of 
the  lid  and  of  the  skin  on  the  outside  ;  also  of  tumors,  skin  diseases,  or 
paralysis  which  leads  to  displacement  of  the  margin  of  the  eyelid.  As 
a  rule  they  require  a  surgical  operation,  with  removal  of  an  eliptical 
jiortion  of  the  mucous  membrane  or  skin,  as  the  case  may  be,  but  which 
requires  the  skilled  and  delicate  hand  of  the  surgeon. 

TRICHIASIS.. 

This  consists  in  the  turning  in  of  the  eyelashes  so  as  to  irritate  the 
front  of  the  eye.  If  a  single  eyelash,  It  may  be  snipped  off  with  scis- 
sors close  to  the  margin  of  the  eyelid,  or  pulled  out  by  the  root  with 
a  pair  of  flat-bladed  forceps.  If  the  divergent  lashes  are  more  numer- 
ous the  treatment  may  be  as  for  entropion  by  excising  an  elliptical  por- 
tion of  skin  opposite  the  offending  lashes,  and  stitching  the  edges 
together,  so  as  to  draw  outward  the  margin  of  the  lid  at  that  point. 

"WARTS  AND   OTHER   TUMORS   OF   THE  EYELIDS. 

The  eyelids  form  a  favorite  site  for  tumors,  and  above  all,  warts,  which 
consist  in  a  simple  diseased  overgrowth  (hypertrophy)  of  the  surface 
layers  of  the  skin.     If  small,  these  may  be  snipped  off  with  scissors. 


256 

or  tied  around  tbe  neck  with  a  stout  waxed  thread  and  left  to  drop  off, 
the  destruction  being  completed,  if  necessary,  b^^  the  daily  application 
of  a  piece  of  sulphate  of  copper  (blue  vitriol),  until  any  unhealthy  ma- 
terial has  been  removed.  If  more  widely  spread  the  wart  may  still  be 
clipped  off  with  curved  scissors  or  knife,  and  the  caustic  thoroughly 
applied  day  by  day. 

A  bleeding  wart  or  erectile  tumor  is  more  liable  to  bleed,  and  is  best 
removed  by  constricting  its  neck  with  the  waxed  cord  or  rubber  band, 
or  if  too  broad  for  this  it  may  be  transfixed  through  its  base  by  a  nee- 
dle armed  with  a  double  thread,  which  is  then  to  be  cut  in  two  and  tied 
around  the  two  portions  of  the  neck  of  the  tumor.  If  still  broader  the 
armed  needle  may  be  carried  through  the  base  of  the  tumor  at  regu- 
lar intervals,  so  that  the  whole  may  be  tied  in  moderately  sized  sec- 
tions. 

In  gray  and  white  horses  black  pigmentary  tumors  (melanotic)  are 
common  on  the  black  ijortions  of  skin,  such  as  tbe  eyelids,  and  are  to 
be  removed  by  scissors  or  knife,  according  to  their  size.  In  the  horse 
these  do  not  usually  tend  to  recur  when  thoroughly  removed,  but  at 
times  they  prove  cancerous  (as  is  the  rule  in  man),  and  then  they  tend 
to  reappear  in  the  same  site  or  in  internal  organs  with,  it  may  be,  fatal 
efi'ect. 

Encysted,  honey-like  (melicerous),  sebaceous,  and  fibrous  tumors  of 
the  lids  all  require  removal  with  the  knife. 

TORN  EYELIDS — WOUNDS  OF  EYELIDS. 

The  eyelids  are  torn  by  attacks  with  horns  of  cattle,  or  with  the  teeth, 
or  by  getting  caught  on  nails  in  stall  rack  or  manger,  on  the  point  of 
stump  fences  or  fence  rails,  on  the  barbs  of  wire-fences  and  on  other 
pointed  bodies.  The  edges  should  be  brought  together  as  promptly  as 
possible,  so  as  to  secure  union  without  the  formation  of  matter,  puck- 
ering of  the  skin,  and  unsightly  distortions.  Great  care  is  necessary 
to  bring  the  two  edges  together  evenly  without  twisting  or  puckering. 
The  simplest  mode  of  holding  them  together  is  by  a  series  of  sharp  pins 
passed  through  the  lips  of  the  wound  at  intervals  of  not  over  a  third  of 
an  inch,  and  held  together  by  a  thread  twisted  around  each  pin  in  the 
form  of  the  figure  8,  and  carried  obliquely  from  pin  to  pin  in  two  direc- 
tions, so  as  to  prevent  gaping  of  the  wound  in  the  intervals.  The  points 
of  the  pins  may  then  be  cut  off  with  scissors,  and  the  wound  may  be 
wet  twice  a  day  with  a  weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid. 

TUMOR    OF   THE   HAW — CARIES   OF   THE   CARTILAGE. 

Though  cruelly  excised  for  alleged  "hooks,"  when  itself  perfectly 
healthy  in  the  various  diseases  which  lead  to  retraction  of  the  eye  into 
its  socket,  the  haw  may,  like  other  bodily  structures,  be  itself  the  seat 
of  actual  disease.     The  pigmentary  black  tumors  of  white  horses  and 


257 

soft  (encephaloid)  cancer  may  attack  this  part  primarily  or  extend  to 
it  from  the  eyeball  or  eyelids;  hairs  have  been  found  growing  from  ita 
surface ;  and  the  mucous  membrane  covering  it  becomes  inflamed  in 
common  with  that  covering  the  front  of  the  eye.  These  inflammations 
are  but  a  phase  of  the  inflammation  of  the  external  structures  of  the 
eye,  and  demand  no  particular  notice  nor  special  treatment.  The 
tumors  lead  to  such  irregular  enlargement  and  distortion  of  the  haw 
that  the  condition  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  simple  projection  of 
the  healthy  structure  over  the  eye  when  the  lids  are  pushed  apart  with 
the  finger  and  thumb,  and  the  same  remark  applies  to  the  ulceration  or 
caries  of  the  cartilage.  In  the  latter  case,  besides  the  swelling  and 
distortion  of  the  haw,  there  is  this  peculiarity,  that  in  the  midst  of  the 
red  inflamed  mass  there  appears  a  white  line  or  mass  formed  by  the 
exposed  edge  of  the  ulcerating  cartilage.  The  animal  having  been 
thrown  and  properly  fixed,  an  assistant  holds  the  eyelids  apart  while 
the  operator  seizes  the  haw  with  forceps  or  hook  and  carefully  dissects 
it  out  with  blunt-pointed  scissors.  The  eye  is  then  covered  with  a 
cloth  kept  wet  with  an  eye  wash,  as  for  external  ophthalmia. 

OBSTRUCTION   OF  THE  LACHRYMAL  APPARATUS — WATERING  EYE. 

The  escape  of  tears  on  the  side  of  the  cheek  is  asymptom  of  external 
inflammation  of  the  eye,  but  it  may  also  occur  from  any  disease  of  the 
lachrymal  apparatus  which  interferes  with  the  normal  progress  of  tho 
tears  to  the  nose.  Hence,  in  all  cases  when  this  symptom  is  not  at- 
tended by  special  redness  or  swelling  of  the  eyelids,  it  is  well  to  exam- 
ing  the  lachrymal  apparatus.  In  some  instances  the  orifice  of  the  lach- 
rymal duct  on  the  floor  of  the  nasal  chamber  and  close  to  its  anterior 
outlet  will  be  found  blocked  by  a  portion  of  dry  muco  purulent  matter, 
on  the  removal  of  which  tears  may  begin  to  escape.  This  implies  an 
inflammation  of  the  canal,  which  may  be  helped  by  occasional  sponging 
out  of  the  nose  with  warm  water,  and  the  application  of  the  same  on 
the  face.  Another  remedy  is  to  feed  warm  mashes  of  wheat  bran  from 
a  nose-bag,  so  that  the  relaxing  eflects  of  the  water  vapor  may  be 
secured. 

The  two  lachrymal  openings,  situated  at  the  inner  angle  of  the  eye, 
may  fail  to  admit  the  tears  by  reason  of  their  deviation  outward  in  con- 
nection with  eversion  of  the  lower  lid,  or  by  reason  of  their  constriction 
in  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane.  The  lachrymal  sac,  into  which 
the  lachrymal  ducts  open,  may  fail  to  discharge  its  contents  by  reason  of 
constriction  or  closure  of  the  duct  leading  to  the  nose,  and  it  then  forms 
a  rounded  swelling  beneath  the  inner  angle  of  the  eye.  The  duct  lead- 
ing from  the  sac  to  the  nose  may  be  compressed  or  obliterated  by  fract- 
ures of  the  bones  of  the  face,  and  in  disease  of  these  bones  (osteo- sar- 
coma, so-called  osteoporosis,  diseased  teeth,  glanders  of  the  nasal  sinuses^ 
abscess  of  the  same  cavities). 
11035 17 


258 

The  narrowed  or  obstructed  ducts  ma^  be  made  pervious  by  a  fine 
silver  probe  passed  dowu  to  the  lachrymal  sac,  and  any  existing  inflam- 
mation of  the  passages  may  be  counteracted  by  the  use  of  steaming 
mashes  of  wheat  bran,  by  fomentations  or  wet  cloths  over  the  face,  and 
even  by  the  use  of  astringent  eye  washes  and  the  injection  of  similar 
liquids  into  the  lachrymal  canal  from  its  nasal  opening.  The  ordinary 
eye  wash  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  or  it  may  be  injected  after  di- 
lution to  half  its  strength.  The  fractures  and  diseases  of  the  bones  and 
teeth  must  bo  treated  according  to  their  special  demands  when,  if  the 
canal  is  still  left  pervious,  it  may  be  again  rendered  useful. 

EXTERNAL   OPHTHALMIA — CONJUNCTIVITIS. 

In  inflammation  of  the  outer  parts  of  the  eye  ball  the  exposed  vas- 
cular and  sensitive  mucous  membrane  (conjunctiva)  which  covers  the 
ball,  the  eyelids,  the  haw,  and  the  lachrymal  apparatus,  is  usually  the 
most  deeply  involved,  yet  adjacent  parts  are  more  or  less  implicated, 
and  when  disease  is  concentrated  on  these  contiguous  parts  it  consti- 
tutes a  phase  of  external  ophthalmia  which  demands  a  special  notice. 
These  have  accordingly  been  already  treated  of. 

The  causes  of  external  ophthalmia  are  mainly  those  that  act  locally — 
blows  with  whips,  clubs,  and  twigs,  the  presence  of  foreign  bodies  like 
hay-seed,  chaff,  dust,  lime,  sand,  snuff,  pollen  of  plants,  flies  attracted  by 
the  brilliancy  of  the  eye,  wounds  of  the  bridle,  the  migration  of  the 
scabies  (mange)  insect  into  the  eye,  smoke,  ammonia  rising  from  the 
excretions,  irritant  emanations  from  drying  marshes,  etc.  A  very  dry 
air  is  alleged  to  act  injuriously  by  drying  the  eye  as  well  as  by  favoring 
the  production  of  irritant  dust;  and  the  undue  exposure  to  bright  sun- 
shine through  a  window  in  front  of  the  stall,  or  to  the  reflection  from 
snow  or  water,  is  undoubtedly  injurious.  The  unprotected  exposure  of 
the  eyes  to  sunshine  through  the  use  of  a  very  short  overdraw  check  is 
to  be  condemned,  and  the  keeping  of  the  horse  in  a  very  dark  stall  from 
which  it  is  habitually  led  into  the  glare  of  full  sunlight,  intensified  by 
reflection  from  snow  or  white  limestone  dust,  must  be  set  down  among 
the  locally  acting  causes.  But  exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  to  rain  and 
snow  storms,  to  cold  draughts  and  wet  lairs  must  also  be  accepted  as 
causes  of  conjunctivitis,  the  general  disorder  which  they  produce  affect- 
ing the  eye,  if  that  happens  to  be  the  weakest  and  most  susceptible 
organ  of  the  body,  or  if  it  has  been  subjected  to  any  special  local  injury 
like  dust,  irritant  gases,  or  excess  of  light.  Again,  external  ophthalmia 
isaconstant  concomitant  of  inflammation  of  the  contiguous  and  contin- 
uous mucous  membranes,  as  those  of  the  nose  and  throat.  Hence  the 
red  watery  eyes  that  attend  on  nasal  catarrh,  sore  throat,  influenza, 
strangles,  nasal  glanders,  and  the  like.  In  sncli  cases,  however,  the 
afiection  of  the  eye  is  subsidiary  and  is  manifestly  overshadowed  by  the 
primary  and  i^redominatiug  disease- 


259 

The  symptoms  are  watering  of  the  eye,  swollen  lids,  redness  of  the 
mucous  membrane  exposed  by  the  separation  of  the  lids — it  may  be  a 
mere  pink  blush  with  more  or  less  branching  redness,  or  it  may  be  a 
deep,  dark  red,  as  from  effusion  of  blood — and  a  bluish  opacity  of  the 
cornea  which  is  normally  clear  and  translucent.  But  except)  when  re- 
sulting from  wounds  and  actual  extravasation  of  blood,  the  redness  is 
seen  to  be  superficial,  and  if  the  opacity  is  confined  to  the  edges,  and 
does  not  involve  the  entire  cornea  the  aqueous  humor  behind  is  seen  to  be 
still  clear  and  limpid.  The  fever  is  always  less  severe  than  in  internal 
ophthalmia,  and  only  runs  high  in  the  worst  cases.  The  eyelids  may 
be  kept  closed,  the  eye-ball  retracted,  and  the  haw  protruded  over  one- 
third  or  one-half  of  the  ball,  but  this  is  due  to  the  pain  only  and  not  to 
any  excessive  sensibility  to  light,  as  shown  by  the  comparatively  widely 
dilated  pupil.  In  internal  ophthalmia,  on  the  contrary,  the  narrow 
contracted  pupil  is  the  measure  of  the  pain  caused  by  the  falling  of 
light  on  the  inflamed  and  sensitive  optic  nerve  (retina)  and  choroid. 

If  the  affection  has  resulted  from  a  wound  of  the  cornea,  not  only  is 
that  the  point  of  greatest  opacity,  forming  a  white  speck  or  fleecy  cloud, 
but  too  often  blood-vessels  begin  to  extend  from  the  adjacent  vascular 
covering  of  the  eye  (sclerotic)  to  the  white  spot,  and  that  portion  of 
the  cornea  is  rendered  permanently  opaque.  Again,  if  the  wound  has 
been  severe,  though  still  short  of  cutting  into  the  anterior  layers  of  the 
cornea,  the  injury  may  lead  to  ulceration  which  may  penetrate  more  or 
less  deeply  and  leave  a  breach  in  the  tissue  which,  if  filled  up  at  all,  is 
repaired  by  opaque  fibrous  tissue  in  place  of  the  transparent  cellular 
structure.  Pus  may  form,  and  the  cornea  assumes  a  yellowish  tinge 
and  bursts,  giving  rise  to  a  deep  sore  which  is  liable  to  extend  as  an 
ulcer,  and  may  be  in  its  turn  followed  by  bulging  of  the  cornea  at  that 
point  (staphyloma).  This  inflammation  of  the  conjunctiva  may  be 
simply  catarrhal,  with  profuse  mucopurulent  discharge;  it  may  be 
granular,  the  surface  being  covered  with  minute  reddish  elevations,  or 
it  may  become  the  seat  of  a  false  membrane  (diphtheria). 

In  treating  external  ophthalmia  the  first  object  is  the  removal  of  the 
cause.  Remove  any  dust,  chaff,  thorn,  or  other  foreign  body  from  the 
conjunctiva,  purify  the  stable  from  all  sources  of  ammouiacal  or  other 
irritant  gas;  keep  the  horse  from  dusty  roads,  and  above  all  from  the 
proximity  of  a  leading  wagon  and  its  attendant  cloud  of  dust ;  remove 
from  pasture  and  feed  from  a  rack  which  is  neither  so  high  as  to  drop 
seeds,  etc.,  into  the  eyes  nor  so  low  as  to  favor  the  accumulation  of 
blood  in  the  head ;  avoid  equally  excess  of  light  from  a  sunny  window 
in  front  of  the  stall  and  excess  of  darkness  from  the  absence  of  win- 
dows ;  i^reserve  from  cold  draughts  and  rains  and  wet  bedding,  and  ap- 
ply curative  measures  for  inflammation  of  the  adjacent  mucous  mem- 
branes or  skin.  If  the  irritant  has  been  of  a  caustic  nature  remove 
any  remnant  of  it  by  jjersistent  bathing  with  tepid  vrater  and  a  soft 
sponge,  or  with  water  mixed  with  white  of  egg,  or  a  glass  filled  with 


260 

tlie  liquid  may  be  inverted  over  tbe  eye  so  tliat  its  contents  may  dilute 
and  remove  the  irritant.  If  the  suffering  is  very  severe  a  lotion  with 
a  few  grains  of  extract  of  belladonna  or  of  morphia  in  an  ounce  of 
water  may  be  applied,  or  if  it  is  available  a  few  drops  of  4  j)er  cent, 
solution  of  cocaine  may  be  instilled  into  the  eye. 

In  strong,  vigorous  patients  benefit  will  usually  be  obtained  from  a 
laxative,  such  as  2  tablespoonfuls  of  Glauber's  salts  daily,  and  if  the 
fever  runs  high  from  a  daily  dose  of  half  an  ounce  of  saltpeter.  As 
local  applications  astringent  solutions  are  usually  the  best,  as  30  grains 
of  borax  or  of  sulphate  of  zinc  in  a  quart  of  water,  to  be  applied  con- 
stantly on  a  cloth,  as  advised,  under  inflammation  of  the  eyelids.  In 
the  absence  of  anything  better  cold  water  may  serve  every  purpose. 
Above  all,  adhesive  and  oily  agents  (molasses,  sugar,  fats)  are  to  be 
avoided,  as  only  adding  to  the  irritation.  By  way  of  suggesting  agents 
that  may  be  used  with  good  effect,  salt  and  sulphate  of  soda  may  be 
named,  in  solutions  double  the  strength  of  sulphate  of  zinc,  or  7  grains 
of  nitrate  of  silver  may  be  added  to  a  quart  of  distilled  water,  and 
will  be  found  especially  applicable  in  granular  conjunctivitis,  diph- 
theria, or  commencing  ulceration.  A  cantharides  blister  (I  j)art  of 
Spanish  fly  to  4  parts  lard)  may  be  rubbed  on  the  side  of  the  face  3 
inches  below  the  eye,  and  washed  off  next  morning  with  soap-suds  and 
oiled  daily  till  the  scabs  are  dropped. 

WHITE  SPECKS  AND  CLOUDINESS  OF  THE  CORNEA. 

As  a  result  of  external  ophthalmia,  opaque  specks,  clouds,  or  haziness 
are  too  often  left  on  the  cornea  and  require  for  their  removal  that 
they  be  daily  touched  with  a  soft  feather  dipped  in  a  solution  of  3 
grains  nitrate  of  silver  in  1  ounce  distilled  water.  This  should  be 
applied  until  all  inflammation  has  subsided,  and  until  its  contact  is 
comparatively  painless.  It  is  rarely  successful  with  an  old  thick  scar 
following  an  ulcer,  nor  with  an  opacity  having  red  blood-vessels  running 
across  it. 

ULCERS  OF  THE  CORNEA. 

These  may  be  treated  with  nitrate  of  silver  lotion  of  twice  the  strength 
used  for  opacities.  Powdered  gentian,  one  half  ounce,  and  sulphate  of 
iron,  one-fourth  ounce  daily,  may  improve  the  general  health  and  increase 
the  reparatory  power. 

INTERNAL  OPHTHALMIA — IRITIS — CHOROIDITIS — RETINITIS. 

Although  inflammations  of  the  iris,  choroid,  and  retina,  the  inner  vas- 
cular and  nervous  coats  of  the  eye  occur  to  a  certain  extent  independ- 
ently of  each  other,  yet  one  usually  supervenes  upon  the  other,  and 
as  the  symptoms  are  thus  made  to  coincide  it  will  be  best  for  our  pres- 
ent purposes  to  treat  the  three  as  one  disease. 


261 

The  causes  of  internal  ophthalmia  are  largely  those  of  the  external  form 
only,  actiug  with  greater  intensity  or  on  a  more  susceptible  eye.  Severe 
blows,  bruises,  punctures,  etc.,  of  the  eye,  the  penetration  of  foreign 
bodies  into  the  eye  (thorns,  splinters  of  iron,  etc.),  sudden  transition 
from  a  dark  stall  to  bright  sunshine,  to  the  glare  of  snow  or  water,  con- 
stant glare  from  a  sunny  window,  abuse  of  the  overdraw  check-rein, 
vivid  lightning  flashes,  draughts  of  cold,  damp  air  5  above  all,  when  the 
animal  is  perspiring,  exposure  in  cold  rain  and  snowstorms,  swimming 
cold  rivers,  also  certain  general  diseases  like  rheumatism,  arthritis,  in- 
fluenza, and  disorders  of  the  digestive  organs,  may  become  complicated 
by  this  affection.  From  the  close  relation  between  the  brain  and  eye — 
alike  in  the  blood  vessels  and  nerves — disorders  of  the  first  lead  to 
affections  of  the  second,  and  the  same  remark  applies  to  the  persistent 
irritation  to  which  the  jaws  are  subjected  in  the  course  of  dentition.  So 
potent  is  the  last  agency  that  we  dread  a  recurrence  of  ophthalmia  so 
long  as  dentition  is  incomplete,  and  hope  for  immunity  if  the  animal 
completes  its  dentition  without  any  permanent  structural  change  in  the 
eye. 

The  symptoms  will  vary  according  to  the  cause.  If  the  attack  is  due 
to  direct  physical  injury  the  inflammation  of  the  eyelids  and  superficial 
structures  may  be  quite  as  marked  as  that  of  the  interior  of  the  eye. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  from  general  causes,  or  as  a  complication  of  some 
distant  disease,  the  affection  may  be  largely  confined  to  the  deei)er 
structures,  and  the  swelling,  redness,  and  tenderness  of  the  superficial 
structures  will  be  less  marked.  When  the  external  coats  thus  compar- 
atively escape  the  extreme  anterior  edge  of  the  white  or  sclerotic  coat 
where  it  overlaps  the  border  of  the  transparent  cornea  is  in  a  meas- 
ure free  from  congestion,  and,  in  the  absence  of  the  obscuring  dark 
pigment,  forms  a  whitish  ring  around  the  cornea.  This  is  partly  due 
to  the  fact  that  a  series  of  arteries  (ciliary)  passing  to  the  inflamed  iris 
penetrate  the  sclei-otic  coat  a  short  distance  behind  its  anterior  border, 
and  there  is  therefore  a  marked  difference  in  color  between  the  general 
sclerotic  occupied  by  these  congested  vessels  and  the  anterior  rim 
from  which  they  are  absent.  Unfortunately  the  pigment  is  often  so 
abundant  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  sclerotic  as  to  hide  this  symptom. 
In  internal  ophthalmia  the  opacity  of  the  cornea  may  be  confined  to 
a  zone  around  the  outer  margin  of  the  cornea,  and  even  this  may  be  a 
bluish  haze  rather  than  a  deep  fleecy  white.  In  consequence  it  becomes 
possible  to  see  the  interior  of  the  chamber  for  the  aqueous  humor  and 
the  condition  of  the  iris  and  pupil.  The  aqueous  humor  is  usually  tur- 
bid, and  has  numerous  yellowish  white  flakes  floating  on  its  substance 
or  deposited  in  the  lower  part  of  the  chamber,  so  as  to  cut  off"  the  view 
of  the  lower  portion  of  the  iris.  The  still  visible  portion  of  the  iris  has 
lost  its  natural,  clear  dark  luster,  which  is  replaced  by  a  brownish  or 
yellosvish  sere-leaf  color.  This  is  more  marked  in  proportion  as  the 
iris  is  inflamed,  and  less  so  as  the  inflammation  is  confined  to  the  cho- 


262 

roid.     Tho  amouut  of  flocculent  deposit  in  the  chamber  of  the  aqueous 
humor  is  also  iu  direct  ratio  to  the  iuflammatiou  of  the  iris.     Perhaps 
the  most  marked  feature  of  internal  ophthalmia  is  the  extreme  and 
l^aiuful  sensitiveness  to  light.     On  this  account  the  lids  are  usually 
closed,  but  when  opened  the  pupil  is  seen  to  be  narrowly  closed  even  if 
the  animal  has  been  kept  iu  an  obscured  stall.     Exceptions  to  this  are 
seen  when  inflammatory  effusion  has  overfilled  the  globe  of  the  eye,  and 
by  i)ressure  on  the  retina  has  paralyzed  it,  or  when  the  exudation  into 
the  substance  of  the  retina  itself  has  similarly  led  to  its  paralysis.     Then 
the  pupil  may  be  dilated,  and  frequently  its  margin  loses  its  regular 
ovoid  outline  and  becomes  uneven  by  reason  of  the  adhesions  which  it 
has  contracted  with  the  capsule  of  the  lens,  through  its  inflammatory 
exudations.    In  the  case  of  excessive  effusion  into  the  globe  of  the  eye 
that  is  found  to  have  become  tense  and  hard  so  that  it  can  not  be  in- 
dented with  the  tip  of  the  finger.     With  such  paralysis  of  the  retina, 
vision  is  heavily  clouded  or  entirely  lost,  hence  in  spite  of  the  open 
pupil  the  finger  may  be  approached  to  the  eye  without  tiie  animal  be- 
coming conscious  of  it  until  it  touches  the  surface,  and  if  the  nose  on 
the  affected  side  is  gently  struck  and  a  feint  made  to  repeat  the  blow 
the  patient  makes  no  effort  to  evade  it.    Sometimes  the  edges  of  the  con- 
tracted pupil  become  adherent  to  each  other  by  an  intervening  plastic 
exudation,  and  the  opening  becomes  virtually  abolished.     In  severe  in. 
flammations  pus  may  form  in  the  choroid  or  iris,  and  escaping  into  the 
cavity  of  the  aqueous  humor  show  as  a  yellowish  white  stratum  below. 
In  nearly  all  cases  there  is  resulting  exudation  into  the  lens  or  its  cap- 
sule, constituting  a  cloudiness  or  opacity  (cataract),  which  in  severe 
and  old  standing  cases  appears  as  a  white  fleecy  mass  behind  a  widely 
dilated  pupil.     In  the  slighter  cases  cataract  is  to  be  recognized  by  ex- 
amination of  the  eye  in  a  dark  chamber,  with  an  oblique  side  light  as 
described  in  the  introduction  to  this  article.     Cataracts  that  appear  as 
a  simple  haze  or  indefinite  fleecy  cloud  are  usually  on  the  capsule  (cap- 
sular), while  those  that  show  a  radiating  arrangement  are  in  the  lens 
(lenticular),  the  radiating  fibers  of  which  the  exudate  follows.     Black 
cataracts  are  formed  by  the  adhesion  of  the  pigment  on  the  back  of  the 
iris  to  the  front  of  the  lens,  and  by  the  subsequent  tearing  loose  of  the 
iris,  leaving  a  portion  of  its  pigment  adherent  to  the  capsule  of  the  lens. 
If  the  pupil  is  so  contracted  that  it  is  impossible  to  see  the  lens,  it  may 
be  dilated  by  applying  to  the  front  of  the  eye  v>  ith  a  feather  some  drops 
of  a  solution  of  4  grains  of  atropia  in  an  ounce  of  water. 

The  treatment  of  internal  ophthalmia  should  embrace  first  the  removal 
of  all  existing  causes,  or  sources  of  aggravation,  of  the  disease,  which 
need  not  be  here  repeated.  Si^ecial  care  to  protect  the  patient  against 
cold,  wet,  strong  light,  and  active  exertion,  must,  however,  be  specially 
insisted  on.  A  dark  stall,  and  a  cloth  hung  over  the  eye,  are  important, 
while  cleanliness,  warmth,  dryness,  and  rest  are  equally'  demanded.  If 
the  patient  is  strong  and  vigorous  a  dose  of  i  drams  of  iiarbadoes  aloes 


263 

may  be  given,  and,  if  there  is  any  reason  to  suspect  a  rlienmatic  origin, 
one-half  a  dram  po^Ydered  colchicum  and  one-half  ounce  salicylate  of 
soda  may  be  given  daily.  Locally  the  astringent  lotions  advised  for 
external  ophthalmia  may  be  resorted  to,  especially  when  the  superficial 
inflammation  is  well  marked.  More  important,  however,  is  to  instill 
into  the  eye,  a  few  drops  at  a  time,  a  solution  of  4  grains  of  atropia  in 
1  ounce  distilled  water.  This  may  be  effected  with  the  aid  of  a  soft 
feather,  and  may  be  repeat-ed  at  intervals  often  minutes  until  the  pupil 
is  widely  dilated.  As  the  horse  is  to  be  kept  in  a  dark  stall  the  con- 
sequent admission  of  light  will  be  harmless,  and  the  dilation  of  the 
pupil  prevents  adhesions  between  the  iris  and  lens,  relieves  the  con- 
stant tension  of  the  eye  in  the  effort  to  adapt  the  pupil  to  the  light, 
and  solicits  the  contraction  of  the  blood  vessels  of  the  eye  and  the  les- 
sening of  congestion,  exudation,  and  intraocular  pressure.  Should 
atropia  not  agree  with  the  case,  it  may  be  replaced  by  morphia  (same 
strength)  or  cocaine,  in  4  per  cent,  solution.  Another  local  measure  is 
a  blister,  which  can  usually  be  applied  to  advantage  on  the  side  of  the 
nose  or  beneath  the  ear.  Spanish  flies  may  be  used  as  for  external 
ophthalmia.  In  very  severe  cases  the  parts  beneath  the  eye  may  be 
shaved  and  three  or  four  leeches  ai^plied.  Setons  are  sometimes  bene- 
ficial, and  even  puncture  of  the  eye-ball,  but  these  should  be  reserved 
for  professional  hands. 

The  diet  throughout  should  be  easily  digestible  and  moderate  in 
quantity — bran  mashes,  middlings,  grass,  steamed  hay,  etc. 

Even  after  the  active  infiammatiou  has  subsided  the  atropia  lotion 
should  be  continued  for  some  weeks  to  keep  the  eye  in  a  state  of  rest  in 
its  still  weak  and  irritable  condition,  and  during  this  period  the  patient 
should  be  kept  in  semi-darkness,  or  taken  out  only  with  a  dark  shade 
over  the  eye.  For  the  same  reason  heavy  draughts  and  rapid  paces, 
which  would  cause  congestion  of  the  head,  should  be  carefully  avoided. 

EECUREENT     OPnTHALMIA — PEKIODIC     OPHTHALMIA — MOONBLmD- 

NESS. 

This  is  an  inflammatory  affection  of  the  interior  of  the  eye,  intimately 
related  to  certam  soils,  climates,  and  systems,  showing  a  strong  ten- 
dency to  recur  again  and  again  and  usually  ending  in  blindness  from 
cataract  or  other  serious  injury. 

Its  causes  may  be  fundamentally  attributed  to  soil.  On  damp  clays 
and  marshy  grounds,  on  the  frequently  overflowed  river  bottoms  and 
deltas,  on  the  coasts  of  seas  and  lakes  alternately  submerged  and  ex- 
posed, this  disease  prevails  extensively,  and  in  many  instances  in  France 
(Reynal),  Belgium,  Alsace  (Zundel  Miltenberger),  Germany,  and  Eng- 
land it  has  very  largely  decreased  under  laud  drainage  and  improved 
methods  of  culture.  Other  influences,  more  or  less  associated  with  such 
soil,  are  poteu.t  causative  factors.     Thus  damp  air  and  a  cloudy,  wet 


264 

climate,  so  constantly  associated  with  wet  lauds,  are  universally 
charged  with  causing  the  disease.  These  act  on  the  animal  body  to 
produce  a  lymphatic  constitution  with  an  excess  of  connective  tissue, 
bones,  and  muscles  of  coarse  open  texture,  thick  skins  and  gummy  legs 
covered  with  a  profusion  of  long  hair.  Heuce  the  heavy  horses  of  Bel- 
gium and  southwestern  France  have  suffered  severely  from  the  affec- 
tion, while  high  dry  lands  adjacent,  like  Catalonia  in  Spain,  and  Dauph- 
iny,  Provence,  and  Languedoc,  in  France,  have  in  the  main  escaped. 

The  rank  aqueous  fodders  grown  on  such  soils  are  other  causes,  but 
these  again  are  calculated  to  undermine  the  characters  of  the  nerv- 
ous and  sanguineous  temperament,  and  to  superinduce  the  lymphatic. 
Other  foods  act  by  leading  to  constipation  and  other  disorders  of  the 
digestive  organs,  thus  impairing  the  general  health ;  heuce  in  any  ani- 
mal predisposed  to  this  disease,  heating,  starchy  foods,  such  as  maize, 
wheat,  and  buckwheat  are  to  be  carefully  avoided.  It  has  been  widely 
charged  that  beans,  peas,  vetches,  and  other  leguminosa  are  dangerous, 
but  a  fuller  inquiry  contradicts  this.  If  these  are  well  grown  they  in- 
vigorate and  fortify  the  system,  while  like  any  other  fodder  if  grown 
rank,  aqneous,  and  deficient  in  assimilable  principles  they  tend  to  lower 
the  health  and  open  the  way  for  the  disease. 

The  period  of  dentition  and  training  is  a  fertile  exciting  cause,  for 
though  the  malady  may  appear  at  any  time  from  birth  to  old  age,  yet 
the  great  majority  of  victims  are  from  two  to  six  years  old,  and  if  a 
horse  escapes  the  affection  till  after  six  there  is  a  reasonable  hope  that 
he  will  continue  to  resist  it.  The  irritation  about  the  head  during  the 
eruption  of  the  teeth,  and  while  fr.etting  in  the  unwonted  bridle  and 
collar,  the  stimulating  grain  diet  and  the  close  air  of  the  stable  all  com- 
bine to  rouse  the  latent  tendency  to  disease  in  the  eye,  while  direct 
injuries  by  bridle,  whip,  or  hay-seeds  are  not  without  their  influence. 

In  the  same  way  local  irritants  like  dust,  severe  rain  and  snow- 
storms, smoke  and  acrid  vapors  are  contributing  causes. 

It  is  evident,  however,  that  no  one  of  these  is  sufficient  of  itself  to 
produce  the  disease,  and  it  has  been  alleged  that  the  true  cause  is  a 
microbe,  or  the  irritant  products  of  a  microbe,  which  is  harbored  in  the 
marshy  soil.  The  prevalence  of  the  disease  on  the  same  damp  soils 
which  produce  ague  in  man  and  anthrax  in  cattle  has  been  quoted  in 
su])port  of  this  doctrine,  as  also  the  fact  that  the  malady  is  always 
more  prevalent  cwteris  paribus  in  basins  surrounded  by  hills  where 
the  air  is  still  and  such  products  are  concentrated,  and  that  a  forest  or 
simple  belt  of  trees  will,  as  in  ague,  at  times  limit  the  area  of  its  prev- 
alence. Another  argument  for  the  same  view  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
on  certain  farms  irrigated  by  town  sewage  this  malady  has  become 
extremely  prevalent,  the  sewage  being  assumed  to  form  a  suitable 
nidus  for  the  growth  of  the  germ.  But  on  these  sewage  farms  a  fresh 
crop  may  be  cut  every  fortnight,  and  the  product  is  precisely  that  aque- 
ous material  which  contributes  to  a  lymphatic  structure  and  a  low  tone 


265 

of  health.  The  presence  in  the  system  of  a  definite  germ  has  not  yet 
been  proven,  and  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  we  are  only 
warranted  in  eharging  the  disease  on  the  deleterious  emanations  from 
the  marshy  soil  in  which  bacterial  ferments  are  constantly  producing 
them. 

Heredity  is  one  of  the  most  potent  causes.  The  lymphatic  constitu- 
tion is  of  course  transmitted  and  with  it  the  proclivity  to  recurring 
ophthalmia.  This  is  notorious  in  the  case  of  boih  parents,  male  and 
female.  The  tendency  appears  to  be  stronger,  however,  if  either  parent 
has  already  suffered.  Thus  a  mare  may  have  borne  a  number  of  sound 
foals,  and  then  fallen  a  victim  to  this  malady,  and  all  foals  subsequently 
borne  have  likewise  suffered.  So  with  the  stallion.  Reynal  even 
quotes  the  appearance  of  the  disease  in  alternate  generations,  the 
stallion  offspring  of  blind  parents  remaining  sound  through  life  and  yet 
producing  foals  which  furnish  numerous  victims  of  recurrent  ophthal- 
mia. On  the  contrary,  the  offspring  of  diseased  parents  removed  to 
high,  dry  regions  and  furnished  with  wholesome,  nourishing  rations,  will 
nearly  all  escape.  Hence  the  dealers  take  colts  that  are  still  sound 
or  have  had  but  one  attack  from  the  affected  low  Pyrenees  (France)  to 
the  unaffected  Catalonia  (Spain),  with  confidence  that  they  will  escai)e, 
and  from  the  Jura  Valley  to  Dauphiny  with  the  same  result. 

Yet  the  hereditary  taint  is  so  strong  and  pernicious  that  intelligent 
horsemen  everywhere  refuse  to  breed  from  either  horse  or  mare  that 
has  once  suffered  from  recurrent  ophthalmia,  and  the  French  Govern- 
ment studs  not  only  reject  all  unsound  stallions,  but  refuse  service  to 
any  mare  which  has  suffered  with  her  eyes.  It  is  this  avoidance  of  the 
hereditary  predisposition  more  than  anything  else  that  has  reduced  the 
formerl^^  wide  prevalence  of  this  disease  in  the  European  countries  gen- 
erally. A  consideration  for  the  future  of  our  horses  would  demand  the 
disuse  of  all  sires  that  are  unlicensed,  and  the  refusal  of  a  license  to 
any  sire  which  has  suffered  from  this  or  ouy  other  communicable  con- 
stitutional disease. 

Other  contributing  causes  deserve  passing  mention.  Unwholesome 
food  and  a  faulty  method  of  feeding  undoubtedly  predisposes  to  the 
disease,  and  in  the  same  district  the  carefully  fed  will  escape  in  far 
larger  proportion  than  the  badly  fed.  But  it  is  so  with  every  other 
condition  which  undermines  the  general  health.  The  presence  of  worms 
in  the  intestines,  overwork,  and  debilitating  diseases  and  causes  of 
every  kind  weaken  the  vitality  and  lay  the  system  more  open  to  attack. 
Thierry  long  ago  showed  that  the  improvement  of  close,  low,  dark, 
damp  stables,  where  the  disease  had  previously  prevailed,  practically 
banished  this  affection.  Whatever  contributes  to  strength  and  vigor 
is  protective — whatever  contributes  to  weakness  and  poor  health  is 
provocative  of  the  disease  in  the  predisposed  subject. 

The  symptoms  vary  according  to  the  severity  of  the  attack.  In  some 
cases  there  is  marked  fever,  and  in  other  slighter  cases  this  may  be 


266 

almost  altogether  wauting,  but  tliere  is  always  a  lack  of  vigor  and  en- 
ergy, bespeaking  general  disorder.  Tlie  local  symptoms  are  In  the 
main  those  of  internal  oj)hthalmia,  with,  in  many  cases,  an  increased 
hardness  of  the  eye-ball  from  effusion  into  its  cavity.  The  contracted 
pupil  does  not  expand  much  in  darkness,  nor  even  under  the  action  of 
belladonna.  Opacity  advances  from  the  margin,  over  a  part  or  whole 
of  the  cornea,  but  so  long  as  it  is  transparent  there  may  be  seen  the 
turbid  aqueous  humor  with  or  without  flocculi,  the  dingy  iris  robbed 
of  its  clear  black  aspect,  the  slightly  clouded  lens  and  a  greenish  yellow 
reflection  from  the  depth  of  the  eye.  From  the  fifth  to  the  seventh  d,iy 
the  flocculi  precipitates  in  the  lower  part  of  the  chamber,  exposing  more 
clearly  the  iris  and  lens,  and  absorption  commences  so  that  the  eye 
may  be  cleared  up  in  ten  or  fifteen  days. 

The  characteristic  of  the  disease  is,  however,  its  recurrence  again  and 
again  in  the  same  eye  until  blindness  results.  The  attacks  may  follow 
each  other  at  intervals  of  a  month,  more  or  less,  but  they  show  no  re- 
lation to  any  particular  phase  of  the  moon  as  might  be  inferred  from 
the  familiar  name,  but  are  determined  rather  by  the  weather,  the  health, 
the  food,  or  by  some  periodicity  of  the  system.  From  five  to  seven  at- 
tacks usually  result  in  blindness,  and  then  the  second  eye  is  liable  to 
be  attacked  until  it  also  is  ruined. 

In  the  intervals  between  the  attacks  some  remaining  symptoms  be- 
tray the  condition,  and  these  become  more  marked  after  each  succes- 
sive access  of  disease.  Even  after  the  first  attack  there  is  a  bluish  riusr 
round  the  margin  of  the  transparent  cornea.  The  eye  seems  smaller 
than  the  other,  at  first  because  it  is  retracted  in  its  socket,  and  often 
after  several  attacks  because  of  actual  shrmkage  (atrophy).  The  upper 
eyelid,  in  place  of  presenting  a  uniform,  continuous  arch,  has  about 
one-third  from  its  inner  angle  an  abruj)t  bend,  caused  by  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  levator  muscle.  The  front  of  the  iris  has  exchanged  some  of 
its  dark,  clear  brilliancy  for  a  lusterless  yellow,  and  the  depth  of  the  eye 
presents  more  or  less  of  the  greenish  yellow  shade.  The  pupd  remains 
a  little  contracted,  except  in  advanced  and  aggravated  cases,  when, 
with  opaque  lens,  it  is  widely  dilated.  If  one  eye  only  has  suffered,  as 
is  common,  the  contrast  in  these  respects  with  the  sound  eye  is  all  the 
more  characteristic.  Another  feature  is  the  erect,  attentive  carriage  of 
the  ear,  to  compensate  to  some  extent  for  the  waning  vision. 

The  attacks  vary  greatly  in  severity  in  different  cases,  but  the  recur- 
rence is  characteristic,  and  all  alike  lead  to  cataract  and  intraocular 
effusion,  with  pressure  on  the  retina  and  abolition  of  sight. 

The  prevention  of  this  disease  is  the  great  object  to  bo  aimed  at,  and 
this  demands  the  most  careful  breeding,  feeding,  housing,  and  general 
managemeutas  indicated  under  causes.  Much  can  also  be  done  by  migra- 
tion to  a  high,  dry  location,  but  for  this  and  malarious  affections  the  im- 
provement of  the  laud  by  drainage  and  good  cultivation  should  be  the 
final  aim. 


267 

Treatment  is  not  satisfactory,  but  is  larcjely  the  same  as  for  common 
internal  ophthalmia.  Some  cases,  like  rheumatism,  are  benefited  by 
scruple  doses  of  powdered  colchicum  and  2  dram  doses  ot  salicylate  of 
soda  twice  a  day.  In  other  cases  with  marked  hardness  of  the  globe  of 
the  eye  from  intraocular  effasion,  puncture  of  the  eye,  or  even  the  exci- 
sion of  a  portion  of  the  iris,  has  helped.  During  recovery  a  course  of 
tonics  (2  drams  oxide  of  iron,  10  grains  nux  vomica,  and  1  ounce  sul- 
phate of  soda  daily)  is  desirable  to  invigorate  the  system  and  help  to 
ward  off  another  attack.  The  vulgar  resort  to  knocking  out  the  wolf  teeth 
and  cutting  out  the  haw  can  only  be  condemned.  The  temporary  re- 
covery would  take  place  in  one  or  two  weeks  though  no  such  thiug  had 
been  done,  and  the  breaking  of  a  small  tooth,  leaving  its  fang  in  the 
jaw,  only  increases  the  irritation. 

CATAEACT. 

The  common  result  of  internal  ophthalmia,  as  of  the  recurrent  type, 
maj^  be  recoguized  as  described  under  the  first  of  these  diseases.  Its 
offensive  appearance  may  be  obviated  by  extraction  or  depression  of 
the  lens,  but  as  the  rays  of  light  would  no  longer  be  properly  refracted, 
perfect  vision  would  not  be  restored,  and  the  animal  would  be  liable  to 
prove  an  inveterate  shyer.  If  perfect  blindness  coutiuued  by  reason  of 
pressure  on  the  nerve  of  sight,  no  shying  would  result. 

PALSY   OF    THE    NERVE    OF    SIGHT — AMAUROSIS. 

The  causes  of  this  affection  are  tumors  or  other  disease  of  the  brain 
implicating  the  roots  of  the  optic  nerve  j  injury  to  the  nerve  between 
the  brain  and  eye;  and  inflammation  of  the  optic  nerve  within  the  eye 
(retina),  or  undue  pressure  on  the  same  from  dropsical  or  inflammatory 
effusion.  It  may  also  occur  from  overloaded  stomach,  from  a  profuse 
bleeding,  and  even  from  the  pressure  of  the  gravid  womb  in  gestation. 

The  symptoms  are  wide  dilatation  of  the  pupils,  so  as  to  expose  fully 

the  interior  of  the  globe,  the  expansion  remaining  the  same  inlight  and 

darkness.     Ordinary  eyes  when  brought  to  the  light  have  the  pupils 

suddenly  contract,  aud  then  dilate  and  contract  alternately  until  they 

adapt  themselves  to  the  amount  of  light.     The  horse  does  not  swerve 

when  a  feint  to  strike  is  made  unless  the  hand  causes  a  current  of  air. 

The  ears  are  held  erect  and  turn  quickly  toward  any  noise,  and  the 

horse  Kteps  high  to  av^oid  stumbling  over  objects  which  it  can  not 
see. 

Treatment  is  only  useful  when  the  disease  is  symptomatic  of  some  re- 
movable cause,  like  congested  brain,  loaded  stomach,  or  gravid  womb. 
When  recovery  does  not  follow  the  termination  of  these  conditions,  ap- 
ply a  blister  behind  the  ear  and  give  one-half  dram  doses  of  nux  vomica 
daily. 


268 

TUMORS  OF  THE  EYEBALL. 

A  variety  of  tumors  attack  the  eyeball — dermoid,  papillary,  fatty, 
cystic,  and  uielauotic,  but  perhaps  the  most  frequent  iu  the  horse  is 
encephaloid  cancer.  This  may  grow  in  or  on  the  globe,  the  haw,  the 
eyelid,  or  the  boiies  of  the  orbit,  and  is  only  to  be  remedied  if  at  all  by 
early  and  thorough  excision.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  the  less 
dangerous  tumors  by  its  softness,  friability,  ami  great  vascularity, 
bleeding  on  the  slightest  touch,  as  well  as  by  its  anatomical  structure. 

STAPHYLOMA. 

This  consists  in  a  bulging  forward  of  the  cornea  at  a  given  point  by 
the  saccular  yielding  and  distension  of  its  coats,  and  it  may  be  either 
transparent  or  opaque  and  vascular.  In  the  last  form  the  iris  has 
become  adherent  to  the  back  of  the  cornea,  and  the  whole  structure 
has  become  filled  with  blood-vessels.  In  the  first  form  the  bulgingcoruea 
is  attenuated  ;  in  the  last  it  may  be  thickened.  The  best  treatment  is 
by  excision  of  a  portion  of  the  iris  so  as  to  relieve  the  intra  ocular 
pressure. 

PARASITES    IN   THE  EYE. 

Acari  in  the  eye  have  been  incidentally  alluded  to  under  inflammation 
of  the  lids. 

The  Filaria  lachrymalis  is  a  white  worm,  one-half  to  1  inch  long,  which 
inhabits  the  lachrymal  duct  and  the  under  side  of  the  eyelids  and  haw 
iu  the  horse,  producing  a  verminous  conjunctivitis.  Tlie  first  step  in 
treatment  in  such  cases  is  to  remove  the  worm  with  forceps,  then  treat 
as  for  external  inflammation. 

The  Filaria papiUosa  is  a  delicate,  white,  silvery-looking  worm,  which 
I  have  repeatedly  found  2  inches  in  length.  It  invades  the  aqueous 
humor,  where  its  constant  active  movements  make  it  an  object  of  great 
interest,  and  it  is  frequently  exhibited  as  a  "snake  iu  the  eye."  It  is 
found  also  iu  other  internal  cavities  of  the  horse,  to  which  it  undoubt- 
edly makes  its  way  from  the  food,  and  especially  the  water  swallowed, 
and  its  prevention  is  therefore  to  be  sought  mainly  in  the  supply  of 
IKire  water  from  close  deep  wells.  When  present  in  the  eye  it  causes 
inflammation  and  has  to  be  removed  through  an  incision  made  with 
the  lancet  iu  the  ut)per  border  of  the  cornea  close  to  the  sclerotic,  the 
point  of  the  instrument  being  directed  slightly  forward  to  avoid  injury 
to  the  iris.     Then  ajiply  cold  water  or  astringent  lotions. 

The  echinococcm,  the  cystic  or  larval  stage  of  the  echinococcus  tape- 
■worra  of  the  dog,  has  been  found  in  the  eye  of  the  horse  and  acysticer- 
cus  {Gysticercus  Jistularis  ?)  is  also  reported. 

The  Pentastoma  tfenioides,  which  inhiibits  the  nose  of  horse  and  dog, 
has  been  found  by  Stitteu  in  the  eye  of  the  horse,  but  the  case  is 
unique. 


PLATE  XIX. 


Theoretical  Section  ol'tlie Horse's  P^ye. 
ccO/Jtic ner\T /    b,  Sclerotic;   c,  Choroid;    d, Retina.;    e,  Cornea;    I,  In.s- ; 
g,h,  Ciliary  circle,  (orliffament  j  an/ri  proceASCA-  c/i.wn  oiTt/y  t/ir  ciioroifl , 
(h<jii/i//i   represented  CIS  isoLaled  from  it,  i/i  cu-der  to  indicate  ifwir  linnls 
more,  cleciily;    i,  Insertion  of  tfw  ciliriry  procesA-cs-  on  t/tc  crystnltine  le/L,Si 
j,Cryslitlline  len.S;  k,tayst.<diinc  capsule ;  t,l7treoiuv  body;    ?7ij/i,Anleru>r 
and  posterior  ctianibers ;  o,Theorettca.l  indiccUion  of  the  memtrcute  of 
the acpieous hii/nour;  p,p,Tarsi ;    (/,q,Fibron.A-  menidra/ie  of  t/w  eyelids; 
r,  ElevcUor  nauscle  oft/ie  upper  eyelid;   s,,s;OrbieulnriA-  muA-clc  oft/ie 
eyelids;  t,t,Shiri  oftioC'  eyelidji;  a,  ConJurLcfiA-TC ;  v,  Ji^pidermic  Layer  of 
this  meml}rcui.e  covering  the  Cornea ;  or,  Poste/^ivr  j^eetus  muscle ; 
y.Saporivr  rectus  muscle;    xjnfetior  rectus  muscle ;    ir,  Fibrous 
shcutft  of  the   orbit  (or  orbital  membrane  i . 


C>('o. Marx. del. idler  DArboval.p, 371 . 


DL\GRAMATIC  \^RTICAI.  SECTION  TliROLTGH  E\^E. 


LAMENESS.-ITS  CAUSES  AND  TREATMENT. 


By  Prof.  A.   LIAUTARD,  M.   D.,  V.  M., 

Principal  of  the  American  Veterinary  College,  New  York. 


The  consideration  of  the  usefulness  and  consequently  of  the  value 
to  their  human  masters  of  those  of  the  inferior  animals  which  are 
classed  as  beasts  of  burden  ultimately  aud  naturally  resolves  itselt  into 
an  inquiry  into  the  condition  of  that  special  portion  of  their  organism 
which  controls  the  function  of  locomotion,  for  it  is  only  as  living,  or- 
ganized locomotive  machines  that  the  horse,  the  camel,  the  ox,  and  their 
burden-bearing  companions  are  of  practical  value  to  man.  This  is 
especially  true  in  regard  to  the  members  of  the  equine  family,  the  most 
numerous  and  valuable  of  them  all,  and  it  naturally  follows  that  with 
the  horse  for  a  subject  of  discussion  the  special  topic  and  leading  theme 
of  inquiry  will,  by  an  easy  lapse,  become  an  inquest  into  the  condition 
and  efficiency  of  his  power  for  usefulness  as  a  carrier  or  traveler.  There 
is  a  large  amount  of  abstract  interest  in  the  study  of  thatendowmentof 
the  animal  economy  which  enables  its  possessor  to  change  his  place  at 
will  and  convey  himself  whithersoever  his  needs  or  his  moods  may  in- 
cline him;  but  how  much  greater  the  interest  that  attaches  to  the  sub- 
ject when  it  becomes  a  practical  and  economic  question  aud  includes 
within  its  purview  the  various  related  topics  which  belong  to  the  do- 
mains of  physiology,  pathology,  therapeutics,  and  the  entire  round  of 
scientific  investigation  into  which  it  is  finally  merged  as  a  subject  for 
medical  and  surgical  consideration,  in  a  word,  of  actual  disease  and 
its  treatment.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  intricate  and  complicated 
apparatus  of  locomotion,  with  its  symmetry  aud  harmony  of  move- 
ment and  the  perfection  and  beauty  of  its  details  and  adjuncts,  should 
be  admiringly  denominated  by  students  of  creative  design  and  atten- 
tive observers  of  nature  and  her  marvelous  contrivances  aud  adapta- 
tions a  living  machine. 

The  horse  in  a  state  of  domesticity  is  of  all  the  animal  tribe  the  larg- 
est sharer  with  his  master  in  his  liability  to  the  accidents  and  dangers 
which  are  among  the  incidents  of  civilized  life.  From  his  exposure  to 
the  missiles  of  war  on  the  battle-field  to  his  chance  of  picking  up  a  nail 
from  the  city  pavement  there  is  no  hour  when  he  is  not  in  danger  of 

269 


270 

incnrriiig  injuries  which  may  demaud  the  best  skill  of  the  veterina- 
rian practitioner  to  repair.  And  this  is  not  alone  true  of  casualties 
which  belong  to  the  class  of  external  and  traumatic  cases,  but  includes 
as  well  those  of  a  kind  perhaps  more  numerous,  which  may  result  in 
lesions  of  internal  parts,  frequently  the  most  serious  and  obscure  of  all 
in  their  nature  and  effects. 

The  horse  is  too  important  a  factor  in  the  practical  details  of  human 
life  and  fills  too  large  a  place  in  the  business  and  pleasure  of  the  world 
to  justify  any  indifference  to  his  needs  and  his  physical  comfort  or  neg- 
lect in  respect  to  the  preservation  of  his  peculiar  powers  for  usefulness. 
In  this  connection  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  allude  to  sentimental  con- 
siderations of  "  humanity,"  so  called — a  word  which  too  often  becomes 
a  wretched  misnomer  when  one  recalls  the  neglects,  the  mistreatment, 
the  overtasking  and  other  cruelties,  in  many  instances  tortures,  of 
which  he  becomes  the  helpless  victim.  In  entering  somewhat  largely, 
therefore,  upon  a  review  of  the  subject,  and  treating  in  detail  of  the 
causes,  the  symptoms,  the  progress,  the  treatment,  the  results,  and  the 
consequences  of  lameness  in  the  horse,  we  are  performing  a  duty  which 
needs  no  word  of  apology  or  justification.  The  subject  explains  and 
justifies  itself,  and  is  its  own  vindication  and  illustration  if  any  are 
needed. 

The  function  of  locomotion  is  performed  by  the  action  of  two  princi- 
pal systems  of  organs,  known  in  anatomical  and  i)hysiological  termin- 
ology as  ^^assu'c  and  ac^ii'e,  the  WMScZes  performing  the  active  and  the 
bones  the  passive  portion  of  the  movement,  the  necessary  connection 
between  the  co  operating  organism  being  effected  by  means  of  a  vital 
contact  by  which  the  muscle  is  attached  to  the  bone  at  certain  determi- 
nate points  on  the  surface  of  the  latter.  These  points  of  attachment 
appear  in  the  form  of  sometimes  an  eminence,  sometimes  a  depression, 
sometimes  a  border  or  an  angle,  or  again  as  a  mere  roughness,  but 
each  perfectly  fulfilling  its  purpose,  while  the  necessary  motion  is 
provided  for  by  the  formation  of  the  ends  of  the  long  bones  into  the 
requisite  articulations,  joints,  or  hinges.  Every  motion  is  the  product 
of  the  contraction  of  one  or  more  of  the  muscles,  which,  as  it  acts 
upon  the  bony  levers,  gives  rise  to  a  movement  of  extension  or  flexion, 
abduction  or  adduction,  rotation  or  circumduction.  The  movement 
of  abduction  is  that  which  passes  from  and  that  of  adduction  that 
which  passes  towards  the  median  line,  or  the  center  of  the  body.  The 
movements  of  flexion  and  extension  are  too  well  understood  to  need 
defining.  It  is  the  combination  and  rapid  alternations  of  these  m-ove- 
ments  which  produce  the  different  postures  and  various  gaits  of  the 
living  animal,  and  it  is  their  interruption  and  derangement,  from  what- 
soever cause,  which  constitutes  the  pathological  condition  of  lameness. 

A  concise  examination  of  the  general  anatomy  of  these  organs,  how. 
ever,  must  precede  the  consideration  of  the  pathological  questions  per- 
taining to  the  subject.     A  statement  such  as  we  have  just  given,  con- 


271 

taining  only  the  briefest  bint  of  matters  wbicb,  tbongb  not  necessarily 
in  tbeir  ultimate  scientific  miniitia?,  must  be  clearly  comprebended  in 
order  to  acquire  a  symmetrical  and  satisfactory  view  of  tbe  tbemo  as  a 
practical  collation  of  facts  to  be  remembered,  analyzed,  applied,  and 
utilized. 

It  was  tbe  great  Bacon  wbo  wrote:  "Tbe  buman  body  may  be  com- 
l)ared,  from  its  complex  and  delicate  organization,  to  a  musical  instru- 
ment of  tbe  most  perfect  construction,  but  exceedingly  liable  to  de- 
rangement." In  its  degree  tbe  remark  is  equally  applicable  to  tbe  equine 
body,  and  if  we  would  keep  it  in  tune  and  i^rofit  by  its  barmouious 
action  we  must  at  least  acquaint  ourselves  witb  tbe  relations  of  its  parts 
and  tbe  mode  of  tbeir  co-operation. 

ANATOMY. 

Tbe  bones,  tben,  are  tbe  bard  organs  wbicb  in  tbeir  connection  and 
totalit}'  constitute  tbe  skeleton  of  an  animal.  Tbey  are  of  various 
forms,  of  wbicb  tbree — tbe  long,  tbe  flat,  and  tbe  small — are  recognized 
in  tbe  extremities.  Tbese  are  more  or  less  regular  in  tbeir  form,  but 
present  upon  tbeir  surfaces  a  variety  of  aspects,  exbibitiug  in  turn, 
according  to  tbe  requirement  of  eacb  case,  a  rougbened  or  smootb  sur- 
face, variously  marked  witb  grooves,  crests,  eminences  and  depressions, 
for  tbe  necessary  muscular  attacbments,  and,  as  before  mentioned,  are 
connected  by  articulations  and  joints,  of  wbicb  some  are  immovable  and 
otbers  of  a  movable  kind. 

Tbe  substance  of  tbe  bones  is  composed  of  a  mass  of  combined  eartby 
aud  animal  matter,  surrounded  by  a  fine,  fibrous  enveloping  membrane 
(tbe  i^eriosteum)  wbicb  is  intimately  adberent  to  tbe  external  surface  of 
tbe  bone,  and  is,  in  fact,  tbe  secreting  membrane  of  tbe  bony  structure. 
Tbe  bony  tissue  i)roper  is  of  two  consistences,  tbe  external  portion  be- 
ing bard  and  "compact,"  and  called  by  tbe  latter  term,  wbile  tbe  inter- 
nal, known  as  tbe  "  spongy  tissue"  or  "  areolar,"  is  also  of  a  consistency 
corresponding  witb  tbese  descriptive  terms.  Tboseof  tbe  bones  wbicb 
possess  tbis  latter  consistency  contain  also,  in  tbeir  spongy  portion,  tbe 
medullary  substance  kuown  as  marroic,  wbicb  is  deposited  in  large 
quantities  in  tbe  interior  of  tbe  long  bones,  and  especially  wbere  a  cen- 
tral cavity  exists,  called,  for  tbat  reason,  tbe  medullary  cavity.  Tbe 
nourisbment  of  tbe  bones  is  effected  by  means  of  wbat  is  known  as  tbe 
nutrient  foramen,  wbicb  is  an  opening  establisbed  for  tbe  passage  of 
tbe  blood  vessels  wbicb  convey  tbe  necessary  nourisbment  to  tbe  interior 
of  tbe  organ.  Tbere  are  otber  minutia)  concerning  tbe  nourisbment  of 
tbe  skeleton,  sucb  as  tbe  venous  arrangement  and  tbe  classification  of 
tbeir  arterial  vessels  into  several  orders,  wbicb,  tbougb  of  interest  as 
an  abstract  study,  are  not  of  sufiBcient  practical  value  to  refer  to  bere. 

Tbe  active  organs  of  locomotion,  tbe  muscles,  form,  speaking  gener- 
ally, tbe  flesby  covering  of  tbe  external  part  of  tbe  skeleton  aud  sur- 


272 

round  the  bones  of  the  extremities.     They  vary  greatly  in  shape  and 
size,  being  flat,  triangular,  long,  short,  or  broad,  and  are  variously  and 
capriciously  named,  some  from  their  shape,  some  from  their  situation, 
and  others  from  their  use,  and  thus  we  have  abductors  and  adductors, 
the  pyramidal  and  orbicular,  the  digastricus,  the  vastus,  and  the  rest. 
Those  which  are  under  the  control  of  the  will,  known  as  the  voluntary 
muscles,  appear  in  the  form  of  fleshy  structures,  red  in  color,  and  with 
fibers  of  various  degrees  of  fineness,  and  are  composed  of  '■'•  fasciculi ^^^ 
or  bundles  of  fibers,  united  by  connective  or  cellular  tissue,  each  fasci- 
culus being  composed  of  smaller  ones,  less  in  size,  but  united  in  a  simi- 
lar manner  to  compose  the  larger  formations,  each  of  which  is  enveloped 
by  a  structure  of  similar  nature  known  as  the  sarcolemma.     Many  of 
the  muscles  are  united  to  the  bones  by  the  direct  contact  of  their  fleshy 
fibers,  but,  in  other  instances,  the  body  of  the  muscle  is  more  or  less 
gradually  transformed  into  a  cordy  or  membranous  structure  known 
as  the  tendon  or  sinew,  and  the  attachment  is  made  by  very  short 
fibrous  threads  through  the  medium  of  a  long  tendinous  band,  which, 
passing  from  a  single  one  to  several  other  of  the  bones,  effects  its  object 
at  a  point  fiir  distant  from  its  original  attachment.     In  thus  carrying 
its  action  from  one  bone  to  another,  or  from  one  region  of  a  limb  to 
another,  these  tendons  must  necessarily  have  smooth  surfaces  over 
which  to  glide,  either  upon  the  bones  themselves  or  formed  at  their 
articulations,  and  this  need  is  supplied  by  the  secretion  of  the  synovial 
fluid,  a  yellowish,  unctuous  substance,  furnished  by  a  peculiar  tendin- 
ous synovial  sac,  designed  for  the  purpose. 

Illustrations  in  point  of  the  agency  of  the  synovial  fluMd  in  assisting 
the  sliding  movements  of  the  tendons  may  be  found  under  their  various 
forms  at  the  shoulder  joint,  at  the  upper  part  of  the  bone  of  the  arm, 
at  the  posterior  part  of  the  kneejoiut,  and  also  at  the  fetlocks,  on  their 
posterior  part. 

As  the  tendons,  whether  singly  or  in  company  with  others,  pass  over 
these  natural  puUies  they  are  retained  in  place  by  strong  fibrous  bands 
or  sheaths,  which  are  by  no  means  exempt  from  danger  of  injury,  as 
will  be  readily  inferred  from  a  consideration  of  their  important  special 
use  as  supports  and  reenforcements  of  the  tendons  themselves,  with 
which  they  must  necessarily  share  the  stress  of  whatever  force  or  strain 
is  br>)Ught  to  bear  upon  both  or  either. 

We  have  referred  to  that  special  formation  of  the  external  surface  of 
a  bone  by  which  it  is  adapted  to  form  a  joint  or  articulation,  either  mov- 
able or  fixed,  and  a  concise  examination  of  the  formation  and  structure 
of  the  movable  articulations  will  here  be  in  place.  These  are  formed 
generally  by  the  extremities  of  the  long,  or  they  may  exist  on  the  sur- 
faces of  the  short  bones ;  the  points  or  regions  where  the  contact  oc- 
curs being  denominated  the  articular  surface,  which  assumes  from  this 
circumstance  a  considerable  variety  of  aspect  and  form,  being  in  one 
case  comparatively  flat  and  at  another  elevated ;  or  as  forming  a  pro- 


273 

trading  head  or  knob,  with  a  distinct  convexity;  and  again  presenting 
a  corresponding  depression  or  cavity,  accurately  adapted  to  complete, 
by  their  coaptation,  the  ball  and  socket  joint.  The  articulation  of  the 
arm  and  shoulder  is  an  example  of  the  first  kind,  while  that  of  the 
hip  with  the  thigh  bone  is  a  perfect  exhibition  of  the  latter. 

The  structure,  whose  oiiice  is  the  retention  of  the  articulation  in 
place,  is  the  ligament.  This  is  a  white,  inelastic,  or  yellowish  texture, 
possessing  in  some  degree  the  opposite  quality.  In  some  instances  it 
is  of  a  corded  or  funicular  shape,  but  consists  in  others  of  a  broad 
membrane,  in  the  first  form  serving  to  bind  the  bones  more  firmly  to- 
gether, and  in  the  latter  surrounding  or  inclosing,  in  whole  or  in  part, 
the  broad  articulations,  aud  calculated  rather  for  the  protection  of  the 
cavity  from  intrusion  by  the  air  than  for  other  security.  These  latter 
are  usually  found  in  connection  with  those  of  the  joints  which  possess  a 
free  and  extended  movement,  butare  also  found  accompanying  the  funic- 
ular ligaments  either  surronnding  and  inclosing  the  joints  or  occupy- 
ing the  interior  of  their  structure,  as  inter articuJar,  in  which  situation 
they  secure  the  union  of  the  several  bones  more  firmly  and  effectively 
than  would  be  possible  for  the  capsular  ligament  unassisted. 

The  universal  need  which  pertains  to  all  mechanical  contrivances  of 
motion  has  not  been  forgotten  while  providing  for  the  perfect  working 
of  the  interesting  piece  of  living  machinery  which  performs  the  func- 
tion of  locomotion,  as  we  are  contemplating  it,  and  nature  has  conse- 
quently i)rovided  for  obviating  the  evils  of  attrition  and  friction,  and 
insuring  the  easy  play  and  smooth  movement  of  its  parts,  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  secretion  of  the  synovia,  the  vital  lubricant  of  which  wo 
have  before  spoken,  as  a  yellow,  oily,  or  rather  glairy  secretion,  which 
performs  the  indispensable  ofiSce  of  facilitating  the  play  of  the  tendons 
over  the  joints  and  certain  given  points  of  the  bones.  This  fluid, 
which  is  deposited  in  a  containing  sac,  the  lining  (serous)  membrane  of 
which  forms  the  secreting  organ,  is  of  an  excessively  sensitive  nature, 
and  while  it  lines  the  inner  face  of  the  ligaments,  both  capsular  aud 
fascicular,  is  attached  only  upon  the  edges  of  the  bones  without  extend- 
ing upon  their  length  or  between  the  layers  of  cartilage  which  lie  be- 
tween the  bones  and  their  articular  surfaces. 

Our  object  in  thus  partially  aud  concisely  reviewing  the  structure 
and  condition  of  the  essential  organs  of  locomotion  has  been  rather  to 
outline  a  sketch  which  may  serve  as  a  reference  chart  of  the  general 
features  of  the  subject,  than  to  offer  a  minute  description  of  the  parts 
referred  to.  Other  points  of  interest  will  receive  due  attention  as  wo 
proceed  with  the  illustration  of  our  subject  and  examine  the  matters 
which  it  most  concerns  us  to  bring  under  consideration.  The  founda- 
tion of  facts  which  we  have  thus  far  prepared  will  be  found  sufficiently 
broad,  we  trust,  to  include  whatever  may  be  necessary  to  insure  a  ready 
comprehension  of  the  essential  matters  which  are  to  follow,  as  our  re- 
view is  carried  forward  to  completion.  What  we  have  said  touching 
11035 IS 


274 

these  elementary  truths  will  probably  be  sufficient  to  facilitate  a  clear 
uuderstauding  of  the  requirements  essential  to  the  perfection  and  reg- 
ularity which  characterize  the  normal  performance  of  the  various  move- 
ments which  result  in  the  accomplishment  of  the  action  of  locomotion. 
So  long  as  the  bones,  the  muscles  and  tbeir  tendons,  the  joints  with 
their  cartilages,  their  ligaments  and  their  synovial  structure;  the 
nerves  and  the  controlling  influences  which  they  exercise  over  all,  with 
the  blood  vessels  which  distribute  to  every  part,  however  minute,  the 
vitalizing  fluid  which  sustains  the  whole  fabric  in  being  and  activity — 
so  loug  as  these  various  constituents  and  adjuncts  of  animal  life  pre- 
serve their  normal  exemption  from  disease,  traumatism  and  patholog- 
ical change,  the  function  of  locomotion  will  continue  to  be  performed 
with  perfection  and  efficiency. 

But  on  the  other  hand,  let  any  element  of  disease  become  implanted 
in  one  or  several  of  the  parts  destined  for  combined  action,  any  change 
or  irregularity  of  form,  dimensions,  location  or  action  occur  in  any  por- 
tion of  the  apparatus — any  obstruction  or  misdirection  of  vital  power 
take  place,  any  interference  with  the  order  of  the  phenomena  of  normal 
nature,  any  loss  of  liarmony  and  lack  of  balance  be  betrayed,  and  we 
have  in  the  result  the  condition  of  lameness. 

DEFINITION  OF  LAMENESS. 

P/i?/,9«o?o5ri/.— Comprehensively  and  universally  considered,  then,  the 
term  lameness  signifies  any  irregularity  or  derangement  of  the  function 
of  locomotion  irrespective  of  the  cause  which  produced  it  or  the  de- 
gree of  its  manifestation.  However  slightly  or  severely  it  may  be  ex- 
hibited, it  is  all  the  same.  The  nicest  observation  may  be  demanded 
for  its  detection,  and  it  may  need  the  most  thoroughly  trained  powers 
of  discernment  to  identify  and  locate  it,  as  in  cases  where  the  animal 
is  said  to  he  fainting,  tender,  or  to  go  sore.  Or  the  patient  may  be  so  far 
affected  as  to  refuse  utterly  to  use  an  injured  leg,  and  under  compulsory 
motion  keep  it  raised  from  the  ground,  and  prefer  to  travel  on  three 
legs  rather  than  to  bear  any  portion  of  his  weight  upon  the  afflicted 
member.  In  these  two  extremes,  and  in  all  the  intermediate  degrees, 
the  patient  is  simply  lame — pathognomonic  minutiai  being  considered 
and  settled  in  a  place  of  their  own. 

These  last  two  classifications  of  the  condition  of  disabled  function,  of 
simple  lameness  and  lameness  on  three  legs,  are  very  easy  of  detection, 
but  the  first  or  mere  tenderness,  or  soreness,  may  be  very  difficult  to 
identify,  and  at  times  very  serious  results  have  followed  from  the  ob- 
scurity which  has  enveloped  the  early  stages  of  the  malady.  For  it 
may  easily  occur  that  in  the  absence  of  the  treatment  which  an  early 
correct  diagnosis  would  have  indicated,  an  insidious  ailment  may  so  take 
advantage  of  the  lapse  of  time  as  to  root  itself  too  deeply  into  the 
economy  to  b  ^  subverted,  and  become  transformed  into  a  disabling 
chronic  case,  or  possibly  one  that  is  incurable  and  fatal.     Uence  the  im- 


275 

policy  of  depreciating  early  symtoms  because  they  are  unaccompanied 
bydistinct  and  pronounced  characteristics,  and  from  a  lack  of  threaten- 
ing appearances  inferring  the  absence  of  danger.  The  possibilities  of 
an  ambush  can  never  be  safely  ignored.  An  extra  caution  costs  nothing, 
even  if  wasted.  The  fulfillment  of  the  first  duty  of  a  practitioner, 
when  introduced  to  a  case,  is  not  always  an  easy  task,  though  it  is  too 
frequently  expected  that  the  diagnosis  or  "  what  is  the  matter"  verdict 
will  be  reached  by  the  quickest  and  surest  kind  of  an  "instantaneous 
j)rocess,"  and  a  sure  prognosis,  or  "  how  will  it  end"  guessed  at  instanter. 

Usually  the  discovery  that  the  animal  is  becoming  lame  is  compara- 
tively an  easy  matter  to  a  careful  observer.  Such  a  person  will  readily 
note  the  changes  of  movement  which  will  have  taken  place  in  the  ani- 
mal he  has  been  accustomed  to  drive  or  ride,  unless  they  are  indeed 
slight  and  limited  to  the  last  degree.  But  what  is  not  always  easy  is 
the  detection,  after  discovering  the  fact  of  an  existing  irregularity,  of 
the  locality  of  its  point  of  origin,  and  whether  its  seat  be  in  the  near  or 
oif  leg,  or  in  the  fore  or  the  hind  part  of  the  body.  These  are  questions 
too  often  wrongly  answered,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  with  a  little 
careful  scrutiny  the  point  may  be  easily  settled.  The  error,  which  is 
too  often  committed,  of  pronouncing  the  leg  upon  which  the  animal 
travels  soundly  as  the  seat  of  the  lameness,  is  the  result  of  amisinter- 
j)ertation  of  the  i)hysiology  of  locomotion  in  the  crippled  animal.  Much 
depends  upon  the  gait  with  which  the  animal  moves  while  under  exam- 
ination. The  act  of  "walking  is  unfavorable  for  accurate  observation, 
though,  if  the  animal  walks  on  three  legs,  the  decision  is  easy  to  reach. 
The  action  of  galloping  will  often,  by  the  lapidity  of  the  muscular  move- 
ments and  their  quick  succession,  interfere  with  a  nice  study  of  their 
rhythm,  and  it  is  only  under  some  peculiar  circumstances  that  the  ex- 
amination can  be  safely  conducted  while  the  animal  is  moving  with  that 
gait.  It  is  while  the  animal  is  trotting  that  the  investigation  is  made 
with  the  best  chances  of  an  intelligent  decision,  and  it  is  while  moving 
with  that  gait,  therefore,  that  the  points  should  be  looked  for  which 
must  form  the  elements  of  the  diagnosis. 

Our  first  consideration  should  be  the  physiology  of  normal  or  healthy 
locomotion,  that  from  thence  we  may  the  more  easily  reach  our  conclu- 
sions touching  that  which  is  abnormal,  otherwise  lameness,  and  by  this 
process  we  ought  to  succeed  in  obtaining  a  clew  to  the  solution  of  the 
first  ])roblem,  to  wit:  in  tchich  leg  is  the  seat  of  the  lameness  ? 

A  word  of  definition  is  here  necessary,  in  order  to  render  that  which 
follows  more  easily  intelligible.  In  veterinary  nomenclature  eacli  two 
of  the  legs,  as  referred  to  in  pairs,  arc  denominated  a  biped.  The  four 
points  occupied  by  the  feet  of  the  animal  while  standing  at  rest,  form- 
ing a  square,  the  two  fore  legs  are  known  as  the  anterior  biped;  the 
two  hinder,  t\iQ  posterior  ;  the  two  on  one  side,  the  lateral ;  and  one  of 
either  the  front  or  hind  biped  with  the  opposite  \id^  of  the  hind  or  front 
biped  will  form  the  diagonal  biped. 


276 

Considering,  as  it  is  proper  to  do,  that  in  a  condition  of  health  each 
separate  biped  and  each  individual  leg  is  required  to  perform  an  equal 
and  uniform  function  and  to  carry  an  even  or  equal  portion  of  the  weight 
of  the  body,  it  will  be  readily  appreciated  that  the  result  of  this  equal 
distribution  will  be  a  regular,  evenly  balanced,  and  smooth  displace- 
ment of  the  body  thus  supported  by  the  four  legs,  and  that  therefore, 
according  to  the  rapidity  of  the  motion  in  different  gaits,  each  single 
leg  will  be  required  at  certain  successive  moments  to  bear  the  weight 
which  had  rested  upon  its  congener  while  it  was  itself  in  the  air,  in  the 
act  of  moving ;  or,  again,  two  different  legs  of  a  biped  may  be  called 
upon  to  bear  the  weight  of  the  two  legs  of  the  opposite  biped  while 
also  in  the  air  in  the  act  of  moving. 

To  simplify  the  matter  by  an  illustration,  the  weight  of  an  animal 
may  be  placed  at  1,000,  of  which  each  leg,  in  a  normal  and  healthy  con- 
dition, supports  while  at  rest  250.  When  one  of  the  fore  legs  is  in  ac- 
tion, or  in  the  air,  and  carrying  no  weight,  its  250  share  of  the  weight 
will  be  thrown  upon  its  congener  or  partner  to  sustain.  If  the  two  legs 
of  a  biped  are  both  in  action  and  raised  from  the  ground,  their  congeners 
still  resting  in  inaction,  will  carry  the  total  weight  of  the  other  two,  or 
500.  And  as  the  succession  of  movements  continues,  and  the  change 
from  one  leg  to  another  or  from  one  biped  to  anothei-,  as  may  be  re- 
quired by  the  gait,  proceeds,  there  will  result  a  smooth,  even,  and  equal 
balancing  of  active  movements,  shifting  the  weight  from  one  leg  or  one 
biped  to  another,  with  symmetrical  precision,  and  we  shall  be  presented 
with  an  interesting  example  of  the  play  of  vital  mechanics  in  a  healthy 
organization. 

Much  may  be  learned  from  the  accurate  study  of  the  action  of  a 
single  leg.  Normally,  its  movements  will  be  without  variation  or  fail- 
ure. When  at  rest  it  will  easily  sustain  the  weight  assigned  to  it,  with- 
out showing  hesitancy  or  betraying  pain,  and  when  it  is  raised  from 
the  ground  in  order  to  transfer  the  weight  to  its  mate,  it  will  perform 
the  act  in  such  a  manner  that  when  it  is  again  placed  upon  the  ground 
to  rest  it  will  be  with  a  firm  tread,  indicative  of  its  ability  to  receive 
again  the  burden  to  be  thrown  back  upon  it.  In  planting  it  upon  the 
ground  or  raising  it  up  again  for  the  forward  movement  while  in  action, 
and  again  replanting  it  upon  the  earth,  each  movement  will  be  the 
same  for  each  leg  and  for  each  biped,  whether  the  act  be  that  of  walk- 
ing or  trotting,  or  even  of  galloping.  In  short,  the  regular  play  of 
every  part  of  the  apparatus  will  testify  to  the  existence  of  that  condi- 
tion of  orderly  soundness  and  efficient  activity  which  is  eloquently  sug- 
gestive of  the  condition  of  vital  integrity,  which  is  simply  but  compre- 
hensively expressed  by  the  terms  health  and  soundness. 

But  let  some  change,  though  slight  and  obscure,  occur  among  the 
elements  of  the  case,  some  invisible  agency  of  evil  intrude  among  the 
harmonizing  processes  going  forward;  any  disorder  occur  in  the  rela- 


277 

tious  of  cooperating  parts;  anythingappear  to  neutralize  the  efificiency 
of  vitalizing  forces;  any  disability  of  a  limb  to  accept  and  to  throw- 
back upon  its  mate  the  portion  of  the  weight  which  belongs  to  it  to  sus- 
tain, whether  as  the  effect  of  traumatic  accidents  or  otherwise  ;  in  short, 
whatever  tends  to  defeat  the  purpose  of  nature  in  organizing  the  loco- 
motive apparatus  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  cause  of  lameness.  And  it  is 
not  the  least  of  the  facts  which  it  is  important  to  remember  that  it  is 
not  sufficient  to  look  for  the  manifestation  of  an  existing  discordance 
in  the  action  of  the  affected  limb  alone,  but  that  it  is  shared  by  the 
sound  one,  and  must  be  searched  for  in  that  as  well  as  the  haltinsr 
member,  if  the  hazard  of  an  error  is  to  be  avoided.  The  mode  of  action 
of  the  leg,  which  is  the  seat  of  the  lameness,  will  vary  greatly  from 
that  which  it  exhibited  when  in  a  healthy  condition,  and  the  sound  leg 
will  also  offer  important  modifications  in  the  same  three  particulars 
before  alluded  to,  to  wit,  that  of  resting  on  the  ground,  that  of  its  ele- 
vation and  forward  motion,  and  that  of  striking  the  ground  again  when 
the  full  action  of  stepping  is  accomplished.  Inability  in  the  lame  leg 
to  sustain  weight  will  imply  excessive  exertion  by  the  sound  one,  and 
lack  of  facility  or  disposition  to  rest  the  lame  member  on  the  ground 
will  necessitate  a  longer  continuance  of  that  action  on  the  sound  side. 
UJiauges  in  the  act  of  elevating  the  leg,  or  of  carrying  it  forward,  in 
both,  will  present,  however,  entirely  opposite  conditions  between  the 
two.  The  lame  member  will  be  elevated  rapidly,  moved  carefully  for- 
ward, and  returned  to  the  ground  with  caution  and  hesitancy,  and  the 
contact  with  the  earth  will  be  effected  as  lightly  as  possible,  while  the 
sound  limb  will  rest  longer  on  the  ground,  move  boldly  and  rapidly 
forward,  and  strike  the  ground  promptly  and  forcibly.  All  this  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  sound  member  carries  more  than  its  normal,  healthy 
share  of  the  weight  of  the  body,  a  share  which  may  be  in  excess  from 
1  to  250,  and  thus  bring  its  burden  to  a  figure  varying  from  251  to  500, 
all  depending  upon  the  degree  of  the  existing  lameness,  whether  it  is 
simply  a  slight  tenderness  or  soreness,  or  whether  the  trouble  has 
reached  a  stage  which  compels  the  patient  to  the  awkwardness  of  travel- 
ing on  three  legs. 

That  all  this  is  not  mere  theory,  but  rests  on  a  foundation  of  fact  may 
be  established  by  observing  the  manifestations  attending  a  single  al- 
teration in  the  balancing  of  the  body.  In  health,  the  support  and 
equilibrium  of  that  mass  of  the  body  which  is  borne  by  the  fore  legs  is 
equalized,  and  passes  by  regular  alternations  from  the  right  to  the  left 
side,  and  vice  versa.  But  if  the  left  leg  becoming  disabled,  relieves 
itself  by  leaning,  as  it  were,  on  the  right,  the  latter  becomes,  conse- 
quently, practically  heavier,  and  the  mass  of  the  body  will  incline  or 
settle  upon  that  side.  Lameness  of  the  left  side,  therefore,  means  drop- 
ping or  settling  on  the  right,  and  vice  versa.  We  emphasize  this  state- 
ment and  insist  upon  it,  the  more  from  the  frequency  of  the  instances 


278 

of  error  wbich  have  come  under  our  notice,  in  which  parties  have  in- 
sisted upon  their  view  that  the  leg  which  is  the  seat  of  the  lameness  is 
that  upon  which  he  drops,  and  which  the  animal  is  usually  supposed  to 
favor. 

HOW   TO   DETECT   THE   SEAT    OF   LAMENESS. 

Properly  appreciating  the  remarks  which  have  preceded,  and  fully 
comprehending  the  modtis  operandi  and  the  true  pathology  of  lameness, 
but  little  remains  to  be  done  in  order  to  reach  an  answer  to  the  ques- 
tion as  to  which  side  of  the  animal  the  lameness  is  seated,  except  to  ex- 
amine the  patient  while  in  action.  We  have  already  stated  our  reasons 
for  preferring  the  movement  of  trotting  for  this  purpose.  In  conduct- 
ing such  an  examination  the  animal  should  be  unblanketed,  and  held 
by  a  plain  halter  in  the  hands  of  a  man  who  knows  how  to  manage  his 
paces,  and  preference  should  be  given  to  a  hard  road  for  the  trial.  He 
is  to  be  examined  from  various  positions — from  before,  from  behind,  and 
from  each  side.  Watching  him  as  he  approaches,  as  he  recedes,  and  as 
he  passes  by,  the  observer  should  oarefully  study  that  important  action 
which  we  have  spoken  of  as  the  dropping  of  the  body  upon  one  extremity 
or  the  other,  and  this  can  readily  be  detected  by  attending  closely  to 
the  motions  of  the  head  and  of  the  hip.  The  head  drops  on  the  same 
side  on  which  the  mass  of  the  body  will  fall,  dropping  towards  the 
right  when  the  lameness  is  in  the  left  fore-leg,  and  the  hip  dropping  in 
posterior  lameness,  also  on  the  sound  leg,  the  reversal  of  the  conditions, 
of  course,  producing  reversed  effects.  In  other  words,  when  the  animal 
in  trotting  exhibits  signs  of  irregularity  of  action,  or  lameness,  and  this 
irregularity  is  accompanied  by  dropping  or  nodding  the  head,  or  de- 
pressing the  hip  on  the  right  side  of  the  body,  at  the  time  the  feet  of 
the  right  side  strike  the  ground,  the  horse  is  lame  on  the  left  side.  If  the 
dropping  and  nodding  are  on  the  near  side  the  lameness  is  on  the  ofl'  side. 

But  in  a  majority  of  cases  the  answer  to  the  first  question  relating  to 
the  lameness  of  a  horse  is,  after  all,  not  a  very  difficult  task.  There  are 
two  other  problems  in  the  case  more  difficult  of  solution  and  which  often 
require  the  exercise  of  a  closer  scrutiny,  and  draw  upon  all  the  resources 
of  the  experienced  practitioner  to  settle  satisfactorily.  That  a  horse  is 
lame  in  a  given  leg  may  be  easily  determined,  but  when  it  becomes 
necessary  to  pronounce  upon  the  query  as  to  what  part,  Avhat  region, 
what  structure,  is  affected,  the  easy  part  of  the  task  is  over,  and  the 
more  difficult  and  important,  because  more  obscure  portion  of  the  in- 
vestigation has  commenced— except,  of  course,  in  cases  of  which  the 
features  are  too  distinctly  evident  to  the  senses  to  admit  of  error.  It 
is  true  that  by  carefully  noting  the  manner  in  which  a  lame  leg  is  per- 
forming its  functions,  and  closely  scrutinizing  the  motions  of  the  whole 
extremity,  and  especially  of  the  various  joints  which  enter  into  its 
structure;  by  minutely  examining  every  part  of  the  limb;  by  observing 
the  outlines ;  by  testing  the  change,  if  any,  in  temperature  and  the  state 


279 

of  the  sensibility— all  these  investigations  may  guide  the  surgeon  to  a 
correct  localization  of  the  seat  of  trouble,  but  he  must  carefully  refrain 
from  the  adoption  of  a  hasty  conclusion,  and  above  all,  assure  himself 
that  he  has  not  fiiiled  to  make  the  foot,  of  all  the  organs  of  the  horse  the 
most  liable  to  injury  and  lesion,  the  subject  of  the  most  thorough  and 
minute  examination  of  all  the  parts  which  compose  the  suffering  ex- 
tremity. 

The  greater  liability  of  the  foot  than  of  any  other  part  of  the  ex- 
tremities to  injury  from  casualties,  natural  to  its  situation  and  nse, 
should  always  suggest  (he  beginning  of  an  inquiry,  especially  in  an  ob- 
scure case  of  lameness  at  that  point.  Indeed  the  lameness  may  have 
an  apparent  location  elsewhere,  when  that  is  the  true  seat  of  the  trouble, 
and  the  surgeon  who,  while  examining  his  lame  patient,  discovers  a 
ringbone,  and  satisfying  himself  that  he  has  encountered  the  cause  of 
the  disordered  action  suspends  his  investigation  without  subjecting  the 
foot  to  a  close  scrutiny,  may  deeply  regret  his  neglect  and  inadvertence 
at  a  later  day,  when  regrets  will  avail  nothing  towards  remedying  the 
irreparable  injury  which  has  ensued  upon  his  partial  method  of  explora- 
tion. But,  as  in  human  pathological  experience,  there  are  instances 
when  inscrutable  diseases  will  deliver  their  fatal  messages,  while  leaving 
no  mark  and  making  no  sign  by  which  they  might  be  identified  and 
classified,  so  it  will  happen  that  in  the  humbler  animals  the  onset  and 
progress  of  mysterious  and  unrecognizable  ailments  will  at  times  baffle 
the  best  veterinarian  skill,  and  leave  our  burden-bearing  servants  to 
succumb  to  the  inevitable,  and  suffer  and  perish  in  unrelieved  distress. 

DISEASES   OF   BONES. 

PERIOSTITIS— OSTITIS — EXOSTOSIS. 

From  the  closeness  and  intimacy  of  the  connection  existing  between 
the  two  principal  elements  of  the  bony  structure  while  in  health,  it  fre- 
quently becomes  exceedingly  difficult,  when  a  state  of  disease  has  super- 
vened, to  discriminate  accurately  as  to  the  part  primarily  affected, 
and  to  determine  positively  whether  the  periosteum  or  the  body  of  tbe 
bone  is  originally  implicated.  Yet  a  knowledge  of  the  fact  is  often  of 
the  first  importance,  in  order  to  secure  a  favorable  result  from  the 
treatment  to  be  instituted.  It  is,  however,  quite  evident  that  in  a 
majority  of  instances  the  bony  growths  which  so  frequently  appear  on 
the  surface  of  their  structure,  to  which  the  general  term  of  exostosis  is 
applied,  have  had  their  origin  in  an  inflammation  of  the  periosteum,  or 
enveloping  membrane,  and  known  as  penostitis.  However  this  may  be 
we  have  as  a  frequent  result,  sometimes  on  the  length  of  the  bone, 
sometimes  at  the  extremities,  and  sometimes  involving  the  articulation 
itself,  certain  bony  growths,  or  exostoses,  known  otherwise  by  the 
term  sjyllntj  ringbone  and  .sj)ari/i,  all  of  which,  in  an  important  sense, 
may  be  finally  referred  to  the  periosteum  as  their  nutrient  source  and 


280 

support,  at  least  after  their  formation,  if  not  for  their  incipient  exist- 
ence. It  is  certain  that  inflammation  of  the  periosteum  is  frequently 
referable  to  wounds  and  bruises  caused  by  external  agencies,  and  it  is 
also  true  that  it  may  possibly  result  from  the  spreading  inflammation 
of  surrounding  diseased  tissues,  but  in  any  case  the  result  is  uniformly 
seen  in  the  deposit  of  a  bony  growth,  more  or  less  difl'use,  sometimes  of 
irregular  outline,  and  at  others  projecting  distinctly  from  the  surface 
from  which  it  springs,  as  so  commonly  presented  in  the  ringbone  and 
the  spavin.  This  condition  of  periostitis  is  often  difficult  to  determine. 
The  signs  of  inflammation  are  so  obscure,  the  swelling  of  the  parts  so 
insignificant,  an}'  increase  of  heat  so  imperceptible,  and  the  soreness  so 
slight,  that  even  the  most  acute  observer  may  fail  to  locate  the  point  of 
its  existence,  and  it  is  often  long  after  the  discovery  of  the  disease  itself 
that  its  location  is  positively  revealed  by  the  visible  presence  of  the  exos- 
tosis. Yet  the  first  question  had  been  resolved,  in  discovering  the  fact 
of  the  lameness,  while  the  second  and  third  remained  unanswered,  and 
the  identification  of  the  affected  limb  and  the  point  of  origin  of  the 
trouble  remained  unknown  until  their  palpable  revelation  to  the  senses. 
When,  by  careful  scrutiny  the  ailment  has  been  located,  a  resort  to  treat- 
ment must  be  had  at  once,  in  order  to  prevent,  if  j^ossible,  any  further 
deposit  of  the  calcareous  structure  and  increase  of  the  exostotic  growth. 
With  this  view  the  application  of  water,  either  warm  or  cold,  rendered 
astringent  by  the  addition  of  alum  or  sugar  of  lead,  will  be  beneficial. 
The  tendency  to  the  formation  of  the  bony  growth,  and  the  increase  of 
its  development  after  its  actual  formation,  may  often  be  checked  by  the 
application  of  a  severe  blister  of  Spanish  fly.  The  failure  of  these  means 
and  the  establishment  of  the  diseased  process  in  the  form  of  chronic 
periostitis  causes  various  changes  in  the  bone  covered  by  the  disordered 
membrane,  and  the  result  may  be  softening,  degeneration,  or  necrosis, 
but  more  usually  it  is  followed  by  the  formation  of  the  bony  growths 
referred  to,  on  the  cannon  bone,  the  coronet,  the  hock,  etc. 

SPLINTS. 

We  first  turn  our  attention  to  the  splint,  as  certain  bony  enlargements 
which  aredeveloped  on  the  cannon  bone,  between  the  knee  or  thehock  and 
the  fetlock  joint,  are  called.  They  are  found  on  the  inside  of  the  leg, 
from  the  knee,  near  to  which  they  are  to  be  found,  downward  to  about  the 
lower  third  of  the  principal  cannon  bone.  They  are  of  various  dimen- 
sions, and  are  readily  perceptible  both  to  the  eye  and  to  the  touch. 
They  vary  considerably  in  size,  ranging  from  that  of  a  large  nut  down- 
ward to  very  small  proportions.  In  searching  for  them  they  may  be 
readily  detected  by  the  hand  if  they  have  attained  sufficient  develop- 
ment in  their  usual  situation,  but  must  be  distinguished  from  a  small 
bony  enlargement  which  may  be  felt  at  the  lower  third  of  the  cannon 
bone,  and  is  not  a  splint  nor  a  pathological  formation  of  any  kind,  but 
merely  the  normal  development  of  the  small  cannon  bone. 


281 

We  have  said  that  splints  are  to  be  found  on  the  inside  of  the  leg. 
This  is  true  as  a  general  statement,  but  it  is  not  invariably  so,  and  they 
occasionally  appear  on  the  outside.  It  is  also  true  that  they  appear 
most  commonly  on  the  fore  legs,  but  this  is  not  exclusively  the  case,  and 
they  may  at  times  be  found  on  both  the  inside  and  outside  of  the  hind 
legs.  Usually  a  splint  forms  only  a  true  exostosis,  or  a  single  bony 
growth,  with  a  somewhat  diffuse  base,  but  neither  is  this  invariably  the 
case.  In  some  instances  they  assume  more  important  dimensions,  and 
pass  from  the  inside  to  the  outside  of  the  bone,  on  its  posterior  face, 
between  that  and  the  suspensory  ligament.  This  form  is  termed  the 
pegged  splint,  and  constitutes  a  serious  and  permanent  deformity,  in  con- 
sequence of  its  interference  with  the  play  of  the  fibrous  cord  which 
passes  behind  it,  becoming  thus  a  source  of  continual  irritation  and  con 
sequently  of  permanent  lameness. 

A  splint  may  thus  frequently  become  a  cause  of  lameness  though  not 
necessarily  in  every  instance  ;  but  it  is  a  lameness  i^ossessing  features 
peculiar  to  itself.  It  is  not  always  continuous,  but  at  times  assumes 
an  intermittent  character,  and  is  more  marked  when  the  animal  is  warm 
than  when  he  is  cool.  If  the  lameness  is  near  the  knee-joint,  it  is  very 
apt  to  become  aggravated  when  the  animal  is  put  to  work,  and  the  gait 
acquires  then  a  peculiar  character,  arising  from  the  manner  in  which 
the  limb  is  carried  outward  from  the  knees  downwards,  which  is  done 
by  a  kind  of  abduction  of  the  lower  part  of  the  leg.  Other  symptoms, 
however,  than  the  lameness  and  the  presence  of  the  splint,  which  is  its 
cause,  may  be  looked  for  in  the  same  connection  as  those  which  have 
been  mentioned  as  jiertainiug  to  certain  evidences  of  periostitis,  in  the 
increase  of  the  temperature  of  the  part,  with  swelling  and  probably 
pain  on  pressure.  This  last  symptom  is  of  no  little  importance,  since 
its  iiresence  or  absence  has  in  many  cases  formed  the  determining  point 
in  deciding  a  question  of  diflficult  diagnosis, 

A  splint  being  one  of  the  results  of  periostitis,  and  the  latter  one  of 
the  effects  of  external  hurts,  it  naturally  follows  that  the  jjarts  which 
are  most  exposed  to  blows  and  collisions  will  be  those  on  which  the 
splint  will  most  commonly  be  found,  and  it  may  not  be  improper,  there- 
fore, to  refer  to  hurts  from  without  as  among  the  common  causes  of  the 
lesion.  But  other  causes  may  also  be  productive  of  the  evil,  and  among 
these  may  be  mentioned  the  overstraining  of  an  immature  organism  by 
the  imposition  of  excessive  labor  upon  a  young  animal  at  a  too  early 
period  of  his  life.  The  bones  which  enter  into  the  formation  of  the 
cannon  are  three  in  number,  one  large  and  two  smaller,  which,  during 
the  youth  of  the  animal,  are  more  or  less  articulated,  with  a  limited 
amount  of  mobility,  but  which  become  in  maturity  firmly  joined  by  a 
rigid  union  and  ossification  of  their  inter-articular  surface.  If  the  im- 
mature animal  be  compelled,  then,  to  perform  exacting  tasks  beyond 
his  strength  the  inevitable  result  will  follow  in  the  muscular  straining, 
and  perhaps  tearing  asunder  of  the  fibers  which  unite  the  bones  at  their 


282 

points  of  juncture,  and  it  is  difficult  to  understand  how  the  natural 
consequeuces  of  such  a  local  irritation  developing  in  inflammation  or 
periostitis  can  be  avoided.  If  the  result  were  deliberately  and  intelli- 
gently designed  it  could  hardly  be  more  effectunlly  accomplished. 

The  splint  is  an  object  of  the  commonest  occurrence,  so  common, 
indeed,  that  in  large  cities  a  horse  which  can  not  exhibit  one  or  more 
specimens  upon  some  portion  of  his  extremities  is  one  of  the  rarest 
of  spectacles.  Though  it  is  in  some  instances  a  cause  of  lameness 
and  its  discovery  and  cure  are  sometimes  beyond  the  ability  of  the 
shrewdest  and  most  experienced  veterinarian,  yet  as  a  source  of  vital 
danger  to  the  general  equine  organization,  or  even  of  functional  dis- 
turbance, or  of  practical  inconvenience,  aside  from  the  rare  exceptional 
cases  which  exist  as  mere  samples  of  possibility,  it  can  not  be  consid- 
ered to  belong  to  the  category  of  serious  lesions.  The  worst  stigma 
that  attaches  to  it  is  that  in  general  estimation  it  is  ranked  among  eye- 
sores, and  continues  indefinitely  to  be  that  and  nothing  less  or  better. 
The  inflammation  in  which  they  originated,  acute  at  first,  either  sub- 
sides or  assumes  the  chronic  form,  and  the  bony  growth  becomes  a  per- 
manence, more  or  less  established,  it  is  true,  but  doing  no  positive  harm, 
and  not  hindering  the  animal  from  continuing  his  daily  routine  of  labor. 
All  this,  however,  requires  a  i^roviso  against  the  occurrence  of  a  subse- 
quent acute  attack,  when,  as  with  other  exostoses,  a  fresh  access  of 
acute  symptoms  may  be  followed  by  a  new  pathological  activity  which 
shall  again  develop  as  a  natural  result  a  reappearance  of  the  lameness. 

It  is  of  course  the  consideration  of  the  comparative  harmlessness  of 
splints  that  suggests  and  justifies  the  policy  of  non-interference,  except 
as  they  become  a  positive  cause  of  lameness.  And  a  more  positive 
argument  for  such  non-interference  consists  in  the  fact  that  any  active 
and  irritating  treatment  may  so  excite  the  parts  as  to  bring  about  a 
renewed  pathological  activity,  which  may  result  in  a  reduplication  of 
the  phenomena,  with  a  second  edition  if  not  a  second  and  enlarged  vol- 
ume of  the  whole  story.  For  our  part  our  faith  is  firm  in  the  impolicy 
of  interference,  and  this  faith  is  founded  on  an  experience  of  many 
years,  during  which  our  practice  has  been  that  of  abstention. 

Of  course  there  will  bo  exceptional  conditions  which  will  at  times 
indicate  a  difl'erent  course.  These  will  become  evident  when  the  occa- 
sions present  themselves,  and  extraordinary  forms  and  effects  of  inflam- 
mation and  growth  in  the  tumors  offer  special  indications.  But  our 
conviction  remains  unshaken  that  surgical  treatment  of  the  operative 
kind  is  usually  useless,  if  not  dangerous.  We  have  little  faith  in  the 
method  of  extirpation  except  under  very  special  conditions,  among 
which  that  of  diminutive  size  has  been  named,  which  seems  in  itself  to 
constitute  a  sufficient  negative  argument.  But  even  in  such  a  case  a 
resort  to  the  knife  or  the  gouge  could  scarcely  find  ajustification,  since 
no  operative  procedure  is  ever  without  a  degree  of  hazard,  to    say 


283 

nothing'  of  the  considerations  which  are  always  forcibly  negative  in  any 
question  of  the  intiictiou  of  pain  and  the  unnecessary  use  of  the  knife. 

If  an  acute  periostitis  of  the  cannon  bone  has  been  readily  discovered, 
the  treatment  we  have  already  suggested  for  that  ailment  is  at  once 
indicated,  and  the  astringent  lotions  may  be  relied  upon  to  bring  about 
beneficial  results.  Sometimes,  however,  preference  may  be  given  to  a 
lotion  possessing  a  somewhat  diifereut  quality,  the  alterative  consisting 
of  tincture  of  iodine  applied  to  the  inflamed  spot  several  times  daily. 
If  the  lameness  persists  under  this  mild  course  of  treatment  it  must  of 
course  be  attacked  by  other  methods,  and  we  must  resort  to  the  can- 
tharidal  ointment  or  Spanish-fly  blister,  as  we  have  before  recommended. 
Besides  this,  and  producing  an  analogous  effect,  the  compounds  of 
biniodide  of  mercury  are  favored  by  some.  It  is  prepared  in  tlie  form 
of  an  ointment,  consisting  of  1  dram  of  the  biniodide  to  1  ounce  of 
either  lard  or  vaseline.  It  forms  an  excellent  blistering  and  alterative 
application,  and  is  of  special  advantage  in  newly  formed  or  recently 
discovered  exostosis. 

It  remains  a  pertinent  query,  however,  and  one  which  seems  to  be 
easily  answered,  whether  a  tumor  so  diminutive  in  size  that  it  can  only 
be  detected  by  diligent  search,  and  which  is  neither  a  disfigurement  nor 
an  obstruction  to  the  motion  of  the  limb,  need  receive  any  recognition 
whatever.  Other  modes  of  treatment  for  siilints  are  recommended  and 
practiced  which  belong  strictly  to  the  domain  of  operative  veterinary 
surgery.  Among  these  are  to  be  reckoned  actual  cauterization,  or  the 
application  of  the  fire-iron  and  the  operation  of  periosteotom}'.  These 
are  frequently  indicated  in  the  treatment  of  splints  which  have  resisted 
milder  means. 

The  mode  of  the  development  of  their  growth  ;  their  intimacy,  greater 
or  less,  with  both  the  large  and  the  small  cannon  bones  ;  the  possibility 
of  their  extending  to  the  back  of  these  bones  under  the  suspensory 
ligament  5  the  dangerous  complications  which  may  follow  the  rough 
handling  of  the  parts  ;  with  also  a  possibility,  and  indeed  a  probability, 
of  their  return  after  removal,  these  are  the  considerations  which  have 
influenced  our  judgment  in  discarding  from  our  practice  and  our  ap- 
proval the  method  of  removal  by  the  saw  or  the  chisel,  as  recommended 
by  certain  European  veterinarians. 

RIXGBONES. 

This  peculiar  term  forms  the  designation  of  the  exostosis  which  is 
found  on  the  coronet,  ia  the  digital,  and  also  in  the  phalangeal  region, 
probably  because  it  extends  quite  around  the  coronet,  which  it  encircles 
in  the  manner  of  a  ring,  or  perhaps  because  it  often  forms  upon  the 
back  of  that  bone  a  regular  osseous  circlet,  through  which  the  back 
tendons  obtain  a  passage.  The  dimensions  which  may  be  attained  by 
these  tumors  and  the  places  where  they  are  usually  developed  have 


284 

caused  tbeir  subdivision  and  classification  into  tliree  varieties,  with  the 
designations  of  high,  middle,  and  loiv,  though  much  can  not  be  said  as 
to  the  importance  of  such  distinction.  It  is  true  that  the  ringbone  or 
phaLangeal  exostosis  may  be  found  at  various  i)oints  on  the  coronet,  in 
one  case  forming  a  large  bunch  on  the  upper  part  and  quite  close  to  the 
fetlock  joint;  then  appearing  on  the  very  lower  portion  around  the  upper 
border  of  the  foot;  seen  again  on  the  extreme  front  of  the  coronet;  or 
perhaps  discovered  on  the  very  back  of  it.  The  shape  in  which  they 
commonly  appear  is  favorable  to  their  easy  discovery,  their  form  when 
near  the  fetlock  usually  varying  too  much  from  the  natural  outlines  of 
the  part  when  compared  with  those  of  the  opposite  side  to  admit  of 
error  in  the  matter. 

A  ringbone  when  in  front  of  the  coronet,  even  when  not  very  largely 
developed,  assumes  the  form  of  a  diffused  convex  swelling.  If  situated 
on  the  lower  part,  it  will  form  a  thick  ring,  encircling  the  upper  porlion 
of  the  foot ;  when  found  on  the  posterior  part,  a  small,  sharp  osseous 
growth  somewhat  projecting,  sometimes  on  the  inside  and  sometimes 
on  the  outside  of  the  coronet,  may  comprise  the  entire  manifestation. 

As  with  splints,  ringbones  may  result  from  severe  labor  in  early  life, 
before  the  process  of  ossification  has  been  fully  perfected  ;  or  they  may 
be  referred  to  bruises,  blows,  sprains,  or  other  violence;  or  injuries  of 
tendons,  ligaments,  or  joints  may  be  among  the  accountable  accidents. 
It  is  certain  that  they  may  commonly  be  traced  to  diseases  and  trau- 
matic lesions  of  the  foot,  and  their  appearance  may  be  reasonably  an- 
ticipated  among  the  sequelae  of  an  abscess  of  the  coronet ;  or  the  cause 
maybe  a  severe  contusion  resulting  from  calking,  or  a  deep  punctured 
wound  from  picking  up  a  nail  or  stepping  upon  any  hard  object  of  suffi- 
ciently irregular  form  to  penetrate  the  sole. 

Moreover,  a  ringbone  may  claim  to  possess  the  character  of  a  legacy — 
it  may  originate  in  heredity.  This  is  a  fact  of  no  little  importance  in  its 
relation  to  questions  connected  with  the  extensive  interests  of  the  stock 
breeder  and  purchaser.  To  regard  a  liability  to  transmit  constitutional 
idiosyncrasies  by  common  propagation  as  a  disease  or  a  diathesis  would 
be  obviously  uuphilosophical ;  but  to  recognize  the  fact,  in  view  of  ex- 
isting evidences,  in  connection  with  the  affection  we  are  considering,  is 
but  to  render  its  due  to  the  claims  of  honest  conviction  and  such,  a 
conviction  we  do  not  hesitate  to  own.  That  it  is  an  active  tendency 
in  respect  to  diseases  generally  it  would  be  absurd  to  claim.  But 
we  do  claim  that  a  disposition  to  contract  this  particular  form  of 
lesion  may  be  transmitted  from  parent  to  offspring,  though  in  most 
cases  only  with  sufficient  vigor  to  impress  a  predispositi<ni  on  the 
part  of  the  latter.  Yet  in  a  smaller  proportion  of  cases  it  may,  in  point 
of  fact,  constitute  a  force  sufficient  to  act  as  a  secondary  cause  of  de- 
veloped disease,  which  may  in  due  time  become  a  visible  ringbone. 

The  importance  of  this  point  when  considered  in  reference  to  the 
policy  which  should  be  observed  in  the  selection  of  breeding  stock,  is 


285 

obvious,  and  a-s  the  whole  matter  is  within  the  control  of  the  owners 
and  breeders  it  will  be  their  own  fault  if  the  unchecked  transmission 
of  ringbones  from  one  equine  generation  to  another  shall  be  allowed  to 
continue.  It  is  our  belief  that  among  the  diseases  which  are  known  for 
their  tendency  to  peri)etuate  and  repeat  themselves  by  individual  suc- 
cession, those  of  the  bony  structures  stand  first,  and  the  inference  from 
such  a  fact  which  would  exclude  every  animal  of  doubtful  soundness 
in  its  osseous  apparatus  from  the  stud  list  and  the  brood  farm  is  too 
plain  for  argument. 

Periostitis  of  the  phalanges  is  an  ailment  requiring  careful  explora- 
tion and  minute  inspection  for  its  discovery  and  is  quite  likely  to  result 
in  a  ringbone  of  which  lameness  is  the  effect.  The  mode  of  its  mani- 
festation varies  according  to  the  state  of  development  of  the  diseased 
growth  as  aff'ected  by  the  circumstances  of  its  location  and  dimensions. 
It  is  commonly  of  the  kind  which,  in  consequence  of  its  intermittent 
character,  is  termed  lameness  ichen  cool,  having  the  peculiarity  of  exhib- 
iting itself  when  the  animal  starts  from  the  stable  and  of  diminishing  if 
not  entirely  disappearing  after  some  distance  of  travel  to  return  to  its 
original  degree,  if  not  indeed  a  severer  one  wheu  he  has  again  cooled 
off"  in  his  stable.  The  size  of  the  ringbone  does  not  indicate  the  degree 
to  which  it  cripples  the  patient,  but  the  position  may,  especially  when 
it  interferes  with  the  free  movement  of  the  tendons  which  pass  behind 
and  in  front  of  the  coronet.  While  a  large  ringbone  will  often  inter- 
fere but  little  with  the  motion  of  the  limb,  a  smaller  growth  if  situated 
under  the  tendon,  may  become  the  cause  of  considerable  and  continued 
pain. 

A  ringbone  is  doubtless  a  worse  evil  than  a  splint.  Its  growth,  its 
location,  its  tendency  to  increased  development,  its  exposure  to  the  in- 
fluence of  causes  of  renewed  danger,  all  tend  to  impart  an  unfavorable 
cast  to  the  prognosis  of  a  case  and  to  emphasize  the  importance  and  the 
value  of  an  early  discovery  of  its  presence  and  possible  growth.  Even 
when  the  discovery  has  been  accomplished  it  is  often  the  case  that  the 
truth  has  come  to  light  too  late  for  effectual  treatment.  Months  may 
have  elapsed  after  the  first  manifestation  of  the  lameness  before  a  dis- 
covery has  been  made  of  the  lesion  from  which  it  has  originated,  and 
there  is  no  recall  for  the  lapsed  time.  And  by  the  uncompromising  seri- 
ousness of  the  discouraging  prognosis  must  the  energy  and  severity  of 
the  treatment  and  the  promptness  of  its  administration  be  measured. 
The  periostitis  has  been  overlooked ;  any  chance  that  might  have  ex- 
isted for  preventing  its  advance  to  the  chronic  stage  has  been  lost;  the 
osseous  exudation  is  established ;  the  ringbone  is  a  fixed  fact,  and  the 
indications  are  urgent  and  pressing.  These  include  severe  blistering 
once  or  twice  repeated;  the  application  of  the  red  iodide  of  mercnry, 
and  if  these  fail,  firing  with  the  hot  iron,  and  as  a  last  resort,  ueu- 
rotumy,  high  or  low  as  indicated  by  the  seat  of  the  lesion. 


286 


SIDE    BONES. 


On  eacTi  side  of  the  bone  of  tlio  foot— the  coffin-bone— tliere  are  nor- 
mally two  supplementary  organs  which  are  called  the  cartilages  of  the 
foot.  They  are  soft,  and  though  in  a  degree  elastic,  yet  somewhat  re- 
sisting, and  are  implanted  on  the  lateral  wing  of  the  cofSn-bone.  Evi- 
dently their  office  is  to  assist  in  the  elastic  expansion  and  contraction 
of  the  posterior  part  of  the  foot,  and  their  healthy  and  normal  action 
doubtless  contributes  in  an  important  degree  to  the  perfect  performance 
of  the  functions  of  that  part  of  the  leg.  These  organs  are,  however, 
liable  to  undergo  a  process  of  disease  which  results  in  an  entire  change 
in  their  properties,  if  not  in  their  shape,  by  which  they  acquire  a  char- 
acter of  hardness  resulting  from  the  deposit  of  earthy  substance  in  the 
intimate  structure  of  the  cartilage,  and  it  is  this  change,  when  its  con- 
summation has  been  affected,  that  brings  to  our  cognizance  the  diseased 
growth  which  has  received  the  designation  of  side-hones.  They  are 
situated  on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  leg,  bulging  above  the  superior 
border  of  the  foot  in  the  form  of  two  hard  bodies  composed  of  ossified 
cartilage,  irregularly  square  in  shape  and  unyielding  under  the  pressure 
of  the  fingers. 

The  side-bone  may  be  a  termination  of  alow  inflammatory  condition, 
or  of  an  acute  attack  as  well,  or  may  be  caused  by  sprains,  bruises,  or 
blows ;  or  they  may  have  their  rise  in  certain  diseases  affecting  the  foot 
proper,  as  corns,  quarter  cracks,  or  quittor.  The  deposit  of  calcareous 
matter  in  the  cartilage  is  not  always  uniform,  the  base  of  that  organ 
near  its  line  of  union  with  the  coffin-bone  being  in  some  cases  its  limit, 
while  at  other  times  it  is  diffused  throughout  its  substance,  the  size 
and  prominence  of  the  tumors  varying  much  in  consequence.  It  would 
naturally  be  inferred  that  the  amount  of  interference  with  the  proper 
functions  of  foot  which  must  result  from  such  a  imthological  change 
would  be  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  tumor,  and  that  as  the  dimen- 
sions increased,  the  resulting  lameness  would  be  the  greater  in  degree. 
This,  however,  is  not  the  fact.  A  small  tumor,  while  in  a  condition  of 
acute  inflammation  during  the  formative  stage,  may  cripple  a  patient 
more  severely  than  a  much  larger  one  in  a  later  stage  of  the  disease.  In 
any  case  the  lameness  is  never  wanting,  and  with  its  intermittent  charac- 
ter may  usually  be  detected  when  the  animal  is  cooled  off  after  labor  or 
exercise.  The  class  of  animals  in  which  this  feature  of  the  disease  is 
most  frequently  witnessed  is  that  of  the  heavy  draft  horse,  and  others 
similarly  employed.  There  is  a  wide  margin  of  difference  in  respect  to 
the  degrees  of  severity  which  may  characterize  different  cases  of  side- 
bone.  While  one  may  be  so  slight  as  to  cause  no  inconvenience,  an- 
other may  develop  elements  of  danger  which  may  involve  the  necessity 
of  severe  surgical  interference. 

The  curative  treatment  should  be  similar  to  the  prophylactic,  and 
such  means  should  be  used  as  would  tend  to  prevent  the  deposit  of 
bony  matters  by  checking  the  acute  inflammation  which  causes  it. 


287 

The  means  recom mended  are  the  free  use  of  the  cold  bath  ;  frequent 
soaking  of  the  feet,  and  at  a  later  period  treatment  with  iodine,  either 
by  paiuting  the  surface  with  the  tincture  several  times  daily,  or  by  ap- 
plying an  ointment  made  by  mixing  1  dram  of  the  crystals  with  2  ounces 
of  vaseline,  rubbed  in  once  a  day  for  several  days.  If  this  proves  to  be 
ineffective,  a  Spanish  fly  blister,  to  which  a  few  grains  of  biniodide  of 
mercury  have  been  added,  will,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  effect  the  desired 
result  and  remove  the  lameness.  If,  finally,  this  treatment  is  resisted, 
the  case  must  be  relegated  to  the  surgeon  for  the  operation  of  neurot- 
omy, or  the  ai)plicatiou  of  the  fire-iron,  freely  and  deeply. 

SPAVIN. 

This  affection,  popularly  termed  bo)ie  spavin,  is  an  exostosis  of  the 
hock  joint.  The  general  impression  is  that  in  a  spavined  hock  the  bony 
growth  should  be  seated  on  the  anterior  and  internal  part  of  the  joint, 
and  this  is  partially  correct,  as  such  a  growth  will  constitute  a  spavin 
in  the  most  correct  sense  of  the  tern).  But  an  enlargement  may  appear 
on  the  upper  part  of  the  hock  also,  or  possibly  a  little  below  the  inner 
side  of  the  lower  extremity  of  the  shank  bone,  forming  what  is  known 
as  a  high  spavin;  or,  again,  the  growth  may  form  jast  on  the  outside 
of  the  hock  and  become  an  outside  or  external  spavin.  And,  finally, 
the  entire  under  surface  may  become  the  seat  of  the  osseous  deposit, 
and  involve  the  internal  face  of  all  the  bones  of  the  hock,  and  this  again 
is  a  hone  spavin.  There  would  seem,  then,  to  bo  but  little  difficulty  in 
comi)reheuding  the  nature  of  a  bono  spavin,  and  there  would  be  none 
but  for  the  fact  that  there  are  similar  affections  which  might  confuse  a 
diagnosis  if  not  very  carefully  and  intelligently  made. 

But  the  hock  may  be  spavined,  while  to  all  outward  observation  it 
still  retains  its  perfect  form.  With  no  enlargement  tangible  to  sight 
or  touch  the  animal  may  be  disabled  by  an  occult  spavin,  an  anchylosis 
in  fact,  which  has  resulted  from  a  union  of  several  of  the  bones  of  the 
joint,  and  it  is  only  those  who  are  able  to  realize  the  importance  of  its 
action  to  the  perfect  fulfillment  of  the  function  of  propulsion  by  the 
hind  leg,  who  can  comprehend  the  gravity  of  the  only  prognosis  which 
can  be  justified  by  the  facts  of  the  case — a  prognosis  which  is  essen- 
tially a  sentence  of  serious  import  in  respect  to  the  future  usefulness 
and  value  of  the  animal.  For  no  diseases,  if  we  except  those  acute  in- 
flammatory attacks  upon  vital  organs  to  which  the  patient  succumbs 
at  once,  are  more  destructive  to  the  usefulness  and  value  of  a  horse 
than  a  confirmed  spavin.  Serious  in  its  inception,  serious  in  its  prog- 
ress, it  is  an  ailment  which,  when  once  established,  becomes  a  fixed 
condition  which  there  are  no  known  means  of  dislodging.  The  perios- 
titis, of  which  it  is  nearly  always  a  termination,  is  usually  the  effect  of 
a  traumatic  cause  operating  upon  the  complicated  structure  of  the 
hock,  such  as  a  sprain  which  has  torn  a  ligamentous  insertion  and  lac- 
erated some  of  its  fibers;  or  a  violent  effort  in  jumping,  galloping,  or 


288 

trottiug,  to  which  the  victim  has  been  compelled  by  the  torture  of  whip 
and  spur  while  in  use  as  a  gambling  implement  by  a  sporting  owner, 
under  the  pretext  of  "  improving  his  breed;  "or  the  extra  exertion  of 
starting  an  inordinately  heavy  load ;  or  an  effort  to  recover  his  balance 
from  a  misstep ;  or  slipping  upon  an  icj^  surface  ;  or  sliding  with  worn 
shoes  upon  a  bad  pavement,  and  other  kindred  causes.  And  we  can 
repeat  here  what  we  have  before  said  concerning  bones,  in  respect  to 
heredity  as  a  cause.  As  to  this,  our  own  experience  is  an  authority — 
we  do  know  of  equine  families  in  which  this  condition  has  been 
transmitted  from  generation  to  generation,  and  animals  otherwise  of 
excellent  comformation  rendered  valueless  by  the  misfortune  of  a  con- 
genital spavin. 

The  evil  is  one  of  the  most  serious  character  for  other  reasons,  among 
which  may  be  specified  the  slowness  of  their  development  and  the  in- 
sidiousness  of  their  growth.  Certain  indefinite  phenomena  and  alarm- 
ing changes  and  incidents  furnish  usually  the  only  portents  of  ap- 
proaching trouble.  Among  these  signs  may  be  mentioned  a  peculiar 
posture  assumed  by  the  patient  while  at  rest,  and  becoming  at  length 
so  habitual  that  it  can  not  fail  to  suggest  the  action  of  some  hidden 
cause,  tending  to  some  undeterminable  result.  The  posture  is  due  to  the 
action  of  the  adductor  muscles,  the  lower  part  of  the  leg  being  carried 
inward,  and  the  heel  of  the  shoe  resting  on  the  toe  of  the  opposite  foot. 
Then  an  unwillingness  may  be  noticed  in  the  animal  to  move  from  one 
side  of  the  stall  to  the  other.  When  driven  he  will  travel,  but  stiffly, 
and  with  a  sort  of  sidelong  gait  between  the  shafts,  and  after  finishing 
his  task  and  resting  again  in  his  stall,  will  pose  with  the  toe  pointing 
forward,  the  heel  raised,  and  the  hock  flexed.  Some  little  heat  and  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  inflammation  soon  appears.  The  slight  lameness 
which  appears  when  backing  out  of  the  stall  ceases  to  be  noticeable 
after  a  short  distance  of  travel. 

A  minute  examination  of  the  hock  will  then  begin  to  reveal  the  exist- 
ence of  the  lesion,  in  a  bony  enlargement  which  may  be  detected  just  at 
the  junction  of  the  hock  and  the  cannon  bone,  on  the  inside  and  a  little 
in  front,  and  tangible  both  to  sight  and  touch.  This  enlargement  or 
bone  spavin  grows  rapidly  and  persistently  and  soon  acquires  dimen- 
sions which  render  it  impossible  to  doubt  any  longer  its  existence  or 
its  nature.  Once  established,  its  development  continues  under  con- 
ditions of  progress  similar  to  those  to  which  we  have  before  alluded, 
in  speaking  of  other  like  afl:ections.  The  argument  obtained  by  some 
that  because  these  bony  deposits  are  frequently  found  on  both  hocks 
they  are  not  spavins,  is  fallacious.  If  they  are  discovered  on  both 
hocks,  it  proves  merely  that  they  are  not  confined  to  a  single  joint. 

The  characteristic  lameness  of  bone  spavin,  as  it  affects  the  motion  of 
of  the  hock  joint,  presents  two  aspects.  In  one  class  of  cases  it  is  most 
pronounced  when  the  horse  is  cool,  in  the  other  when  he  is  at  work. 
The  first  is  characterized  by  the  fact  that  when  the  animal  travels  the 


289 

toe  first  touches  the  ground,  and  the  heel  descends  more  slowly,  the  mo- 
tion of  tlexiou  at  the  hock  taking  place  stiffly,  and  accompanied  by  a 
dropping  of  the  hip  on  the  opposite  side.  In  the  other  case  the  peculi- 
arity is  that  the  lameness  increases  as  the  horse  travels  ;  that  when  he 
stops  he  seeks  to  favor  the  lame  leg,  and  when  he  resumes  his  work 
soon  after  he  steps  much  on  his  toe,  as  in  the  first  variety. 

As  with  sidebones,  though  for  a  somewhat  different  reason,  the  di- 
mensions of  the  spavin  and  the  degree  of  the  lameness  do  not  seem  to 
bear  any  determinate  relation,  the  most  pronounced,  symptoms  at  times 
accompanying  a  very  diminutive  growth.  But  the  distinction  between 
the  two  varieties  of  cool  and.  tcarm  may  easily  be  determined  by  remem- 
bering the  fact  that  in  a  majority  of  cases  the  first,  or  cool,  is  due  to  a 
simple  exostosis,  while  the  second  is  generally  connected  with  disease 
of  the  articulation,  such  as  ulceration  of  the  articular  surface — a  con- 
dition which,  as  we  proceed  further,  will  meet  our  attention  when  we 
reach  the  subject  of  springhalt. 

Having  thus  fully  considered  the  history  of  bone  spavin  we  are  pre- 
pared to  give  due  weight  to  the  reasons  which  exist  for  the  adverse 
prognosis  which  we  must  usually  feel  compelled  to  pronounce  when 
encountering  it  in  practice,  as  well  as  to  realize  the  value  of  an  early 
discovery  of  the  symptoms  which  denote  its  invasion  of  the  organism. 
It  is  but  seldom,  however,  that  the  necessary  advantage  of  this  early 
knowledge  can  be  secured,  and  when  the  true  nature  of  the  trouble  has 
become  apparent  it  is  usually  too  late  to  resort  to  the  remedial  meas- 
ures which,  if  duly  forewarned,  a  skillful  practitioner  might  have  em- 
ployed. We  are  fully  persuaded  that  but  for  the  loss  of  the  time  wasted 
in  the  treatment  of  purely  imaginary  ailments  very  many  cases  of  bone 
spavin  might  be  arrested  in  their  incipiency  and  their  victims  preserved 
for  years  of  comfort  for  themselves  and  valuable  labor  to  their  owners. 

To  consider  a  hypothetical  case:  An  early  discovery  of  lameness  has 
been  madej  that  is,  the  existence  of  an  acute  intlammation — of  perios- 
titis— has  been  detected.  The  increased  temperature  of  the  parts  has 
been  observed,  with  the  stiffened  gait  and  the  chai\acteristic  pose  of  the 
limb,  and  the  question  is  proposed  for  solution,  "What  is  to  be  donel" 
Even  with  only  these  comparatively  doubtful  symptoms — doubtful  with 
the  non-expert — we  should  direct  our  treatment  to  the  hock  in  prefer- 
ence to  any  other  joint,  since  of  all  the  joints  of  the  hind  leg  it  is  this 
which  is  most  liable  to  be  attacked,  a  natural  result  from  its  peculiari- 
ties of  structure  and  function.  And  in  answer  to  the  query,  ''What  is 
the  first  indication?"  we  should  answer  rest — emphatically,  and  as  an 
essential  condition,  rest.  Whether  only  threatened,  suspected,  or  posi- 
tively diseased,  the  animal  must  be  wholly  released  from  labor,  and  it 
must  be  no  partial  or  temporary  quiet  of  a  few  days.  In  all  stages  and 
conditions  of  the  disease,  whether  the  spavin  is  nothing  more  than  a 
simple  exostosis,  or  whether  accompanied  by  the  complication  of  ar" 
thritis,  there  must  be  a  total  suspension  of  effort  until  the  danger  is 
11035 19 


290 

over.    Less  tlian  a  month's  quiet  ought  not  to  be  thought  of— the  longer 
the  better. 

Good  results  may  also  be  expected  from  local  applications.  The  va- 
rious lotions  which  cool  the  parts,  the  astringents  which  lower  the  ten- 
sion of  the  blood  vessels,  the  tepid  fomentations  which  accelerate  the 
circulation  in  the  engorged  capillaries,  the  liniments  of  various  compo- 
sition, the  stimulants,  the  opiate  anodynes,  the  sedative  preparations 
of  aconite,  the  alterative  frictions  of  iodine — all  these  are  recommended 
and  prescribed  by  one  or  another.  We  prefer  counter-irritantSj  for  the 
simple  reason,  among  many  others,  that  they  tend  by  the  promptness 
of  their  action  to  prevent  by  anticipation  the  formation  of  the  bony 
deposits.  The  lameness  will  often  yield  to  the  blistering  action  of  can- 
tharides,  in  the  form  of  ointment  or  liniment,  and  to  the  alterative 
preparations  of  iodine  or  mercury.  And  if  the  owner  of  a  spavined 
horse  really  succeeds  in  removing  the  lameness,  he  has  accomplished 
all  that  he  is  justified  in  hoping  for  ;  beyond  this  let  him  be  well  per- 
suaded that  a  '^cure"  is  impossible. 

For  this  reason,  moreover,  he  will  do  well  to  be  on  his  guard  against 
the  patented  ''cures"  which  the  traveling  horse  doctor  may  urge  upon 
his  credulity,  and  withhold  his  faith  from  the  circular  of  the  agent  who 
will  deluge  him  with  references  and  certificates.  It  is  possible  that 
nostrums  may  in  some  exceptional  instances  prove  serviceable,  but  the 
greater  number  of  them  are  capable  of  producing  only  injurious  effects. 
The  removal  of  the  bony  tumor  can  not  be  accomplished  by  any  such 
means,  and  if  a  trial  of  these  unknown  compounds  should  be  followed 
by  complications  no  worse  than  the  establishment  of  one  or  more  ugly, 
hairless  cicatrices,  it  will  be  well  for  both  the  horse  and  his  owner. 

Eest  and  counter-irritation,  with  the  proper  medicaments,  constitute, 
then,  the  prominent  points  in  the  treatment  designed  for  the  relief  of 
bone  spavin.  Yet  there  are  cases  in  which  all  the  agencies  and  methods 
referred  to  seem  to  lack  effectiveness  and  fail  to  produce  satisfactory 
results.  Either  the  rest  has  been  prematurely  interrupted,  or  the  blisters 
have  failed  to  rightly  modify  the  serous  infiltration,  or  the  case  in  hand 
has  some  undiscernible  characteristics  which  seem  to  have  rendered  the 
disease  neutral  to  the  agencies  employed  against  it.  An  indication  of 
more  energetic  means  is  then  presented,  and  free  cauterization  with  the 
fire-iron  becomes  necessary. 

At  this  point  a  word  of  explanation  in  reference  to  this  operation  of 
firing  maybe  appropriate  for  the  satisfaction  of  any  among  our  readers 
who  may  entertain  an  exaggerated  idea  of  its  severity  and  possible 
cruelty. 

The  operation  is  one  of  simplicity,  but  is  nevertheless  one  which,  in 
order  to  secure  its  benefits,  must  be  reserved  for  times  and  occasions  of 
which  only  the  best  knowledge  and  highest  discretion  should  be  allowed 
to  judge.  It  is  not  the  mere  application  of  a  hot  iron  to  a  given  part  of 
the  body  which  constitutes  the  operation  of  firing.     It  is  the  methodical 


291 

and  scientific  introduction  of  heat  into  the  structure  with  a  view  to  a  given 
effect  upon  a  diseased  organ  or  tissue  by  an  expert  surgeon.  The  first 
is  one  of  the  degrees  of  mere  burning.  The  other  is  scientific  cauteriza- 
tion, and  is  a  surgical  manipulation  which  should  be  committed  exclu- 
sively to  the  practised  hand  of  the  veterinary  surgeou. 

Either  firing  aloue  or  stimulation  with  blisters  is  of  great  eificacy  for 
the  relief  of  lameness  from  bone  spavin.  Failure  to  produce  relief  after 
a  few  applications  and  after  allowiuga  sufficient  interval  of  rest,  should 
be  followed  by  a  second,  or,  if  needed,  a  third  firing. 

lu  case  of  further  failure  there  is  a  reserve  of  certain  special  opera 
tions  which  have  been  tried  and  recommended,  among  which  thosu  of 
tarsal  tenotomy,  iieriosteotomy,  the  division  of  nervous  branches,  etc., 
may  be  mentioned.     These,  hovrever,  belong  to  the  peculiar  domain  of 
the  veterinary  practitioner,  and  need  not  now  engage  our  attention. 

FRACTURES. 

In  technical  language  a  fracture  is  a  "  solution  of  continuity  in  the 
structure  or  substance  of  a  bone,"  and  it  ranks  among  the  most  serious 
of  the  lesions  to  which  the  horse — or  any  animal — can  be  subject.  It 
is  a  subject  of  special  interest  to  veterinarians,  and  to  horse  owners  as 
well,  in  view  of  the  variety  of  forms  in  which  it  may  occur,  as  well  as 
of  the  loss  of  time  to  which  it  subjects  the  patient,  and  the  consequent 
suspension  of  his  earning  capacits'.  Though  of  less  serious  consequence 
in  the  horse  than  in  man,  it  is  always  a  matter  of  grave  imjiort.  It  is 
always  slow  and  tedious  in  healing,  and  is  frequently  of  doubtful  and 
uusatisfactorj"  result. 

This  solution  of  continuity  may  take  i)lace  in  two  principal  ways.  In 
the  most  numerous  instances  it  includes  the  total  thickness  of  the  bone 
and  IS  a  complete  fracture.  In  other  cases  it  involves  a  portion  only  of 
the  thickness  of  the  bone,  and  for  that  reason  is  described  as  incomplete. 
If  the  bone  is  divided  into  two  separate  portions,  and  the  soft  parts 
Lave  received  no  injury,  the  fracture  is  a  simple  one;  or  it  becomes 
compound  if  the  soft  parts  have  suflered  laceration,  and  comminuted  if 
the  bones  have  been  crushed  or  ground  into  fragments,  many  or  few. 
The  direction  of  the  break  also  determines  its  further  classification. 
Broken  at  a  right  angle  it  is  transverse;  at  a  different  angle  it  becomes 
oblique,  and  it  may  be  longitudinal  or  lengthwise.  In  a  complete  frac- 
ture, especially  of  the  oblique  kind,  there  is  a  condition  of  great  impor- 
tance in  respect  to  its  effect  upon  the  ultimate  result  of  the  treatment, 
in  the  fact  that  from  various  causes,  such  as  muscular  contractions  or 
excessive  motion,  the  bony  fragments  do  not  maintain  their  mutual 
coaptation,  but  become  separated  at  the  ends,  and  this  fact  has  made 
it  necessarv  to  add  another  descri])tive  term  in  the  words — with  dis- 
placement.  And  this  term  again  suggests  its  negative,  and  introduces 
the  fracture  loithout  displacement,  when  the  facts  justify  that  descrip- 
tion.    Again,  a  fracture  may  be  intraarticular  or  extraarticular,  as  it 


292 

extends  within  a  joint  or  otherwise,  and  once  more,  intra-periosteal, 
when  the  periosteum  remain  ititact.  And,  finally,  there  is  no  absolute 
limit  to  the  use  of  descriptive  terminology  in  the  case. 

The  condition  of  displacement  is  largely  influential  in  determining 
the  question  of  treatment,  and  as  afl'ecting  the  final  result  of  a  case  of 
fracture.  This,  however,  is  dependent  upon  its  location  or  whether  its 
seat  be  in  one  or  more  of  the  axes  of  the  bone,  in  its  length,  its  breadtb, 
its  thickness,  or  its  circumference.  An  incomplete  fracture  may  also 
be  either  simple  or  comminuted,  the  periosteum,  in  the  latter  case  when 
it  is  intact,  keeping  the  fragments  together,  the  fracture  in  that  case 
belonging  to  the  intra  periosteal  class.  At  times,  also,  there  is  only  a 
simple  fissure  or  split  in  the  bone,  making  a  condition  of  much  difiSculty 
of  diagnosis. 

Two  varieties  of  originating  cause  may  be  recognized  in  cases  of  frac- 
ture. They  are  the  xjredisposing  and  the  occasional.  As  to  the  first, 
different  species  of  animals  differ  in  the  degree  of  their  liability.  That 
of  the  dog  is  greater  than  that  of  the  horse,  and,  in  horses,  the  various 
questions  of  age,  the  mode  of  labor,  the  season  of  the  year,  the  portion 
of  the  body  most  exposed,  and  the  existence  of  ailments,  local  and  gen- 
eral, are  all  to  be  taken  into  account. 

Among  horses,  those  employed  in  heavy  draught  work  or  that  are 
driven  over  bad  roads,  are  more  exposed  than  light-draught  or  saddle 
horses,  and  animals  of  different  ages  are  not  equally  liable.  Dogs  and 
young  horses,  with  those  which  have  become  sufficiently  aged  for  their 
bones  to  have  acquired  an  enhanced  degree  of  frangibility,  are  more  lia- 
ble than  those  which  have  not  exceeded  the  time  of  their  adult  prime. 
The  season  of  the  year  is  undoubtedly,  though  in  an  incidental  way, 
an  important  fiictor  in  the  problem  of  the  etiology  of  these  accidents, 
for  though  they  may  be  observed  at  all  times,  it  is  during  the  months 
when  the  slippery  condition  of  the  icy  roads  renders  it  difficult  for  both 
men  and  beasts  to  keep  their  feet  that  they  occur  most  frequently.  The 
long  bones,  those  especially  which  belong  to  the  extremities,  are  most 
frequently  the  seat  of  fractures,  from  the  circumstance  of  their  super- 
ficial position ;  their  exposure  to  contact  and  collision,  and  the  violent 
muscular  efforts  involved  both  in  their  constant  rapid  movement  and 
their  labor  in  the  shafts  or  at  the  pole  of  heavy  and  heavily  laden  car- 
riages. 

The  relation  between  sundry  idiosyncrasies  and  diatheses  and  a 
liability  to  fractures  is  too  constant  and  well  established  a  pathological 
fact  to  need  more  than  a  passing  reference.  The  history  of  rachitis,  of 
melanosis,  and  of  osteo-porosis,  as  related  to  an  abnormal  frangibility  of 
the  bones,  is  a  part  of  our  common  medical  knowledge.  There  are  few 
persons  who  have  not  known  of  cases  among  their  friends  of  frequent 
and  almost  spontaneous  fractures,  or  at  least  of  such  as  seem  to  be  pro- 
duced by  the  slightest  and  most  inadequate  violence,  and  there  is  no 
tangible  reason  for  doubting  an  analogous  condition  in  individuals  of 


293 

the  eqaine  constitution.  Among  local  predisposing  affections  mention 
must  not  be  omitted  of  such  bony  diseases  as  caries,  tuberculosis,  and 
others  of  the  same  class. 

Occasional  or  '^  efficient "  causes  of  fracture  are  in  most  instances  ex- 
ternal traumatisms,  as  violent  contacts,  collisions,  falls,  etc.,  or  sud- 
den muscular  contractions.  These  external  accidents  are  various  in 
their  character,  and  are  usually  associated  with  quick  muscular  exer- 
tion. A  violent,  ineffectual  effort  to  move  too  heavy  a  load ;  a  semi- 
spasmodic  bracing  of  the  frame  to  avoid  a  fall  or  resist  a  pressure  5  a 
quick  jump  to  escape  a  blow  •,  stopping  too  suddenly  after  speeding ; 
struggling  to  liberate  a  foot  from  a  rail,  perhaps  to  be  thrown  in  the 
effort— all  these  are  familiar  and  easy  examples  of  accidents  happen- 
ing hourly,  by  which  our  equine  servants  become  sufferers.  We  may 
add  to  these  the  fracture  of  the  bones  of  the  vertebra,  occurring  when 
casting  a  patient  for  the  purpose  of  undergoing  a  surgical  operation, 
quite  as  much  the  result  of  muscular  contraction  as  of  a  preexisting 
diseased  condition  of  the  bones.  A  fracture  occurring  nnder  these  cir- 
cumstances may  be  called  with  propriety  indirect,  while  one  which 
has  resulted  from  a  blow  or  a  fall  differently  caused  is  of  the  direct  kind. 

We  now  return  to  the  first  items  in  our  classification  of  the  varieties 
of  lameness,  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  them  in  turn  under  an  orderly 
review,  and  our  first  examination  will  include  those  which  belong  to  the 
first  category,  or  the  complete  kind.  Irregularity  in  the  performance  of 
the  functions  of  the  apparatus  to  which  the  fractured  bone  belongs  is 
a  necessary  consequence  of  the  existing  lesion,  and  this  is  lameness.  If 
the  broken  bone  belongs  to  one  of  the  extremities,  the  impossibility  of 
the  performance  of  its  natural  function,  in  sustaining  the  weight  of  the 
body  and  contributing  to  the  act  of  locomotion,  is  usually  complete, 
though  the  degree  of  powerlessness  will  vary  according  to  the  kind  of 
fracture  and  the  bone  which  is  injured.  For  example,  a  fracture  of  the 
cannon  bone  without  displacement,  or  of  one  of  the  phalanges  which 
are  surrounded  and  sustained  by  a  complex  fibrous  structure,  is,  in  a 
certain  degree,  not  incompatible  with  some  amount  of  resting  of  the 
foot.  But  on  the  contrary,  if  the  shank  bone,  or  that  of  the  forearm 
be  the  implicated  member,  it  would  be  very  difficult  for  the  leg  to  exer- 
cise any  agency  whatever  in  the  support  of  the  body.  And  in  a  frac- 
ture of  the  lower  jaw  it  would  be  obviously  futile  to  expect  it  to  con- 
tribute materially  to  the  mastication  of  food. 

A  fracture  seldom  occurs  which  is  not  accompanied  with  a  degree  of 
deformity,  greater  or  less,  of  the  region  or  the  leg  affected.  This  is 
due  to  the  exudation  of  the  blood  into  the  meshes  of  the  surrounding 
tissues  and  to  the  displacement  which  occurs  between  the  fragments  of 
the  bones,  with  subsequently  the  swelling  which  follows  the  inflamma- 
tion of  the  surrounding  tissues.  The  character  of  the  deformity  will 
mainly  depend  upon  the  manner  in  which  the  displacement  occurs. 

In  Q,  normal  state  of  things  the  legs  perform  their  movements  with 


294 

the  joints  as  tlieir  only  centers  or  bases  of  action,  with  no  participation 
of  intermediate  points,  while  with  a  fracture  the  flexibility  and  motion 
which  will  bo  observed  at  unnatural  points  are  among  the  most  strongly 
characteristic  signs  of  the  lesion.  No  one  need  be  told  that  when  tbe 
shaft  of  a  limb  is  seen  to  bend  midway  between  the  joints,  with  the 
lower  portion  swinging  freely,  that  the  leg  is  broken.  But  there  are 
still  some  conditions  where  the  excessive  mobility  is  not  easy  to  detect 
with  certainty.  Such  are  the  cases  where  the  fracture  exists  in  a  short 
bone,  near  a  movable  joint,  or  in  a  bone  of  a  region  Vt'here  several 
short  and  small  bones  are  united  in  a  group,  or  even  in  a  long  bone 
where  its  situation  is  such  that  the  muscular  covering  prevents  the  vis- 
ible manifestation  of  the  symptom. 

If  the  situation  of  a  fracture  precludes  its  discovery  by  means  of 
this  abnormal  flexibilitv,  other  detective  metliods  remain.  And  after 
all  there  is  one  decisive  sign  which,  though  it  may  not  avail  in  every 
case,  as  it  does  not,  is  in  cases  where  its  testimony  can  be  secured  ab- 
solute and  positive  beyond  question.  This  is  crepitation,  or  the  pecu- 
liar effect  which  is  produced  by  the  friction  of  the  fractured  surfaces 
one  against  another.  Though  discerned  by  the  organs  of  hearing  it 
can  scarcely  be  called  a  sound,  for  the  grating  of  the  parts  as  the 
rubbing  takes  place  is  more  felt  than  heard,  but  there  is  no  mistaking 
its  import  in  cases  favorable  for  the  application  of  the  test.  The  con- 
ditions in  which  it  is  not  available  are  those  of  incomplete  fracture,  in 
which  the  mobility  of  the  parts  is  lacking,  and  those  in  which  the  whole 
arraj'  of  phenomena  are  usually  obscure.  To  obtain  the  benefit  of  this 
pathognomonic  sign  requires  deliberate,  careful,  and  gentle  manipula- 
tion. Sometimes  the  slightest  of  movements  will  be  sufficient  for  its 
development,  after  mnch  rougher  handling  has  failed  to  discover  it. 
Perha])s  the  failure  in  the  latter  case  is  due  to  a  sort  of  defensive 
spasmodic  rigidity  caused  by  the  pain  resulting  from  the  rude  interfer- 
ence. 

More  or  less  reactive  fever  is  a  usual  accompaniment  of  a  fracture, 
and  an  ecchymosis  of  the  parts  is  but  a  natural  occurrence,  more  easily 
discovered  in  animals  possessing  alight  colored  and  delicate  skin  than 
in  those  of  the  opposite  character. 

There  are  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  diagnosis  of  an  incomplete 
fracture,  even  sometimes  when  there  is  a  degree  of  impairment  in  the 
function  of  locomotion,  with  evidences  of  pain  and  swelling  at  the  seat 
of  lesion.  There  should  then  be  a  careful  examination  for  evidences  of 
a  blow  or  other  violence  sufficient  to  account  for  the  fracture,  though 
very  often  a  suspicion  of  its  existence  can  only  be  converted  into  a  cer- 
tainty by  a  minute  history  of  the  patient  if  it  can  be  obtained  up  to  the 
moment  of  the  occurrence  of  the  iniury.  A  diagnosis  ought  not  to  be  hast- 
ily pronounced,  and  where  good  ground  for  suspicion  exists  it  ought  not 
to  be  rejected  upon  any  evidence  less  than  the  best.  Serious  and  fatal 
complications  are  too  often  recorded  of  the  results  following  careless  con- 


295 

elusions  in  similar  cases,  among  which  we  may  refer  to  one  instance  of 
a  complete  fracture  manifesting  itself  in  an  animal  during  the  act  of 
rising  up  in  his  stall  after  a  decision  had  been  i^ronounced  that  he  had 
no  fracture  at  all. 

Fractures  are  of  course  liable  to  complications,  those  especially,  from 
the  nature  of  the  case,  which  are  of  a  traumatic  character,  such  as  ex- 
tensive lacerations,  tearing  of  tissues,  punctures,  contusions,  etc.  But 
unless  these  are  iu  communication  with  the  fracture  itself  the  indica- 
tion is  to  treat  them  simply  as  independent  lesions  upon  other  parts  of 
the  body.  A  traumatic  emphysema  will  at  times  cause  trouble,  and 
abscesses,  more  or  less  deep  and  diffused,  may  follow.  In  some  cases 
small  bony  fragments  from  a  comminuted  fracture,  becoming  loose 
and  acting  as  foreign  bodies,  may  give  rise  to  troublesome  fistulous 
tracts.  A  frequent  complication  is  hemorrhage,  which  often  becomes  of 
serious  consequence.  A  fracture  in  close  proximity  to  a  joint  may  be 
accompanied  by  dangerous  inflammations  of  important  organs,  and  in- 
duce an  attack  of  pneumonia,  pleurisy,  arthritis,  etc.,  as  \vell  as  lux- 
ations or  dislocations,  and  the  more  so  if  situated  nearthe  chest.  Gan- 
grow,  as  a  consequence  of  contusions  or  of  hemorrhage  or  of  an  imped- 
iment to  the  circulation,  caused  by  unskillfully  applied  apparatus,  must 
not  be  overlooked  among  the  occasional  incidents;  nor  must  locljaio, 
which  is  not  an  uncommon  occurrence.  Even  founder  or  laminitis  has 
been  met  with  as  the  result  of  forced  and  long  continued  immobility 
of  the  feet  in  the  standing  posture,  as  one  of  the  involvements  of  uua- 
voidabl3'  protracted  treatment. 

When  a  simple  fracture  has  been  i^roperly  treated  and  the  broken 
ends  of  the  bone  have  been  securely  held  in  coaptation  one  of  two 
things  will  occur.  Either — and  this  is  the  more  common  event — there 
will  be  a  union  of  the  two  ends  by  a  solid  cicatrix,  the  callus,  or  the 
ends  will  continue  separated  or  become  only  partially  united  by  an  in- 
termediate fibrous  structure.  In  the  first  instance  the  fracture  is  con- 
solidated, or  iinited,  iu  the  second  there  is  a  false  articulation,  ov  ijscudo- 
arthrosis. 

The  time  required  for  a  firm  union  or  true  consolidation  of  a  fracture 
will  vary  with  the  character  of  the  bone  affected,  the  age  and  constitu- 
tion of  the  patient,  and  the  general  conditions  of  the  case.  The  union 
will  be  perfected  earlier  in  a  young  than  in  an  adult  animal,  and  sooner 
in  the  latter  than  in  the  aged,  and  a  general  healthy  condition  is  of  course, 
in  every  respect,  an  advantage. 

The  mode  of  cicatrization,  or  method  of  repair  in  lesions  of  the  bones, 
has  been  a  subject  of  much  study  among  investigators  in  pathology,  and 
has  elicited  various  expressions  of  opinion  from  those  high  in  authority. 
But  the  weight  of  evidence  and  i)reponderance  of  opinion  are  about 
settled  in  favor  of  the  theory  that  the  law  of  reparation  is  the  same  for 
both  the  hard  and  the  soft  tissues.  In  one  case  a  simple  exudation  of 
material,  with  the  proper  organization  of  newly  formed  tissue,  will 


296 

bring  about  a  union  by  the  first  intention,  and  in  another  tlie  work  will 
be  accompanied  by  suppuration,  or  the  union  by  the  second  intention, 
a  process  so  familiar  in  the  repair  of  the  soft  structures  by  granulation. 

Considering  the  process  in  its  simplest  form,  in  a  case  in  which  it 
advances  without  intfrruption  or  complication  to  a  favorable  result  it 
may  probably  be  correctly  described  in  this  wise : 

On  the  occurrence  of  the  injury  an  effusion  of  blood  takes  place  be- 
tween the  ends  of  the  bone.  The  coagulation  of  the  fluid  soon  follows, 
and  this,  after  a  few  days,  undergoes  absorption.  There  is  then  an 
excess  of  inflammation  in  the  surrounding  structure,  which  soon  spreads 
to  the  bony  tissue,  when  a  true  ostitis  is  established,  and  the  compact 
tissue  of  the  bone  becomes  the  seat  of  a  new  vascular  organization,  and 
of  a  certain  exudation  of  plastic  lymph,  appearing  between  the  peri- 
osteum and  the  external  surface  of  the  bone,  as  well  as  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  medullary  cavity.  After  a  few  days  the  ends  of  the  bone 
thus  surrounded  by  this  exudate  become  involved  in  it,  and  the  lymph, 
becoming  vascular,  is  soon  transformed  into  cartilaginous,  and  in  due 
time  into  bony  tissue. 

Thus  the  time  required  for  the  consolidation  of  the  fractured  seg- 
ments is  divisible  into  two  distinct  periods.  In  the  first  they  are  sur- 
rounded by  an  external  bony  ring,  and  the  medullary  cavity  is  closed 
by  a  bony  plug  or  stopper,  constituting  the  period  o(  the  proinsional 
callus.  This  is  followed  by  the  period  of  permanent  callus,  during  which 
the  process  is  going  forward  of  converting  the  cartilaginous  into  the 
osseous  form. 

The  restorative  process  is  sooner  completed  in  the  carnivorous  than 
in  the  herbivorous  tribes.  In  the  former  the  temporary  callus  may  at- 
tain sufQcient  fineness  of  consistency  for  the  careful  use  of  the  limb 
within  four  weeks,  but  with  the  latter  a  period  of  from  six  weeks  to  two 
months  is  not  too  long  to  allow  before  removing  the  supporting  appa- 
ratus from  the  limb. 

This  in  general  terms  represents  the  fact  when  the  resources  of  na- 
ture have  not  been  thwarted  by  untoward  accidents,  such  as  a  want  of 
vigor  in  the  constitution  of  the  patient  or  a  lack  of  skill  on  the  part  of 
the  practitioner,  and  especially  when,  from  any  cause,  the  bouy  frag- 
ments have  not  been  kept  in  a  state  of  perfect  immobility  and  the  con- 
stant friction  has  prevented  the  osseous  union  of  the  two  i)ortions.  Fail- 
ures and  misfortunes  are  always  more  than  possible,  and  instead  of  a 
solid  and  practicable  bony  union  the  sequel  of  theaccidentis  sometimes 
a  false  joint,  composed  of  mere  flexible  cartilage,  a  poor  pseudo- arthrosis. 
The  explanation  of  this  appears  to  be  that,  first,  the  sharp  edges  of  the 
ends  of  the  bone  disaj^pear  by  becoming  rounded  at  their  extremeties  by 
friction  and  j)olishing  against  each  other.  Then  follows  an  exudation 
of  a  plastic  nature  which  becomes  transformed  into  a  cartilaginous  layer 
of  a  rough  articular  aspect.  In  this  bony  nuclei  soon  appear,  and  the 
lymph  secreted  between  the  segments  thus  transformed,  instead  of  be- 


297 

coming  truly  ossified,  is  changed  into  a  sortof  fibrocartilaginous  pouch 
or  capsular  sac,  in  which  a  somewhat  albuminous  secretion,  or  pseudo- 
synovia,  permits  the  movement  to  take  place.  Most  commonly,  how- 
ever, in  our  animals,  the  union  of  the  bony  fragments  is  obtained  wholly 
through  the  medium  of  a  layer  of  fibrous  tissue,  and  it  is  because  the 
union  has  been  accomplished  by  a  ligamentous  formation  only  that  mo- 
tion becomes  practicable. 

The  prognosis  in  a  case  of  fracture  in  an  animal  is  one  of  the  gravest 
vital  import  to  the  i)atieut,  and  therefore  of  serious  pecuniary  coucern 
to  his  owner.  The  period  has  not  long  elapsed  when  to  have  received 
such  a  hurt  was  quite  equivalent  to  undergoing  a  sentence  of  death  for 
the  suftering  animal,  and  perhaps  to-day  a  similar  verdict  is  pronounced 
in  many  cases  in  which  the  exercise  of  a  little  mechanical  ingenuity, 
with  a  due  amount  of  careful  nursing,  might  secure  a  contrary  result 
and  insure  the  return  of  the  patient  to  his  former  condition  of  soundness 
and  usefulness.  Considered  per  se,  a  fracture  in  an  animal  is  in  fact  no 
less  amenable  to  treatment  than  the  same  description  of  injury  in  any 
other  living  being.  But  the  question  of  the  propriety  and  expediency 
of  treatment  is  dependent  upon  certain  specific  points  of  collateral  con- 
sideration. 

First.  The  nature  of  the  lesion  itself  is  a  point  of  paramount  impor- 
tance. A  simple  fracture  occurring  in  a  bone  where  the  ends  can  be 
firmly  secured  in  coaptation,  presents  the  most  favorable  conditions  for 
successful  treatment.  If  it  be  that  of  a  long  bone  it  will  be  the  less 
serious  if  situated  at  or  near  the  middle  of  its  length  than  if  it  were  in 
close  proximity  to  a  joint,  from  the  fact  that  perfect  immobility  can 
rarely,  in  the  latter  case,  be  secured  without  incurring  the  risk  of  sub- 
sequent rigidity  of  the  joint. 

A  simple  is  always  less  serious  than  a  compound  fracture.  A  com- 
minuted is  always  more  dangerous  than  a  simple,  and  a  transverse 
break  is  easier  to  treat  than  one  which  is  oblique.  The  most  serious  are 
those  which  are  situated  on  parts  of  the  body  in  which  it  is  difficult  to 
secure  perfect  immobility,  and  especially  those  which  are  accompanied 
by  severe  contusions  and  lacerations  in  the  soft  parts;  the  protrusion  of 
fragments  through  the  skin  ;  the  division  of  blood  vessels  by  the  broken 
ends  of  the  bone ;  the  existence  of  an  articulation  near  the  point  to 
which  inflammation  is  likely  to  extend;  the  luxation  of  a  fragment  of 
the  bone ;  laceration  of  the  periosteum ;  the  presence  of  a  large  number 
of  bony  particles,  the  result  of  the  crushing  of  the  bone — all  these  are 
circumstances  which  discourage  a  favorable  prognosis,  and  weigh  against 
the  hope  of  saving  the  patient  for  future  usefulness. 

Fractures  which  may  be  accounted  curable  are  those  which  are  not 
conspicuously  visible,  as  those  of  the  ribs,  where  displacements  are 
either  very  limited  or  do  not  occur,  the  parts  being  kept  in  situ  by  the 
nature  of  their  position,  the  shape  of  the  bones,  the  articulations  they 
form  with  the  vertebra,  the  sternum,  or  their  cartilages  of  prolonga- 


298 

tion  5  those  of  transverse  processes  of  the  lumbar  vertebra ;  those  of 
theboues  of  the  face;  those  of  the  ilium  ;  and  that  of  the  coffin  bones. 
To  continue  the  category,  they  are  evidently  curable  when  their  posi- 
tion and  the  character  of  the  patient  contribute  to  aid  the  treatment. 
Those  of  the  cranium,  in  the  absence  of  cerebral  lesions ;  those  of  the 
jaws ;  of  the  ribs,  with  displa^cement ;  of  the  hip  ;  and  those  of  the  bone 
of  the  leg  in  movable  regions,  but  where  their  vertical  position  admits 
of  perfect  coaptation. 

On  the  contrar3^,  a  compound,  complicated,  or  comminuted  fracture, 
in  whatever  region  it  may  be  situated,  may  be  accounted  incurable. 

In  treating  fractures  time  is  an  important  element  and  "delays  are 
dangerous."  Those  of  xecent  occurrence  unite  more  easily  and  more 
regularly  than  older  ones. 

Second.  As  a  general  rule,  fractures  are  less  serious  in  animals  of  the 
smaller  species  than  in  those  of  more  bulky  dimensions.  This  influence 
of  s])ccics  will  be  readily  appreciated  when  we  realize  that  the  difficul- 
ties involved  in  the  treatment  of  the  latter  class  have  hardly  any  exist- 
ence in  connection  with  the  former.  The  difference  in  weight  aud  size, 
and  consequent  facility  iu  handling,  and  making  the  necessary  applica- 
tions of  dressings  and  other  appliances  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the 
iudispensable  immobility  of  the  parts,  aud  usually  a  less  degree  of  un- 
easiness in  the  deportment  of  the  patients  are  considerations  iu  this 
connection  of  great  weight. 

Third.  In  respect  to  the  utilization  of  the  animal,  the  most  obvious 
point  in  estimating  the  gravity  of  the  case  in  a  fracture  accident  is  the 
certainty  of  the  total  loss  of  the  services  of  the  patient  during  treat- 
ment— certainly  for  a  considerable  period  of  time,  perhaps  permanently. 
For  example,  the  fracture  of  the  jaw  of  a  steer  just  fattening  for  the 
shambles  will  involve  a  heavier  loss  than  a  similar  accident  to  a  horse. 
Usually  the  fracture  of  the  bones  of  the  extremities  in  a  horse  is  a  very 
serious  casualty,  the  more  so  proportionately  as  the  higher  region  of  the 
limb  is  alfected.  In  working  animals  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  treat 
a  fracture  in  such  a  manner  as  to  restore  a  limb  to  its  original  perfec- 
tion of  movement.  A  fracture  of  a  single  bone  of  an  extremity  in  a 
breeding  stallion  or  mare  will  not  necessarily  impair  their  value  as 
breeders.  Other  specifications  under  this  head,  though  pertinent  and 
more  or  less  interesting,  may  be  omitted. 

Fourth.  Age  and  temper  are  important  factors  of  cure.  A  young, 
growing,  robust  patient,  whose  vis  vitcv  is  active,  is  amenable  to  treat- 
ment which  one  with  a  waning  constitution  aud  past  mature  energies 
would  be  unable  to  endure,  and  a  docile,  quiet  disposition  will  act  co- 
operatively with  remedial  measures  which  would  be  neutralized  by  the 
fractious  opposition  of  a  peevish  and  intractable  sufferer. 

The  fulfillment  of  three  indications  is  indispensable  in  all  fractures. 
The  first  is  the  reduction,  or  the  replacement,  of  the  parts  as  nearly  as 
possible  in  their  normal  position.     The  second  is  their  retention  iu  that 


299 

position  for  a  period  sufficient  for  the  formation  of  the  provisional  cal- 
lus, and  the  third,  which  in  fact  is  but  an  incident  of  the  second,  the 
careful  avoidance  of  any  accidents  or  causes  of  miscarriage  which  might 
disturb  the  curative  process. 

In  reference  to  the  first  consideration,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  accident  may  befall  the  patient  at  a  distance  from  his  home,  and 
his  removal  becomes  the  first  duty  to  be  attended  to.  Of  course  this 
must  be  done  as  carefully  as  possible.  If  I:e  can  be  treated  on  the  spot 
so  much  the  better,  though  this  is  seldom  jjracticable,  and  the  method 
of  removal  becomes  the  question  calling  for  settlement.  But  two  ways 
present  themselves — he  must  either  walk  or  be  carried.  If  the  first,  it 
is  needless  to  say  that  every  caution  must  be  observed  in  order  to 
obviate  additional  pain  for  the  suffering  animal,  and  to  avoid  auy 
aggravation  of  the  injury.  Led  slowly,  and  with  partial  support  if  prac- 
ticable, the  journey  will  not  always  involve  untoward  results.  If  he  is 
earned  it  must  be  by  means  of  a  wagon,  a  truck,  or  an  ambulance  :  the 
latter,  being  designed  and  adapted  to  the  purpose,  would  of  course  be 
the  preferable  vehicle.  As  a  precaution  which  should  never  be  over- 
looked, a  temporary  dressing  should  first  be  applied.  This  may  be  so 
done  as  for  the  time  to  answer  all  the  purpose  of  the  permanent  adjust- 
ment and  bandaging.  Without  thus  securing  the  patient,  a  fracture  of 
an  inferior  degree  may  be  transformed  to  one  of  the  severest  kind,  aud, 
indeed  a  curable  changed  to  an  incurable  injury.  We  recall  a  case  in 
which  a  fast  trotting  liorse,  after  running  away  in  a  fright  caused  by 
the  whistle  of  a  locomotive,  was  found  on  the  road  limping  with 
excessive  lameness  in  the  off  fore  leg,  and  walked  with  comparative 
ease  some  2  miles  to  a  stable  before  being  seen  by  a  surgeon.  His  im- 
mediate removal  in  an  ambulance  was  advised,  but  before  that  vehicle 
could  be  procured  the  horse  laid  dowo,  and  upon  being  made  to  get 
upon  his  feet  was  found  with  a  well-marked  comminuted  fracture  of  the 
OS  su0"raginis,  with  considerable  displacement.  The  patient,  however, 
after  long  treatment,  made  a  comparatively  good  recovery  aud  though 
with  a  large  bonj^  deposit,  a  ringbone,  was  able  to  trot  among  the 
forties. 

The  two  obvious  indications  in  cases  of  fracture  are  reduction,  or  re- 
placement, and  retention. 

In  an  incomplete  fracture,  where  there  is  no  displacement,  the  neces- 
sity of  reduction  does  not  exist.  With  the  bone  kept  in  place  by  an  in- 
tact periosteum,  and  the  fragments  secured  by  the  uninjured  fibrous  and 
ligamentous  structure  which  surrounds  them,  there  is  no  dislocation 
to  correct.  It  is  also  at  times  rendered  imjiossible  by  the  seat  of  the 
fracture  itself,  by  its  dimensions  alone,  or  by  the  resistance  arising  from 
the  muscular  contraction  excited  by  the  surgical  manipulation.  This 
is  illustrated  even  in  small  animals,  as  in  dogs,  by  the  exceeding  diffi- 
culty encountered  in  bringing  the  ends  of  a  broken  femur  or  liumerua 
together,  the  muscular  contraction  being  even  in  these  animals  suffi- 
ciently forcible  to  renew  the  displacement. 


300 

It  Is  generally,  therefore,  only  fractnres  of  the  long  bones,  and  then 
at  points  not  iu  close  proximity  to  the  trunk,  that  may  be  considered 
to  be  amenable  to  reduction.  It  is  true  that  some  of  the  more  super- 
ficial bones,  as  those  of  the  head,  of  the  pelvis,  and  of  the  thoracic  walls 
may  in  some  cases  require  special  manipulations  and  appliances  for 
their  retention  in  their  normal  positions,  but  the  treatment  of  these  and 
of  a  fractured  leg  can  not  be  the  same. 

The  methods  of  accomplishing  reduction  vary  with  the  features  of 
each  case,  the  manipulations  being  necessarily  modified  to  meet  chang- 
ing circumstances.  If  the  displacement  is  iu  the  thickness  of  the  bone, 
as  iu  transverse  fracture,  the  manipulation  of  reduction  consists  in 
applying  a  steady  pressure  upon  one  of  the  fragments,  while  the  other 
is  kept  steady  in  its  place,  the  object  of  the  pressure  being  the  rees- 
tablishment  of  the  exact  coincidence  of  the  two  bony  surfaces.  If  the 
displacement  has  taken  place  at  an  angle  it  will  be  sufiflcieut  in  order 
to  effect  the  reduction  to  press  upon  the  summit  or  apex  of  the  angle 
until  its  disappearance  indicates  that  the  parts  have  been  brought  into 
coaptation.  This  method  is  often  practiced  in  the  treatment  of  a  frac- 
tured rib.  In  a  longitudinal  fracture,  or  when  the  fragments  are 
pressed  together  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  to  which  they  give 
insertion  until  they  so  overlap  as  to  correspond  by  certain  points  of 
their  circumference,  the  reduction  is  to  be  accomplished  by  effecting 
the  movements  of  extension,  coiinter-extension,  and  coaptation.  Extension 
is  accomplished  by  making  traction  upon  the  lower  portion  of  the  limb. 
Counter-extension  consists  in  firmly  holding  or  confining  the  upper  or 
body  portion  in  such  a  manner  that  it  shall  not  be  affected  by  the  trac- 
tion applied  to  the  lower;  in  simpler  language,  holding  it  motionless 
against  the  force  exercised  in  the  extension.  In  other  words,  the 
operator,  grasping  the  limb  below  the  fracture,  draws  it  down  or  away 
from  the  trunk,  while  he  seeks,  not  to  draw  away,  but  simply  to  hold 
still  the  upper  portion  until  the  broken  ends  of  bone  are  brought  to  their 
natural  relative  positions  when  the  coaptation,  which  is  thus  affected, 
has  only  to  be  made  permanent  by  the  proper  dressings  to  perfect  the 
reduction. 

In  treating  fractures  iu  small  animals  the  strength  of  the  hand  is 
usually  sufiacient  for  the  required  manipulations.  In  the  fracture  of 
the  forearm  of  a  dog,  for  example,  while  the  upper  segment  is  firmly 
held  by  one  hand,  the  lower  may  be  grasped  by  the  other  and  the  bone 
itself  made  to  serve  the  purpose  of  a  lever  to  bring  about  the  desired 
coaptation.  In  such  a  case  that  is  sufficient  to  overcome  the  muscu- 
lar contraction  and  correct  the  overlapping  or  other  malposition  of  the 
bones.  If,  however,  the  resistance  can  not  be  overcome  in  this  mode, 
the  upper  segment  may  be  committed  to  an  assistant  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  counter  extension,  leaving  to  the  operator  the  free  use  of 
both  hands  for  the  further  manipulation  of  the  case. 

But  if  the  reduction  of  fractures  in  small  animals  is  an  easy  task,  it 


301 

is  far  from  bein^  so  when  a  large  animal  is  the  patient,  whose  mnscular 
force  is  largely  greater  than  that  of  several  men  combined,  la  such  a 
case  resort  must  be  had  not  only  to  superior  numbers  for  the  necessary 
force,  but  in  many  cases  to  mechanical  aids.  A  reference  to  the  mode 
of  proceeding  in  a  case  of  fracture  with  displacement  of  the  fore  arm  of 
a  horse  will  illustrate  the  matter.  The  patient  is  first  to  bo  carefully 
cast,  on  the  uninjured  side,  with  ropes,  or  a  broad  leather  strap  about 
18  feet  long,  passed  under  and  around  his  body  and  under  the  axilla  of 
the  fractured  limb  and  secured  at  a  point  opposite  to  the  animal  and 
toward  his  back.  This  will  form  the  mechanical  means  of  counter  ex- 
tension. Another  rope  will  then  be  placed  around  the  inferior  part  of 
the  leg  below  the  point  of  fracture,  with  which  to  produce  extension, 
and  this  will  sometimes  be  furnished  with  a  block  or  puUies,  in  order 
to  augment  the  power  when  necessary,  and  there  is,  in  fact,  always  an 
advantage  in  their  use,  on  the  side  of  steadiness  and  uniformity,  as  well 
as  of  increased  power.  It  is  secured  around  the  fetlock  or  the  coronet, 
or  what  is  better,  above  the  knee  and  nearer  the  point  of  fracture,  and 
is  committed  to  assistants.  The  traction  on  this  should  be  firm,  uni- 
form, and  slow,  without  relaxing  or  jerking,  while  the  operator  carefully 
watches  the  process.  If  the  bone  is  superficially  situated  he  is  able  to 
judge  by  the  eye  of  any  changes  that  may  occur  in  the  form  or  length 
of  the  parts  under  traction,  and  discovering  at  the  moment  of  its  hap- 
pening the  restoration  of  symmetry  in  the  disturbed  region,  he  gently 
but  firmly  manipulates  the  place  until  all  appearance  of  severed  con- 
tinuity have  vanished.  Sometimes  the  fact  and  the  instant  of  restora- 
tion are  indicated  by  a  peculiar  sound,  or  "click,"  as  the  ends  of  the 
bone  slip  into  contact,  to  await  the  next  step  of  the  restorative  pro- 
cedure. 

The  process  is  the  same  when  the  bones  are  covered  with  thick  mus- 
cular masses,  excepting  that  it  is  attended  with  greater  difficulties,  from 
the  fact  that  the  finger  must  be  substituted  for  the  eye,  and  the  taxis 
must  take  the  place  of  the  sight,  and  the  result  naturally  becomes  more 
uncertain. 

It  frequently  happens  that  perfect  coaptation  is  prevented  by  the  in- 
terposition between  the  bony  surfaces  of  substances,  such  as  a  small 
fragment  of  detached  bone  or  a  clot  of  blood,  and  sometimes  the  extreme 
obliquity  of  the  fracture  is  the  opposing  cause,  by  permitting  the  bones 
to  slip  out  of  place.  These  are  difficulties  which  can  not  always  be 
overcome,  even  in  small-sized  animals,  and  still  it  is  only  when  they  are 
mastered  that  a  correct  consolidation  can  be  looked  for.  Yet  without 
it  the  continuity  between  the  fragments  will  be  by  a  deformed  callus, 
the  union  will  leave  a  shortened,  crooked  or  angular  limb,  and  a  disabled 
animal. 

If  timely  assistance  can  be  obtained,  and  the  reduction  accomplished 
immediately  after  the  occurrence  of  the  accident,  that  is  the  best  time 
for  it.    But  if  it  can  not  be  attended  to  until  inflammation  has  become 


302 

established  and  the  parts  have  become  swollen  and  painful,  time  must 
be  allowed  for  the  subsidence  of  these  symptoms  before  attempting  the 
operation.  A  spasmodic  muscular  contraction  which  sometimes  inter- 
poses a  difficulty  may  be  easily  overcome  by  subjecting  the  patient  to 
general  anesthesia,  and  need  not,  therefore,  cause  any  loss  of  time,  A 
tendency  to  this  may  also  be  overcome  by  the  use  of  sedatives  and  anti- 
phlogistic remedies. 

The  reduction  of  the  fracture  having  been  accomplished,  the  problem 
which  follows  is  that  of  retention.  The  parts  which  have  been  restored 
to  their  natural  position  must  be  kept  there,  without  disturbance  or 
agitation,  until  the  perfect  formation  of  a  callus,  and  it  is  here  that 
ample  latitude  exists  for  the  exercise  of  ingenuity  and  skill  by  the  sur- 
geon in  the  contrivance  of  the  necessary  apparatus.  One  of  the  most 
important  of  the  conditions  which  are  available  by  the  surgeon  in  treat- 
ing human  patients  is  denied  to  the  veterinariau  in  the  management  of 
those  which  belong  to  the  animal  tribes.  This  is  position.  The  intel- 
ligence of  the  human  x^atient  co-operates  with  the  instructions  of  the 
surgeon,  but  with  the  animal  suiferer  there  is  a  continual  antagonism 
between  the  parties,  and  the  forced  extension  and  fatiguing  position 
which  must  for  a  considerable  period  be  maintained  as  a  condition  of 
restoration  require  special  and  efl'ective  appliances  to  insure  successful 
results.  To  obtain  complete  immobility  is  scarcely  possible,  and  the 
surgeon  must  be  content  to  reach  a  point  as  near  as  possible  to  that 
which  is  unattainable.  For  this  reason,  as  will  subsequently-  be  seen,  the 
use  of  slings  and  the  restraint  of  jjatientsin  very  narrow  stalls  is  much 
to  be  preferred  to  the  practice  sometimes  recommended,  of  allowing  en- 
tire freedom  of  motiou  by  turning  them  loose  in  box  stalls.  Temporary 
and  movable  apparatus  are  not  usually  of  difficult  use  in  veterinary 
practice,  but  the  restlessness  of  the  patients  and  their  unwillingness  to 
submit  quietly  to  the  changing  of  the  dressings  render  it  obligatory-  to 
have  recourse  to  i)ermaneut  and  immovable  bandages,  which  should 
be  retained  without  disturbance  until  the  process  of  consolidation  is 
complete. 

The  materials  composing  the  retaining  apparatus  consist  of  oakum, 
bandages,  and  splints,  with  an  agglutinating  compound  which  forms  a 
species  of  cement  by  which  the  different  constituents  are  blended  into 
a  consistent  mass  to  be  spread  upon  the  surface  covering  the  locality 
of  the  fracture.  Its  components  are  black  pitch,  rosin,  and  Venice  tur- 
pentine, blended  by  heat.  The  dressing  maybe  applied  directly  to  the 
skin,  or  a  covering  of  thin  linen  may  be  interposed.  A  putty  made 
with  powdered  chalk  and  the  white  of  ag^  is  recommended  for  small 
animals,  though  a  mixtiire  of  sugar  of  lead  and  buint  alum  with  the 
albumen  is  preferred  by  others.  Another  formula  is  spirits  of  camphor, 
Goulard's  extract  and  albumen.  Another  recommendation  is  to  saturate 
the  oakum  and  bandages  with  an  adhesive  solution  formed  with  gum 
arable,  dextrine,  flour  paste,  or  starch.     This  is  advised  particularly 


303 

for  small  animals.  Dextrine  mixed,  while  warm,  with  burnt  alum  and 
alcohol  cools  and  solidities  into  a  stony  consistency,  and  is  preferable  to 
plaster  of  Paris,  which  Is  less  friable  and  has  less  solidity,  besides  being 
heavier  and  requiring  constant  additions  as  it  becomes  older.  Starch 
and  plaster  of  Paris  form  another  good  compound. 

In  applying  the  dressing  the  leg  is  usually  padded  with  a  cushion  of 
oakum,  thick  and  soft  enough  to  equalize  the  irregularities  of  the  sur- 
face and  to  form  a  bedding  for  the  protection  of  the  skin  from  chafing. 
Over  this  the  splints  are  placed.  The  material  for  these  is,  variously, 
pasteboard,  thin  wood,  bark,  laths,  gutta  percha,  strips  of  thin  metal, 
as  tin  or  perhaps  sheet  iron.  These  should  be  of  sufficient  length  not 
only  to  cover  the  region  of  the  fracture,  but  to  extend  sufficiently 
above  and  below  to  render  the  immobility  more  complete  than  in  the 
surrounding  joints.  The  splints,  again,  are  covered  with  cloth  ban- 
dages, linen  i^referably,  soaked  in  a  glutinous  moisture.  These  ban- 
dages are  to  be  carefully  applied,  with  a  perfect  condition  of  lightness. 
They  are  usually  made  to  embrace  the  entire  length  of  the  leg,  in  order 
to  avoid  the  possibility  of  interference  with  the  circulation  of  the  ex- 
tremity, as  well  as  for  the  prevention  of  chafing.  They  should  be  rolled 
from  the  lower  part  of  the  leg  upwards,  aud  carefully  secured  against 
loosening.  In  some  instances  suspensory  bandages  are  recommended, 
but  excepting  for  small  animals  our  experience  does  not  justify  a  con- 
currence in  the  recommendation. 

These  permanent  dressings  always  need  careful  watching  with  refer- 
ence to  their  immediate  effect  upon  the  region  they  cover,  especially 
during  the  first  days  succeeding  that  of  their  application.  Any  mani- 
festation of  pain,  or  any  appearance  of  swelhng  above  or  below,  or  any 
odor  suggestive  of  suppuration  should  excite  suspicion,  and  a  thorough 
investigation  should  follow  without  delay.  TLe  removal  of  the  dress- 
ing should  be  performed  with  great  care,  aud  especially  so  if  time  enough 
has  elapsed  since  its  application  to  allow  of  a  probability  of  a  com- 
mencement of  the  healing  process  or  the  existence  of  any  points  of  con- 
solidation. With  the  original  dressing  properly  applied  in  its  entirety 
in  the  first  instance,  the  entire  extremity  will  have  lost  all  chance  of 
mobility,  and  the  repairing  process  may  be  permitted  to  proceed  without 
interference.  There  will  be  no  necessity  and  there  need  be  no  haste  for 
removal  or  change  except  under  such  special  conditions  as  have  just 
been  mentioned,  or  when  there  is  reason  to  judge  that  solidification  has 
become  perfect,  or  for  the  comfort  of  the  animal,  or  for  its  readaptatiou 
in  consequence  of  the  atrophy  of  the  limb  from  want  of  use.  Owners 
of  animals  are  often  tempted  to  remove  a  splint  or  bandage  prema- 
turely at  the  risk  of  in-oducing  a  second  fracture  in  consequence  of  the 
failure  of  the  callus  properly  to  consolidate. 

The  method  of  applying  the  splints  which  we  have  described  refers 
to  the  simple  variety  only.  In  a  compound  case  the  same  rules  must 
be  observed,  with  the  modification  of  leaving  openings  through  the 


304 

thickness  of  the  dressing,  opposite  the  wound,  in  order  to  permit  the 
escai)e  of  pus  and  to  secure  access  to  the  points  requiring  the  ai)phca- 
tiou  of  treatment. 

FRACTURE   OF  DIFFERENT   BONES. 

Of  the  cranial  bones. — Fractures  of  this  variety  in  large  animals  are 
comparatively  rare,  though  the  records  are  not  destitute  of  cases. 
When  they  occur,  it  is  as  the  result  of  external  violence,  the  suiierers 
being  usually  runaways  which  have  come  in  collision  with  a  wall  or  a 
tree,  or  other  obstruction;  or  it  may  occur  in  those  which  in  pulling 
upon  the  halter  have  broken  it  with  a  jerk  and  been  thrown  backwards, 
as  might  occur  in  rearing  too  violently.  Under  these  conditions  we 
have  witnessed  fractures  of  the  parietal,  of  the  frontal,  and  of  the 
sphenoid  bones.  These  fractures  may  be  of  both  the  complete  and  the 
incomplete  kind,  which  indeed  is  usually  the  case  with  those  of  the  flat 
bones,  and  they  are  liable  to  be  complicated  with  lacerations  of  the 
skin,  in  consequence  of  which  they  are  easily  brought  under  observa- 
tion. But  when  the  fact  is  otherwise  and  the  skin  is  intact,  the  diag- 
nosis becomes  diificult.  The  incomplete  variety  may  be  unaccompanied 
by  any  special  symptoms,  but  in  the  complete  kind  one  of  the  bony 
plates  may  be  so  far  detached  as  to  press  upon  the  cerebral  substance 
with  sufficient  force  to  produce  serious  nervous  complications.  When 
the  injury  occurs  at  the  base  of  the  cranium  hemorrhage  may  be  looked 
for,  with  paralytic  symptoms,  and  when  these  are  present  the  usual  ter^ 
mination  is  death.  It  may  still  happen,  however,  that  the  symptoms 
of  an  apparently  very  severe  concussion  may  disappear,  with  the  result 
of  an  early  and  complete  recovery,  and  the  surgeon  will  therefore  do 
well  to  avoid  undue  precipitation  in  venturing  upon  a  prognosis.  In 
fractures  of  the  orbital  or  the  zygomatic  bones  the  danger  is  less  press- 
ing than  with  injuries  otherwise  located  about  the  head.  The  treatment 
of  cranial  fractures  is  simple,  though  involving  the  best  skill  of  the 
experienced  surgeon.  When  incomplete,  hardly  any  interference  is 
needed ;  even  plain  bandaging  may  usually  be  dispensed  with.  In  the 
complete  variety  the  danger  to  be  combated  is  compression  of  the 
brain,  and  attention  to  this  indication  must  not  be  delayed.  The  means 
to  be  employed  are  the  trephining  of  the  skull  over  the  seat  of  the  frac- 
ture, and  the  elevation  of  the  depressed  bone  or  the  removal  of  the 
portion  which  is  causing  the  trouble.  Fragments  of  bone  in  comminu- 
ted cases,  bony  exfoliations,  collections  of  fluid,  or  even  protruding 
portions  of  the  brain  substance  must  be  carefully  cleansed  away,  and  a 
simple  bandage  so  applied  as  to  facilitate  the  application  of  subsequent 
dressings. 

Fractures  of  the  bones  of  the  face. — In  respect  to  their  origin — usually 
traumatic— these  injuries  rank  with  the  preceding,  and  are  commonly  of 
the  incomplete  variety.  They  may  easily  be  overlooked  and  may  even 
sometimes  escape  recognition  until  the  reparative  process  has  been  well 


305 

establislied  and  the  discovery  of  the  wound  becomes  due  to  the  promi. 
nence  caused  by  the  prevseuce  of  the  provisional  callus  which  marks  its 
cure.  When  the  fracture  is  complete  it  will  be  marked  by  local  de- 
formity, mobility  of  the  fragments,  and  crepitation.  Nasal  hemor- 
rhage, roaring,  frequent  sneezing,  loosening  or  loss  of  teeth,  difficulty 
of  mastication,  and  inflammation  of  the  cavities  of  the  sinuses  are 
varying  complications  of  these  accidents.  The  object  of  the  treatment 
should  be  the  restoration  of  the  depressed  bones  as  nearly  as  possible 
to  their  normal  position,  and  their  retention  in  place  by  protecting 
splints,  which  should  cover  the  entire  facial  region.  And  special  pre- 
cautious should  be  observed  to  prevent  the  patient  from  disturbing  the 
dressing  by  rubbing  his  head  against  surrounding  objects,  such  as  the 
stall,  the  manger,  the  rack,  etc.  Clots  of  blood  in  the  nasal  passages 
must  be  washed  out,  collections  of  pus  must  be  removed  from  the 
sinuses,  and  if  the  teeth  are  loosened  and  likely  to  fall  out,  they  should 
be  removed.     If  roaring  is  threatened,  tracheotomy  is  indicated. 

Fractures  of  the  jjremaxillary  bone. — These  are  mentioned  by  conti- 
nental authors.  They  are  usually  encountered  in  connection  with  frac- 
tures of  the  nasal  bone,  and  may  take  place  either  in  the  width  or  the 
length  of  the  bone. 

The  deformity  of  the  upper  lip,  which  is  drawn  sidewise  in  this  lesion, 
renders  it  easy  of  diagnosis.  The  abnormal  mobility  and  the  crepita- 
tion, with  the  pain  manifested  by  the  patient  when  undergoing  ex- 
amination, are  concurrent  symptoms.  Looseness  of  the  teeth,  abun- 
dant salivation,  and  entire  inability  to  grasp  the  food  complete  the 
symptomatology  of  these  accidents.  In  the  treatment,  splints  of  gutta 
percba  or  leather  are  sometimes  used,  but  they  are  of  difficult  applica- 
tion. Our  own  judgment  and  practice  are  in  favor  of  the  union  of  the 
bones  by  means  of  metallic  sutures. 

The  lower  jaw.— A  fracture  here  is  not  an  injury  of  infrequent  oc- 
currence. It  involves  the  body  of  the  bone,  at  its  symphysis,  or  back 
of  it,  and  includes  one  or  both  of  its  branches,  either  more  or  less  for- 
ward, or  at  the  posterior  part,  near  the  temporo  maxillary  articulation, 
at  the  coronoid  ijrocess. 

Falls,  bloNVS,  or  other  external  violence,  or  powerful  muscular  con- 
tractions during  the  use  of  the  speculum,  may  be  mentioned  among 
the  causes  of  this  lesion.  The  fracture  of  the  neck  and  of  the  branches 
in  front  of  the  cheeks  causes  the  lower  jaw,  the  true  dental  arch,  to 
drop,  without  the  ability  to  raise  it  again  to  the  upper,  and  the  result 
is  a  peculiar  and  characteristic  physiognomy.  The  prehension  and 
mastication  of  food  become  impossible ;  there  is  an  abundant  escape  oi 
fetid  and  sometimes  bloody  saliva,  especially  if  the  gums  have  been 
wounded  ;  there  is  excessive  mobility  of  the  lower  end  of  the  jawbone; 
and  there  is  crepitation,  and  frequently  paralysis  of  the  under  lip.  But 
although  the  aspect  of  an  animal  suffering  with  a  complete  and  often 
compound  and  comminuted  fracture  of  the  submaxilla  presents  at  times 
11035 20 


306 

a  frigbtfiil  spectacle,  the  prognosis  of  the  case  is  comparatively  sim- 
pie,  aud  recovery  usually  only  a  question  of  time.  Tlie  severity  of 
the  lesion  corresponds  in  degree  with  that  of  the  violence  to  which  it 
is  due,  the  degree  of  simplicity  or  the  amount  of  complication,  and 
with  the  situation  of  the  wound.  It  is  simple  when  at  the  symphysis, 
but  becomes  more  serious  when  it  affects  one  of  the  branches,  to  be 
again  aggravated  when  both  arc  involved.  Fractiirc  of  the  coronoid 
process  becomes  important  principally  as  an  evidence  of  the  existence 
of  a  morbid  diathesis,  such  as  osteo-porosis,  or  the  like. 

The  particular  seat  of  the  injury,  v/ith  its  special  features,  will  of 
course  determine  the  treatment.  For  a  simple  fracture  without  dis- 
l^lacement,  provided  there  is  no  laceration  of  the  periosteum,  an  ordi- 
nary supporting  bandage  will  usually  be  sufficient.  But  when  there  is 
displacement  the  reduction  of  the  fracture  must  first  be  accomplished, 
and  for  this  special  splints  are  necessary.  lu  a  fracture  of  the  sym- 
physis or  of  the  branches  the  adjustment  of  the  fragments  by  securing 
them  with  metallic  sutures  is  the  first  step  necessary,  to  be  followed  by 
the  application  of  supports,  consisting  of  splints  of  leather  or  sheets 
of  metal,  the  entire  front  of  the  head  being  then  covered  with  bandages 
l)repared  with  adhesive  mixtures.  During  the  entire  course  of  treat- 
ment a  special  method  of  feeding  becomes  necessary.  The  inability  of 
the  patient  to  appreciate  the  situation  of  course  necessitates  a  resort 
to  an  artificial  mode  of  introducing  thenecessary  food  into  his  otomach, 
and  it  is  accomplished  by  forcing  between  the  commissures  of  the  lips, 
in  a  liquid  form,  by  means  of  a  syringe,  the  milk  or  nutritive  gruels 
selected  for  his  sustenance,  until  the  consolidation  is  sufficiently  ad- 
vanced to  permit  the  ingestion  of  food  of  a  more  solid  consistency.  The 
callus  will  usually  be  sufficiently  hardened  in  two  or  three  weeks  to  al- 
low of  a  change  of  diet  to  mashes  of  cut  hay  and  scalded  grain,  until 
the  removal  of  the  dressing  restores  him  to  his  old  habit  of  mastication- 

FracUues  ofvertehra\ — These  are  not  very  common,  but  when  they  do 
occur  the  bones  most  frequently  injured  are  those  of  the  back  and  loins. 
The  ordinary  causes  of  fracture  are  responsible  here  as  elsewhere,  such 
as  heavy  blows  on  the  spinal  column,  severe  falls  while  conveying  heavy 
loads,  and  especially  violent  efforts  in  resisting  the  process  of  casting. 
Although  occurring  more  or  less  frequently  under  the  latter  circum- 
stances, the  accident  is  not  always  attributable  to  carelessness  or  error 
in  the  management.  It  may,  of  course,  sometimes  result  from  such  a 
cause  as  a  badly  prepared  bed,  or  the  accidental  presence  of  a  hard 
body  concealed  in  the  straw,  or  to  a  heavy  fall  when  the  movements  of 
the  patient  have  not  been  sufficiently  controlled  by  an  effective  appa- 
ratus and  its  skillful  adaptat-on,  but  it  is  quite  as  likely  to  be  caused  by 
the  violent  resistance  and  the  consequent  powerful  muscular  contrac- 
tion by  the  frightened  patient.  The  simple  fact  of  the  overarching  of 
the  vertebral  column,  with  excessive  pressure  against  it  from  the  intes- 
tinal mass,  owing  to  the  spasmodic  action  of  the  abdominal  muscles, 


307 

may  account  for  it,  and  so  also  may  the  struggles  of  the  animal  to 
escape  from  the  restraint  of  the  hobbles  while  frantic  under  the  pain  of 
an  operation  without  auiesthesia.  In  these  cases  the  fracture  usually 
occurs  in  the  body  or  the  annular  part,  or  both,  of  the  posterior  dorsal 
or  the  anterior  lumbar  vertebra.  When  the  transverse  i)rocesses  of 
the  last-named  bones  are  injured,  it  is  probably  iu  consequence  of  the 
heavy  concussion  incident  to  striking  the  ground  when  cast.  The  diag- 
nosis of  a  fracture  of  the  body  of  a  vertebra  is  not  always  easy,  csi^e- 
ciall3"  when  quite  recent,  and  more  especially  when  there  is  no  accom- 
j)anyiug  displacement.  Tliere  are  certain  peculiar  signs  accompanying 
the  occurrence  of  the  accident  ^^vhile  an  operation  is  in  progress  which 
should  at  once  excite  the  suspicion  of  the  surgeon.  In  the  midst  of  a 
violent  struggle  the  patient  becomes  suddenly  quiet ;  the  movement  of 
a  sharp  instrument  which  at  first  excited  his  resistance  fails  to  give 
rise  to  any  further  evidence  of  sensation ;  perhaps  a  general  trembling, 
lasting  for  a  few  minutes,  will  follow,  succeeded  by  a  cold,  profuse  per- 
spiration, particularly  between  the  hind  legs,  and  frequently  there  will 
be  micturition  and  defecation.  Careful  examination  of  the  vertebral 
column  may  then  detect  a  slight  depression  or  irregularity  iu  the  direc- 
tion of  the  spine,  and  there  may  be  a  diminution  or  loss  of  sensation  in 
the  posterior  part  of  the  trunk  while  the  anterior  i:)ortion  continues  to 
be  as  sensitive  as  before.  In  making  an  attempt  to  get  upon  his  feet, 
however,  upon  the  removal  of  the  hobbles,  only  the  fore  part  of  the 
body  will  respond  to  the  effort,  a  degree  of  paraplegia  being  present, 
and  while  the  head,  neck,  and  fore  part  of  the  body  will  be  raised,  the 
hind  quarters  and  hind  legs  will  remain  inert.  The  animal  may  per- 
haps succeed  in  rising  and  jn^obably  maj'  be  removed  to  his  stall,  but 
the  displacement  of  the  bone  will  follow,  converting  the  fracture  into 
one  of  the  complete  kind,  either  through  the  exertion  of  walking  or  by 
a  renewed  attempt  to  rise  after  another  fall,  before  reaching  his  stall. 
By  this  time  the  i)aralysis  is  complete,  and  the  extension  of  the  menin- 
gitis which  has  become  established  is  a  consummation  soon  reached. 

To  say  that  the  prognosis  of  fracture  of  the  body  of  the  vertebrae  is 
always  serious  is  to  speak  very  mildly.  It  were  better  perhaps  to  say 
that  occasionally  a  case  may  recover.  Fractures  of  the  transverse  pro- 
cesses are  less  serious. 

Instead  of  stating  the  indication  in  this  class  of  cases,  as  if  assuming 
them  to  be  medicable,  the  question  naturally  becomes  rather  a  query: 
"Can  any  treatment  be  recommended  in  a  fracture  of  the  body  of  a 
vertebra?"  The  only  indication  iu  such  a  case,  in  our  opinion,  is  to 
reach  the  true  diagnosis  in  the  shortest  jjossible  time  and  to  act  ac- 
cordingly. If  there  is  displacement,  and  the  existence  of  serious  le- 
sions may  be  inferred  from  the  nervous  symptoms,  the  destruction  of 
the  suffering  animal  appears  to  suggest  itself  as  the  one  conclusion  in 
which  considerations  of  policy,  humanity,  and  science  at  once  unite. 

If,  however,  it  is  fairly  evident  that  no  displacement  exists ;  that 


308 

pressure  upon  the  spinal  cord  is  not  yet  present;  that  the  animal  with  a 
little  assistance  is  able  to  rise  upon  his  feet  and  to  walk  a  short  dis- 
tance, it  may  be  well  to  experiment  upon  the  case  to  the  extent  of 
placing  the  patient  in  the  most  favorable  circumstances  for  recovery, 
and  allow  nature  to  operate  without  further  interference.  This  may  be 
accomplished  by  securing  immobility  of  the  whole  body  as  much  as 
possible,  and  especially  of  the  suspected  region,  by  placing  the  patient 
in  slings,  in  a  stall  sufficiently  narrow  to  preclude  lateral  motion,  and 
covering  the  loins  with  a  thick  coat  of  agglutinative  mixture,  watch 
and  wait  for  developments. 

Fracture  of  the  ribs. — The  different  regions  of  the  chest  are  not  equally 
exposed  to  the  violence  to  which  fractures  of  tbe  ribs  are  due,  and 
they  are  therefore  either  more  common  or  more  easily  discovered,  during 
life,  at  some  points  than  at  others.  The  more  exposed  regions  are  the 
middle  and  the  posterior,  while  the  front  is  largely  covered  and  de- 
fended by  the  shoulder.  A  single  rib  may  be  the  seat  of  fracture,  or  a 
number  may  be  involved,  and  there  may  be  injuries  on  both  sides  of 
the  chest  at  the  same  time.  It  may  take  place  lengthwise,  in  any  part 
of  the  bone,  though  the  middle,  being  the  most  exposed,  is  the  most 
frequently  hurt.  Incomplete  fractures  are  usually  lengthwise,  involv- 
ing a  portion  only  of  the  thickness  or  one  or  other  of  tbe  surfaces. 
The  complete  kind  may  be  either  transverse  or  oblique,  and  are  most 
commonly  denticulated.  The  fracture  may  be  comminuted,  and  a  single 
bone  may  show  one  of  the  complete  and  one  of  the  incomplete  kind,  at 
different  points.  The  extent  of  surface  presented  by  the  thoracic  re- 
gion, with  its  complete  exposure  at  all  points,  explains  the  liability  of 
the  ribs  to  suffer  from  all  the  forms  of  external  violence. 

In  many  instances  fractures  of  these  bones  continue  undiscovered, 
especially  the  incomplete  variety,  without  displacement,  though  the 
evidences  of  local  pain,  a  certain  amount  of  swelling  and  a  degree  of 
disturbance  of  the  respiration,  if  noticed  during  the  examination  of  a 
patient,  may  suggest  a  suspicion  of  their  existence.  Abnormal  mobility 
and  crepitation  are  difficult  of  detection,  even  when  i^resenl,  and  they 
are  not  always  present.  When  there  is  displacement  the  deformity 
which  it  occasions  will  betray  the  fact,  and  when  such  an  injury  exists 
the  surgeon  will  of  course  become  vigilant  in  view  of  possible  and 
probable  complications  of  thoracic  trouble,  and  jirepare  himself  for  an 
encounter  with  a  case  of  traumatic  pleuritis  or  pneumonia.  Fatal  in- 
juries of  the  heart  are  recorded.  Subcutaneous  emphysema  is  a  com- 
mon accompaniment  of  broken  ribs,  and  we  recall  the  death  from  this 
cause  of  a  patient  of  our  own,  which  had  suffered  a  fracture  of  two 
ribs  in  the  region  of  the  withers  under  the  cartilages  of  the  shoulder, 
and  of  which  the  diagnosis  was  only  made  after  the  fatal  ending  of 
the  case. 

These  hurts  are  not  often  of  a  very  serious  character,  though  the 
union  is  never  as  solid  and  complete  as  in  other  fractures,  the  callus 


309 

being  usually  imperfect  and  of  a  fibrous  character,  with  an  amphiar- 
throsis  formation.  S  till,  complications  occur  which  may  impart  grav- 
ity to  the  prognosis. 

Fractures  with  but  a  slight  or  no  displacement  need  no  redaction. 
All  that  is  necessary  is  a  simple  application  of  a  blistering  nature  as  a 
preventive  of  inflammation  or  for  its  subjugation  when  present,  and  in 
order  to  excite  an  exudation  which  will  tend  to  aid  in  the  support  and 
immobilization  of  the  parts.  At  times,  however,  a  better  effect  is  ob- 
tained by  the  application  of  a  bandage  placed  firmly  around  the  chest, 
although,  while  this  limits  the  motion  of  the  ribs,  it  is  ai)t  to  render 
the  respiration  more  labored. 

If  there  is  displacement  with  much  accompanying  pain  and  evident 
irritation  of  the  lungs,  the  fracture  must  be  reduced  without  delay. 
The  means  of  effecting  this  vary  according  to  whether  the  displacement 
is  outwards  or  inwards.  In  the  first  case  the  bone  may  be  straightened 
by  pressure  from  without,  while  in  the  second  the  end  of  the  bone  must 
be  raised  by  a  lever,  for  the  introduction  of  which  a  small  incision 
through  the  skin  and  intercostal  spaces  will  be  necessary.  When  coap- 
tation has  been  affected  it  must  be  retained  by  the  external  application 
of  adhesive  mixture,  with  splints  and  bandages  around  the  chest. 

Fractures  of  the  hones  of  the  pelvis  will  be  considered  under  their  sep- 
arate denominations,  as  those  of  the  sacrum  and  the  os  imiominata,  or 
hip,  which  includes  the  subdivisions  of  the  ilium,  the  i)ubes,  and  the 
ischium. 

The  sacrum. — Fractures  of  this  bone  are  rarely  met  with  among  sol- 
ipeds.  Among  cattle,  however,  it  is  of  common  occurrence,  beiug  at- 
tributed not  only  to  the  usual  varieties  of  violence,  as  blows  and  other 
external  hurts,  but  to  the  act  of  coition,  and  to  violent  efforts  in  partu- 
rition. It  is  generally  of  the  transverse  kind,  and  may  be  recognized 
by  the  deformity  which  it  occasions.  This  is  due  to  the  dropj^ing  of  the 
bone,  with  a  change  in  its  direction  and  a  lower  attachment  of  the  tail, 
which  also  becomes  more  or  less  paralyzed.  The  natural  and  spontane- 
ous relief  which  usually  interposes  in  these  cases  has  doubtless  been 
observed  by  the  extensive  cattle  breeders  of  the  West,  and  their  prac- 
tice and  example  fully  establishes  the  inutility  of  interference.  Still, 
cases  may  occur  in  which  reduction  may  be  indicated,  and  it  then 
becomes  a  matter  of  no  difficulty.  It  is  effected  by  the  introduction  of 
a  round,  smooth  piece  of  wood  into  the  rectum  as  far  as  the  fragment  of 
bone,  and  using  it  as  a  lever,  resting  it  ujion  another  as  a  fulcrum  placed 
under  it  outside.  The  bone  haviug  been  thus  returned  may  be  kex)t  in 
place  by  theordinai-y  external  means  in  use. 

The  OS  innominata. — Fractures  of  the  ilium  may  be  observed  either  at 
the  angle  of  the  hip  or  at  the  neck  of  the  bone ;  those  of  the  pubes  may 
take  place  at  the  symphysis,  or  in  the  body  of  the  bon« ;  t^iose  of  the 
ischium  on  the  floor  of  the  bone,  or  at  its  posterior  external  angle.  Or, 
again,  the  fracture  may  involve  all  three  of  these  constituent  parts  of 


310 

thebip  bone  by  having  its  situation  in  tbe  articular  cavity — tlie  acetabu- 
lum by  which  it  joins  the  femur  or  thigh  bone. 

Some  of  these  fractures  are  easily  rccoguizetl,  while  others  are  diffi- 
cult to  identify.  The  ordinary  deformity  which  characterizes  a  fracture 
of  the  external  angle  of  the  ilium,  its  dropping  and  the  diminution  of 
that  side  of  the  hip  in  width,  unite  in  indicating  the  existence  of  the 
condition  expressed  by  the  term  '■  hipped."  But  an  incomplete  fracture, 
or  one  that  is  complete  without  displacement,  or  even  one  with  dis- 
lilacement,  often  demands  the  closest  scrutiny  for  its  disoovery.  The 
lameness  may  be  well  marked,  and  an  animal  may  show  but  little  ap- 
pearance of  it  while  walking,  but  upon  being  urged  into  a  trot  will 
manifest  it  more  and  mere,  until  presently  he  will  cease  to  use  the 
crippled  limb  altogether,  and  perform  his  traveling  entirely  on  three  legs. 
The  acute  character  of  the  lameness  will  vary  iu  degree  as  the  seat 
of  the  lesiou  approximates  the  acetabulum.  In  walking,  the  motion  at 
the  hip  is  verj^  limited,  and  the  leg  is  dragged,  while  at  rest  it  is  re- 
lieved from  bearing  its  share  in  sustaining  the  body.  An  intelligent 
opinion  and  correct  conclusion  will  depend  largely  upon  a  knowledge 
of  the  history  of  the  case,  and  while  in  some  instances  that  will  be  but 
a  report  of  the  common  etiology  of  fractures,  such  as  blows,  hurts,  and 
other  external  violence,  the  simple  fact  of  a  fall  may  furnish  iu  a  single 
word  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the  whole  matter. 

"With  the  exception  of  the  deformity  of  the  ilium  in  a  fracture  of  it3 
external  angle,  and  unless  there  have  been  a  serious  laceration  of  tis- 
sues and  infiltration  of  blood,  or  excessive  displacement,  there  are  no 
very  definite  external  symptoms  in  a  case  of  a  fracture  of  the  hip  bone. 
There  is  one,  however,  which,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  will  not  fail — it  is 
crepitation.  This  evidence  is  attainable  by  both  external  and  internal 
examination — by  manipulation  of  the  gluteal  surface  and  by  rectal 
taxis.  Very  often  a  lateral  motion,  or  balancing  of  the  hinder  i)arts  by 
pressing  the  body  from  one  side  to  the  other,  will  be  sufiQcient  to  ren- 
der the  crepitation  more  distinct — a  slight  sensation  of  grating,  which 
may  be  i^erceived  even  through  the  thick  coating  of  muscle  which 
covers  the  bone— and  the  sensation  may  not  only  be  felt,  but  to  the  ear 
of  the  expert  may  even  become  audible.  This  external  manifestation 
is,  however,  not  always  sufficient  in  itself,  and  should  always  be  asso- 
ciated with  the  rectal  taxis  for  corroboration.  It  is  true  that  this  may 
fail  to  add  to  the  evidence  of  fracture,  but  till  then  the  simjjle  testimony 
aifbrded  by  the  detection  of  crepitation  from  the  surface,  though  a 
strong  confirmatory  point,  is  scarcely  sufficiently  absolute  to  establish 
more  than  a  reasonable  probability  or  strong  suspicion  in  the  case. 

In  addition  to  the  fiict  that  the  rectal  examination  brings  the  explor- 
ing hand  of  the  surgeon  into  near  proximity  to  the  desired  point  of 
search,  and  to  an  accurate  knowledge  of  thesituatiou  of  parts,  both  ^ro 
and  con  as  respects  his  own  views,  there  is  another  advantage  attend- 
ant upon  it  which  is  well  entitled  to  appreciation.     ThiG  is  the  facility 


311 

with  which  he  can  avail  himself  of  the  cooperation  of  an  assistant,  who 
can  aid  him  by  manipulating  the  implicated  limb  and  placing  it  in  va- 
rious positions,  so  far  as  the  patient  will  permit,  while  the  surgeon 
himself  is  making  explorations  and  studying  the  eflect  from  within. 
By  this  method  he  can  hardly  fail  to  ascertain  the  character  of  the 
fracture  and  the  condition  of  the  bony  ends.  By  the  rectal  taxis,  as  if 
with  eyes  in  the  finger  cuds,  he  will  "see"  what  is  the  extent  of  the 
fracture  of  the  ilium  or  of  the  neck  of  that  bone;  to  what  part  of  the 
central  portion  of  the  bone  (the  acetabulum)  it  reaches;  whether  this 
is  free  from  disease  or  not,  and  in  what  location  on  the  floor  of  the 
pelvis  the  lesion  is  situated.  We  have  frequently,  by  this  method,  been 
able  to  detect  a  fracture  at  the  symphysis,  which  from  its  history  and 
symptoms  and  an  external  examination,  could  only  have  been  guessed  at. 

Yet,  with  all  its  advantages,  the  rectal  examination  is  not  always 
necessary,  as,  for  example,  when  tlie  fracture  is  at  the  posterior  and 
external  angle  of  the  ischium,  when  by  friction  of  the  bony  ends  the 
surgeon  may  discern  the  crepitation  without  it. 

Every  variety  of  complication,  including  muscular  lacerations  with 
the  formation  of  deep  abscesses  and  injuries  to  the  organs  of  the  pelvic 
cavity,  the  bladder,  the  rectum,  and  the  uterus,  may  bo  associated 
with  fractures  of  the  hip  bone. 

The  prognosis  of  these  lesions  will  necessarily  vary  considerably.  A 
fracture  of  the  most  superficial  part  of  the  bone  of  the  ilium  or  of  the 
ischium,  especially  where  there  is  little  displacement,  will  unite  rapidly, 
leaving  a  comparatively  sound  animal  often  quite  free  from  subsequent 
lameness.  But  if  there  is  much  displacement,  only  a  ligamentous  union 
will  take  place,  with  much  deformity  and  more  or  less  irregularity  in 
the  gait.  Other  fractures  may  be  followed  b^^  complete  disability  of 
the  patient,  as,  for  example,  when  the  cotyloid  cavity  is  involved,  or 
when  the  reparatory  process  has  left  bony  deposits  in  the  pelvic  cavity 
at  the  seat  of  the  union,  which  ma^^,  with  the  female,  interfere  with  the 
steps  of  parturition,  or  induce  some  local  paralysis  by  pressure  upon 
the  nerves  which  govern  the  muscles  of  the  hind  legs.  This  is  a  con- 
dition not  infrequently  observed  when  the  callus  has  been  formed  on 
the  floor  of  the  pelvis  near  the  obturator  foramen,  pressing  upon  the 
course  or  involving  the  obturator  nerve. 

The  treatment  of  all  fractures  of  the  hip  bone  should,  in  our  estima- 
tion, be  of  the  simplest  kind.  Rendered  comparatively  immovable  by 
the  thickness  of  the  muscles  by  which  the  region  is  enveloped,  one  es- 
sential indication  suggests  itself,  and  that  is,  to  place  the  animal  in  a 
position  which,  as  far  as  possible,  will  be  fixed  and  jiermanent.  For 
the  accomplishment  of  this  purpose  the  best  measure,  as  we  consider  it, 
is  to  i)lace  him  in  a  stall  of  just  sufficient  width  to  admit  him,  and  to 
apply  a  set  of  slings  snugly,  but  comfortably.  This  will  fulfill  the  essen- 
tial conditions  of  recovery,  rest,  and  immobility.  Blistering  applica- 
tions would  be  injurious,  though  the  adhesive  mixture  might  provo  in 
some  degree  beneficial. 


312 

The  iniiiiinuin  period  allowable  for  solid  union  in  a  fractured  hip  is, 
in  our  judgment,  two  months,  and  we  have  known  cases  in  which  that 
was  too  short  a  time. 

As  we  have  before  said,  there  may  be  cases  in  which  the  treatment 
for  fracture  at  the  floor  of  the  pelvis  has  been  followed  by  symptoms  of 
l^artial  paral^^sis,  the  animal,  when  lying  down,  being  unable  to  regain 
his  feet,  but  moving  freely  when  i)4aced  in  an  upright  position.  This 
condition  is  due  to  the  interference  of  the  callus  with  the  functions  of 
the  obturator  nerve,  which  it  jiresses  upon  or  surrounds.  We  feel  war- 
ranted by  our  experience  in  similar  cases  in  cautioning  owners  of  horses 
in  this  condition  to  exercise  due  patience,  and  to  avoid  a  premature 
sentence  of  condemnation  against  their  invalid  servants  ;  they  are  not 
all  irrecoverably  paralytic.  With  alternations  of  moderate  exercise,  rest 
in  the  slings,  and  the  eflect  of  time  while  the  natural  process  of  absorp- 
tion is  taking  effect  ui^on  the  callus,  with  other  elements  of  change  that 
may  be  so  operating,  the  horse  may  in  due  time  become  able  to  once 
more  earn  his  subsistence  and  serve  his  master. 

Fracture  of  the  scapula. — This  bone  is  seldom  fractured,  its  compara- 
tive exemption  being  due  to  its  free  mobility  and  the  protection  it  re- 
ceives from  the  superimposed  soft  tissues.  Only  direct  and  powerful 
causes  are  sufiBcieut  to  effect  the  injury,  and  when  it  occurs  the  large 
rather  than  the  smaller  animals  are  the  subjects.  The  causes  are  heavy 
blows  or  kicks,  and  violent  collisions  with  unyielding  objects.  Those 
which  are  occasioned  by  falls  are  generally  at  the  neck  of  the  bone,  and 
of  the  transverse  and  comminuted  varieties. 

The  diagnosis  is  not  always  easy.  The  symptoms  are  inability  to  rest 
the  leg  on  the  ground  and  to  carry  weights,  and  they  are  present  in 
various  degrees  from  slight  to  severe  The  leg  rests  upon  the  toe  and 
seems  shortened,  and  locomotion  is  performed  by  jumps.  Moving  the 
leg  while  examining  it  and  raising  the  foot  for  inspection  seem  to  pro- 
duce much  pain  and  cause  the  animal  to  rear.  Crepitation  is  readily 
felt  with  the  hand  upon  the  shoulder  when  the  leg  is  moved.  If  the 
fracture  occurs  in  the  upper  part  of  the  bone,  overlapping  of  the  frag- 
ments and  displacement  will  be  considerable. 

The  fracture  of  this  bone  is  usually  classed  among  the  more  serious 
accidents,  though  cases  may  occur  which  are  followed  by  recovery  with- 
out very  serious  ultimate  results,  especially  when  the  seat  of  the  injury 
is  at  some  of  the  upper  angles  of  the  bone,  or  about  the  acromion  crest. 
But  if  the  neck  and  the  joint  are  the  parts  involved,  complications  are 
apt  to  be  present  which  are  likely  to  disable  the  animal  for  life. 

If  there  is  no  disi)lacement  a  simple  adhesive  dressing,  to  strengthen 
and  immobilize  the  ijarts,  will  be  sufficient.  A  coat  of  black  pitch  dis- 
solved with  wax  and  Venice  turpentine,  and  kept  in  place  over  the 
region  with  oakum  or  linen  bands,  will  be  all  the  treatment  required, 
especially  if  the  animal  is  kept  quiet  in  the  slings. 

Displacement  cannot  be  remedied,  and  reduction  is  next  to  impos- 


313 

sible.  Sometimes  an  iron  plate  is  applied  over  the  parts  and  retained 
by  bandages,  as  in  the  dressing  of  Bourgelat ;  and  this  may  be  advan- 
tageously replaced  by  a  pad  of  thick  leather.  In  smaller  animals  the 
parts  are  retained  by  figure  8  bandages,  embracing  both  the  normal 
and  the  diseased  shoulders,  crossing  each  other  in  the  axilla  and  cov- 
ered with  a  coating  of  adhesive  mixture. 

Fractures  of  the  humerus. — These  are  more  common  in  small  than  in 
large  animals,  and  are  always  the  result  of  external  traumatism.  They 
are  generally  very  oblique,  are  often  comminuted,  and  though  more 
usually  involving  the  shaft  of  the  bone  will  in  some  cases  extend  to 
the  upper  end  and  into  the  articular  head.  There  is  ordinarily  con- 
siderable displacement  in  consequence  of  the  overlapping  of  the  broken 
ends  of  the  bone,  and  this,  of  course,  causes  more  or  less  shortening  of 
the  limb.  There  will  also  be  swelling,  with  difficulty  of  locomotion, 
and  crepitation  will  be  easy  of  detection.  This  fracture  is  always  a 
serious  damage  to  the  patient,  leaving  him  with  a  permanently  short- 
ened limb  and  a  remediless,  lifelong  lameness. 

If  treatment  is  determined  on  it  will  consist  in  the  reduction  of  the 
fracture  by  means  of  extension  and  counter  extension,  and  in  order  to 
accomplish  this  the  animal  must  be  thrown.  If  successful  in  the  reduc- 
tion, then  follows  the  application  and  adjustment  of  the  apparatus  of 
retention,  which  must  needs  be  of  the  most  perfect  and  efficient  kind. 
And  finally,  this,  however  skillfully  contrived  and  carefully  adapted, 
will  often  fail  to  effect  any  good  purpose  whatever. 

Fracture  of  the  forearm.— A  fracture  in  this  region  may  also  involve 
the  radius  or  the  cubitus,  the  first  being  broken  at  times  in  its  upper 
portion  above  the  radio-cubital  arch  at  the  olecranon.  If  the  fracture 
occurs  at  any  part  of  the  forearm  from  the  radio-cubital  arch  down  to 
the  knee,  it  may  involve  either  the  radius  alone  or  the  radius  and  the 
cubitus,  which  are  there  intimately  united. 

Besides  having  the  same  etiology  with  most  of  the  fractures,  those  of 
the  forearm  are,  nevertheless,  more  commonly  due  to  kicks  from  other 
animals,  especially  when  crowded  together  in  large  numbers  in  insuffi- 
cient space.  It  is  a  matter  of  observation  that,  under  these  circum- 
stances, fractures  of  the  incomplete  kind  are  those  which  occur  on  the 
inside  of  the  leg,  the  bone  being  in  that  region  almost  entirely  subcu- 
taneous, while  those  of  the  complete  class  are  either  oblique  or  trans- 
verse. The  least  common  are  the  longitudinal,  in  the  long  axis  of  the 
bone. 

This  variety  of  fracture  is  easily  recognized  by  the  appearance  of  the 
leg  and  the  different  changes  it  undergoes.  There  is  inability  to  use 
the  limb 5  impossibility  of  locomotion;  mobility  below  the  injury;  the 
ready  detection  of  crepitation — in  a  word,  the  assemblage  of  all  the 
signs  and  symptoms  which  have  been  already  considered  as  associated 
with  the  history  of  broken  bones. 
The  fracture  of  the  cubitus  alone,  principally  above  the  radio-cubital 


314 

arch,  may  be  ascertained  by  the  aggravated  lameness,  the  excessive 
soreness  on  pressure,  and  perhaps  a  certain  increase  of  motion,  with  a 
very  slight  crepitation  if  tested  for  in  the  usual  way.  Displacement 
is  not  likely  to  take  place  except  when  it  is  well  up  towards  the  ole- 
cranon or  its  tuberosity,  the  upper  segment  of  the  bone  being  in  that 
case  likely  to  be  drawn  upwards.  For  a  simple  fracture  of  this  region 
there  exists  a  fair  chance  of  recovery,  but  in  a  case  of  the  compound 
and  comminuted  class  there  is  less  ground  for  a  favorable  prognosis, 
especially  if  the  elbow  joint  has  sufi'ered  injury.  A  fracture  of  the 
cubitus  alone  is  not  of  serious  importance,  except  when  the  same  con- 
ditions prevail.  A  fracture  of  the  olecranon  is  less  amenable  to  treat- 
ment, and  promises  little  better  than  a  ligamentous  union. 

Considering  all  the  various  conditions  involving  the  nature  and  ex- 
tent of  these  lesions,  the  position  and  direction  of  the  bones  of  the  fore- 
arm are  such  as  to  render  the  chances  for  recovery  from  fracture  as 
among  the  best.  The  reduction,  by  extension  and  counter  extension  ; 
the  maintenance  of  the  coaptation  of  the  segments;  the  adaptation 
of  the  dressing  by  splints,  oakum,  and  agglutinative  mixtures;  in 
a  word,  all  the  details  of  treatment  may  be  here  fulfilled  with  a 
degree  of  facility  and  precision  not  attainable  in  any  other  part  of 
the  organism.  An  important  if  not  an  essential  point,  however, 
must  be  emphasized  in  regard  to  the  splints.  Whether  these  are  of 
metal,  wood,  or  other  material,  they  should  reach  from  the  elbow  joint 
to  the  ground,  and  should  be  placed  on  the  posterior  face  and  on  both 
sides  of  the  leg.  This  is  then  to  be  so  confined  in  a  properly  constructed 
box  as  to  preclude  all  possibility  of  motion,  while  yet  it  must  sustain  a 
certain  portion  of  the  weight  of  the  body.  The  iron  splint  (represented 
in  Plate  XXVII)  recommended  by  Jiourgelet  is  designed  for  fractures 
of  the  forearm,  of  the  knee,  and  of  the  cannon  bone,  and  will  prove  to 
be  an  appliance  of  great  value.  For  small  animals  our  preference  is  for 
an  external  covering  of  gutta  percha,  embracing  the  entire  leg.  A 
sheet  of  this  substance  of  suitable  thickness,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
animal,  softened  in  lukewarm  water,  is,  when  sufficiently  pliable,  molded 
on  the  outside  of  the  leg,  and  when  suddenly  hardened  by  the  applica- 
tion of  cold  water  forms  a  complete  casing  sufficiently  rigid  to  resist  all 
motion.  Patients  treated  in  this  manner  have  been  able  to  use  the 
limb  freely,  without  pain,  immediately  after  the  application'  of  the 
dressing.  The  removal  of  the  splint  is  easily  effected  by  cutting  it 
away,  either  wholly  or  in  sections,  after  softening  it  by  immersiug  the 
leg  in  a  warm  bath. 

Fracture  of  the  knee. — This  accident,  happily,  is  of  rare  occurrence, 
but  when  it  takes  place  is  of  a  severe  character,  being  of  the  commi- 
nuted kind,  and  always  accompanied  by  synovitis,  with  disease  of  the 
joint,  requiring  for  treatment  therefor,  besides  the  indication  of  perfect 
immobility  of  the  joint,  that  of  open  joints,  synovitis,  and  arthritis. 

Fracture  of  the  femur. — The  protection  which  this  bone  receives  from 


315 

the  large  mass  of  mnscles  in  which  it  is  enveloped  does  not  suffice  to 
invest  it  with  immunity  in  regard  to  fractures.  It  contributes  its  share 
to  the  list  of  accidents  of  this  description,  sometimes  in  consequence  of 
external  violence  and  sometimes  as  the  result  of  muscular  contraction  ; 
sometimes  it  takes  place  at  the  upper  extremity  of  the  bone  ;  sometimes 
at  the  lower;  sometimes  at  the  head,  when  the  condyles  become  impli- 
cated; but  it  is  principally  found  in  the  body  or  diaphysis.  The  frac- 
ture may  be  of  any  of  the  ordinary  forms,  simple  or  compouud,  complete 
or  incomplete,  transverse  or  oblique,  etc.  A  case  of  the  commiuuted 
variety  is  recorded  in  which  eighty-five  fragments  of  bone  were  counted 
and  removed. 

The  thickness  of  the  muscular  covering  sometimes  renders  the  diag- 
nosis difficult  by  interfering  with  the  manipulation,  but  the  crepitation 
test  is  readily  available  even  when  the  swelling  is  considerable  and 
which  is  likely  to  be  the  case  as  the  result  of  the  interstitial  hemorrhage 
which  naturally  follows  the  laceration  of  the  blood  vessels  of  the  region 
involved.  If  the  fracture  is  at  the  neck  of  the  bone  the  muscles  of  that 
region  Ctho  gluteal)  are  firmly  contracted  and  the  leg  seems  to  h^  short- 
ened in  consequence.  Locomotion  is  impossible.  Crepitation  may  in 
some  cases  be  discerned  by  rectal  examination,  with  one  hand  resting 
over  the  coxofemoral  (hip)  articulation.  Fractures  of  the  tuberosities 
of  the  upper  end  of  the  bone,  the  great  trochanter,  may  be  identified 
by  the  deformity,  the  swelling,  the  impossibility  of  rotation,  and  the 
dragging  of  the  leg  in  walkiug.  Fracture  of  the  body  is  always  accom- 
panied by  displacement,  and  as  a  consequence  a  shortening  of  the  leg, 
which  is  carried  forward.  The  lameness  is  excessive,  the  foot  beiug 
moved,  both  when  raising  it  from  the  ground  and  when  setting  it  down, 
very  timidly  and  cautiously.  The  manipulations  for  the  discovery  of 
crepitation  always  cause  much  pain.  Lesions  of  the  lower  end  of  the 
bone  are  more  difficult  to  diagnosticate  with  certainty,  though  the 
manifestation  of  pain  while  making  heavy  pressure  upon  the  condyles 
will  be  so  marked  that  only  crepitation  will  be  needed  to  turn  a  sus- 
picion into  a  certainty. 

The  question  as  to  treatment  in  fractures  of  this  description  lesolves 
itself  into  the  querj-  whether  any  treatment  can  be  suggested  that  can 
avail  anything  practically  as  a  curative  measure,  whether,  upon  the 
hyj)othesis  of  reduction  as  an  accomplished  fact,  any  permanent  or  effi- 
cient device  as  a  means  of  retention  is  within  the  scope  of  human 
ingenuity.  If  the  reduction  were  successfully  iierformecl  would  it  be 
possible  to  keep  the  parts  in  place  by  any  known  means  at  our  dis- 
posal? At  the  best  the  most  favorable  result  that  could  be  anticipated 
would  be  a  reunion  of  the  fragments,  with  a  considerable  shortening  of 
the  bone,  and  a  helpless,  limping,  crippled  animal  to  remind  us  that  for 
human  achievement  there  is  a  "  thus  far,  and  no  farther." 

In  small  animals,  however,  attempts  at  treatment  are  justifiable,  and  we 
are  convinced  that  in  many  cases  of  difficulty  in  the  application  of  splints 


316 

and  bandages  a  patient  may  be  placed  iu  a  condition  of  undisturbed 
quiet  and  left  to  the  processes  of  nature  for  "  treatment "  as  safely  and 
with  as  good  an  assurance  of  a  favorable  result  as  if  lie  had  been  sub- 
jected to  the  most  heroic  secundum  artem  doctoring  known  to  science. 
As  a  case  in  point,  we  may  mention  the  case  of  a  pregnant  bitch  which 
suffered  a  fracture  of  the  upper  end  of  the  femur  by  being  run  over  by 
a  light  wagon.  Her  "  treatment"  consisted  in  being  tied  up  in  a  large 
box  and  let  alone.  In  due  time  she  was  delivered  of  a  family  of  pup- 
pies, and  in  three  weeks  she  was  running  in  the  streets,  limping  very 
slightly,  and  nothing  the  worse  for  her  accident. 

Fracture  of  the  patella. — This,  fortunately,  is  a  rare  accident  and  can 
only  result  from  direct  violence,  as  a  kick  or  other  blow.  The  lameness 
which  follows  it  is  accompanied  with  enormous  tumefaction  of  the  joint 
and  disease  of  the  articulation.  The  prognosis  is  unavoidably  adverse, 
destruction  being  the  only  termination  of  an  incurable  and  very  pain- 
ful injury. 

Fractures  of  the  tibia  are  probably'  more  frequently  encountered 
than  any  others  among  the  class  of  accidents  we  are  considering.  As 
with  injuries  of  the  forearm  of  a  like  character,  they  may  be  complete 
or  incomplete  ;  the  former  when  the  bone  is  broken  in  the  middle  or  at 
the  extremities,  and  transverse,  oblique,  or  longitudinal.  The  incom- 
plete kind  are  more  common  in  this  bone  than  in  any  other. 

Complete  fractures  are  easy  to  recognize,  either  with  or  without  dis- 
placement. The  animal  is  very  lame,  and  the  leg  is  either  dragged  or 
held  up  clear  from  the  ground  by  flexion  at  the  stifle,  while  the  lower 
part  hangs  down.  Carrying  weight  or  moving  backwards  is  impossi- 
ble. There  is  excessive  mobility  below  the  fracture  and  well-marked 
crepitation.  If  there  is  much  displacement,  as  in  an  oblique  fracture, 
there  will  be  considerable  shortening  of  the  leg. 

While  incomplete  fractures  can  not  be  recognized  in  the  tibia  with 
any  greater  degree  of  certainty  than  in  any  other  bone,  there  are  some 
facts  associated  with  them  by  which  a  diagnosis  may  be  justified.  The 
hypothetical  history  of  a  case  may  serve  as  an  illustration  : 

An  animal  has  received  an  injury  by  a  blow  or  a  kick  on  the  inside  of 
the  bone,  perhaps  without  showing  any  mark.  Becoming  very  lame 
immediately  afterwards,  he  is  allowed  a  few  days'  rest.  Being  then 
taken  out  again,  he  seems  to  have  recovered  his  soundness,  but  within 
a  day  or  two  he  betrays  a  little  soreness,  and  this  increasing  he  be- 
comes very  lame  again,  to  be  furloughed  once  more,  with  the  result 
of  a  temporary  improvement,  and  again  a  return  to  labor  and  again 
a  relapse  of  the  lameness;  and  this  alternation  seems  to  be  the  rule. 
The  leg  being  now  carefully  examined,  a  local  periostitis  is  readily  dis- 
covered at  the  point  of  the  injury,  the  part  being  warm,  swollen,  and 
painful.  What  further  jiroof  is  necessary  ?  Is  it  not  evident  that  a 
fracture  has  occurred,  first  superficial — a  mere  split  in  the  bony  struc- 
ture which,  fortunately,  has  been  discovered  betbre  some  extra  exertion 


317 

or  a  casual  misstep  had  developed  it  into  one  of  the  complete  kind, 
possibly  with  complications  1  What  other  inference  can  such  a  series 
of  symptoms  thus  repeated  establish  ? 

The  prognosis  of  fracture  of  the  tibia  must,  as  a  rule,  be  unfavorable. 
The  difficulty  of  obtaining  a  union  without  shortening  and  consequently 
without  lameness,  is  proof  of  the  futility  of  ordinary  attempts  at  treat- 
ment. But  though  this  may  be  true  in  respect  to  fractures  of  the  com- 
plete kind,  it  is  not  necessarily  so  with  the  incomplete  variety,  and  with 
this  class  the  simple  treatment  of  the  slings  is  all  that  is  necessary  to 
secure  consolidation.  A  few  weeks  of  this  confinement  will  be  suffi- 
cient. 

With  dogs  and  other  small  animals  there  are  cases  which  may  be 
successfully  treated.  If  the  necessary  dressings  can  be  successfully  ap- 
plied and  retained,  a  cure  will  follow. 

Fractures  of  the  lioch. — Injuries  of  the  astragalus  have  been  recorded 
which  had  a  fatal  termination.  Fractures  of  the  os  calcis  have  also  been 
observed,  but  never  with  a  favorable  prognosis,  and  attempts  to  induce 
recovery  have,  as  might  have  been  anticipated,  proved  futile. 

Fractures  of  the  cannon  hones. — Whether  these  occur  in  the  fore  or 
hind  legs  they  appear  either  in  the  body  or  near  their  extremities.  If 
in  the  body,  as  a  rule  the  three  metacarpal  or  metatarsal  are  also  af- 
fected, and  the  fracture  is  generally  transverse  and  oblique,  and  often 
compound,  one  of  the  segments  protruding  sharply  through  the  skin. 
Having  only  the  skin  for  a  covering  the  diagnosis  is  easy.  There  is  no 
displacement,  but  excessive  mobility,  crepitation,  inability  to  sustain 
weight,  and  the  leg  is  kept  off  the  ground  by  the  flexion  of  the  upper' 

joint. 

No  region  of  the  body  affords  better  facilities  for  the  application  of 
treatment,  and  the  prognosis  is,  on  this  account,  usually  favorable. 
We  recall  a  case,  however,  which  proved  fatal,  though  under  exceptional 
circumstances.  The  patient  was  a  valuable  stallion  of  highly  nervous 
organization,  with  a  compound  fracture  of  one  of  the  cannon  bones,  and 
his  unconquerable  resistance  to  treatment,  excited  by  the  intense  pain 
of  the  wound,  precluded  all  chance  of  recovery,  and  ultimately  caused 
his  death  from  nervous  fever. 

The  general  form  of  treatment  for  these  lesions  will  not  differ  from 
that  which  has  been  already  indicated  for  other  fractures.  Reduction, 
sometimes  necessitating  the  casting  of  the  patient;  coaptation,  com- 
paratively easy  by  reason  of  the  subcutaneous  situation  of  the  bone ; 
retention,  by  means  of  splints  and  bandages — applied  on  both  sides  of 
the  region,  and  reaching  to  the  ground  as  in  fractures  of  the  forearm — 
these  are  always  indicated.  We  have  obtained  excellent  results  by  the 
use  of  a  mold  of  thick  gutta  percha,  composed  of  two  sections  and 
made  to  surround  the  entire  lower  part  of  the  leg  as  in  an  inflexible 
case. 

Fracture  of  the  first  phalanx. — The  hinder  extremity  is  more  liable 


318 

than  the  fore  to  this  injury.  It  is  usually  the  result  of  a  violent  effort, 
or  of  a  sudden  misstep  or  twisting  of  the  leg,  and  may  be  transverse, 
or,  as  has  usually  been  the  case  in  our  experience,  longitudinal,  extend- 
ing from  the  upper  articular  surface  down  to  the  center  of  the  bone,  and 
generally  oblique  and  often  comminuted.  The  symptoms  are  the  swell- 
ing and  tenderness  of  the  region,  possibly  crepitation  ;  a  certain  abnor- 
mal mobility;  an  excessive  degree  of  lameness,  and  in  some  instances 
a  dropping  back  of  the  fetlock,  with  perhaps  a  straightened  or  upright 
condition  of  the  pastern. 

The  difficulty  of  reduction  and  coaptation  in  this  accident,  and  the 
probability  of  bony  deposits,  as  of  ringbones,  resulting  in  lameness, 
are  circumstances  which  tend  to  discourage  a  favorable  prognosis. 

The  treatment  is  that  which  has  been  recommended  for  all  fractures, 
as  far  as  it  can  be  applied.  The  iron  splint  which  has  been  mentioned 
gives  excellent  results  in  many  instances,  but  if  the  fracture  is  incom- 
plete and  without  displacement  a  form  of  treatment  less  energetic  and 
severe  should  be  attempted.  One  case  is  within  our  knowledge  in 
which  the  owner  of  an  injured  horse  lost  his  property  by  his  refusal  to 
subject  the  animal  to  treatment,  the x>ost  mortem  revealing  only  a  simple 
fracture  with  very  slight  displacement. 

Fractures  of  the  coronet. — Though  these  are  generally  of  the  com- 
minuted kind,  there  are  often  conditions  associated  with  them  which 
justify  the  surgeon  in  attempting  their  treatment.  Though  crepitation 
is  not  always  easy  to  detect,  the  excessive  lameness,  the  soreness  on 
pressure,  the  inability  to  carry  weight,  the  difficulty  experienced  in 
raising  the  foot,  all  these  suggest,  as  the  solution  of  the  question  of 
diagnosis,  the  fracture  of  the  coronet,  with  the  accompanying  realiza- 
tion of  the  fact  that  there  is  yet,  by  reason  of  the  situation  of  the  mem- 
ber, immobilized  as  it  is  by  its  structure  and  its  surroundings,  room 
left  for  a  not  unfavorable  prognosis.  Only  a  slight  manipulation  will 
be  needed  in  the  treatment  of  this  lesion.  To  render  the  immobility  of 
the  region  more  fixed,  to  support  the  bones  in  their  position  by  baud- 
aging,  and  to  establish  forced  immobility  of  the  entire  body  with  the 
slings  is  usually  all  that  is  required.  Ringbone,  being  a  common  se- 
quela of  the  reparative  process,  must  receive  due  attention  subsequently. 
One  of  the  severest  complications  likely  to  be  encountered  is  anchylosis. 

Fractures  of  the  os  pedis. — Though  these  lesions  are  not  of  very  rare 
occurrence  their  recognition  is  not  easy,  and  there  is  more  of  specula- 
tion than  of  certainty  pertaining  to  their  diagnosis.  The  animal  is 
very  lame,  and,  as  much  as  possible,  spares  the  injured  foot,  sometimes 
resting  it  upon  the  toe  alone  and  sometimes  not  at  all.  The  foot  is 
very  tender,  and  the  exploring  pincers  of  the  examining  surgeon  causes 
much  pain.  There  is  nothing  to  encourage  a  favorable  prognosis,  and 
a  not  unusual  termination  is  an  anchylosis  with  either  the  navicular 
bone  or  the  coronet. 

No  method  of  treatment  needs  to  be  suggested  here,  the  hoof  i)er- 


319 

forming  tbe  office  of  retentiou  unaided.  Local  treatment  by  batlis  and 
fomentations  will  do  the  rest.  It  may  be  months  before  there  is  any 
mitigation  of  the  lameness. 

Fracture  of  the  sesamoid  hones. — This  lesion  has  been  considered  by 
veterinarians,  erroneously,  we  think,  one  of  rare  occurrence.  We  be- 
lieve it  to  be  more  frequent  than  has  been  supposed.  Many  observa. 
tions  and  careful  dissections  have  convinced  us  that  fractures  of  these 
little  bones  have  often  been  mistaken  for  specific  lesions  of  the  numer- 
ous ligaments  that  are  implanted  upon  their  superior  and  Inferior  parts, 
and  which  have  been  described  as  a  "  giving  way  "  or  "  breaking  down  " 
of  these  ligaments.  In  our  2^ost  mortem  examinations  we  have  always 
noted  the  fact  that  when  the  attachments  of  the  ligaments  were  torn 
from  their  bony  connections  minute  fragments  of  bony  structure  were 
also  separated,  though  we  have  failed  to  detect  any  diseased  process  of 
the  fibrous  tissue  composing  the  ligamentous  substance. 

From  whatever  cause  this  lesioji  may  arise,  it  can  hardly  be  consid- 
ered as  of  a  traumatic  nature,  no  external  violence  having  any  apparent 
agency  in  producing  it,  and  it  is  our  belief  that  it  is  due  to  a  peculiar 
degeneration  or  softening  of  the  bones  themselves,  a  theory  which  ac- 
quires plausibility  from  the  consideration  of  the  spongy  consistency  of 
the  sesamoids.  The  disease  is  a  peculiar  one,  and  the  suddenness  with 
which  different  feet  are  successively  attacked,  at  short  intervals  and 
without  any  obvious  cause,  seems  to  prove  the  existence  of  some  latent 
morbid  cause  which  has  been  nnsuspectedly  incubating.  It  is  not  pe- 
culiar to  any  particular  class  of  horses,  nor  to  any  special  season  of  the 
year,  having  fallen  under  our  observation  in  each  of  the  four  seasons. 
The  general  fact  is  reported  in  the  history  of  a  majority  of  cases  that  it 
makes  its  appearance  without  premonition  in  animals  which,  after  en- 
joying a  considerable  period  of  rest,  are  first  exercised  or  put  to  work, 
though  in  point  of  fact  it  may  manifest  itself  while  the  horse  is  still  idle 
in  his  stable.  A  hypothetical  case,  in  illustration,  will  explain  our 
theory : 

An  animal  which  has  been  at  rest  in  his  stable  is  taken  out  to  work 
and  it  will  be  presently  noticed  that  there  is  something  unusual  in  his 
movement.  His  gait  is  changed,  and  he  travels  with  short,  mincing 
steps,  without  any  of  his  accustomed  ease  and  freedom.  This  may  con- 
tinue until  his  return  to  the  stable,  and  then,  after  being  placed  in  his 
stall,  he  will  be  noticed  shifting  his  weight  from  side  to  side  and  from 
one  leg  to  another,  continuing  the  movement  until  rupture  of  the  bony 
structure  takes  place.  But  it  may  happen  that  the  lameness  in  one  or 
more  of  the  extremities,  anterior  or  posterior,  suddenly  increases,  and  it 
becomes  evident  that  the  rupture  has  taken  place  in  consequence  of  a 
misstep  or  a  stumble  while  the  horse  is  at  work.  Then,  ui)on  coming  to 
a  standstill,  he  will  be  found  with  one  or  more  of  his  toes  turned  up — he 
is  unable  to  place  the  affected  foot  flat  on  the  ground.  The  fetlock  has 
dropped  and  the  leg  xests  uxion  this  part,  the  skin  of  which  may  have 


320 

remained  intact  or  may  have  been  more  or  less  extensively  lacerated. 
It  seldom  happens  that  more  than  one  toe  at  a  time  will  turn  up,  yet 
still  the  lesion  in  one  will  be  followed  by  its  occurrence  in  another. 
Commonly  two  feet  of  a  biped,  the  anterior  or  posterior,  are  affected, 
and  we  recall  one  case  in  which  the  two  fore  and  one  of  the  hind  legs 
were  included  at  the  same  time.  The  accident,  however,  is  quite  as 
likely  to  happen  while  the  horse  is  at  rest  in  his  stall,  and  he  may  be 
found  in  the  morning  standing  on  his  fetlocks.  One  of  the  earliest  of 
the  cases  occurring  in  our  own  experience  had  been  under  our  care  for 
several  weeks  for  suspected  disease  of  the  fetlocks,  the  nature  of  which 
had  not  been  made  out,  when,  apparently  improved  by  the  treatment 
which  he  had  undergone,  the  patient  was  taken  out  of  the  stable  to  be 
walked  a  short  distance  into  the  countr3',but  had  little  more  than  started 
when  he  was  called  to  a  halt  by  the  fracture  of  the  sesamoids  of  both 
fore  legs. 

While  there  are  no  positive  premonitory  symptoms  known  of  these 
fractures  we  believe  that  there  are  signs  and  symptoms  which  come 
but  little  short  of  being  so,  and  the  appearance  of  which  will  always 
iustify  a  strong  suspicion  of  the  truth  of  the  case.  These  have  been 
indicated  when  referring  to  the  soreness  in  standing,  the  short  "  mine, 
iug"  gait,  and  the  tenderness  betrayed  when  pressure  is  made  over  the 
sesamoids  on  the  sides  of  the  fetlock,  with  others  less  tangible  and 
definable. 

These  injuries  can  never  be  accounted  less  than  serious,  and  in  our 
judgment  will  never  be  other  than  fatal.  If  our  theory  of  their  pathol- 
ogy is  the  correct  one,  and  the  cause  of  the  lesions  is  truly  the  soften- 
ing of  the  sesaraoidal  bony  structure  and  independent  of  any  changes 
in  the  ligamentous  fibers,  the  possibility  of  a  solid  osseous  union  can 
hardly  be  considered  admissible. 

In  respect  to  the  treatment  to  be  recommended  and  instituted  it  can 
only  be  employed  with  any  rational  hope  of  benefit  duriug  the  incuba- 
tion, and  with  th-s  anticipatory  purpose  of  prevention.  It  must  be  sug- 
gested by  a  suspicion  of  the  verities  of  the  case,  and  applied  before  any 
rupture  has  taken  place.  To  prevent  this  and  to  antagonize  the  causes 
which  might  precipitate  the  final  catastrophe — the  elevation  of  the 
toes — resort  must  be  had  to  the  slings  and  to  the  application  of  firm 
bandages  or  splints,  perhaps  of  plaster  of  Paris,  with  a  high  shoe,  as 
about  the  only  indications  which  science  and  nature  are  able  to  offer. 
When  the  fracture  is  an  occurred  event,  and  the  toes,  one  or  more,  are 
turned  up,  any  further  resort  to  treatment  will  be  futile. 

DISEASES   OF   JOINTS. 

Three  classes  of  injury  will  be  considered  under  this  head.  These 
are,  affections  of  the  synovial  sac;  those  of  the  joint  structures,  or  of 
the  bones  and  their  articular  surfaces,  and  those  forms  of  solution  of 
continuity  known  as  dislocations  or  luxations. 


321 

Diseases  of  the  synovial  sacs. — Two  forms  of  affection  here  present 
themselves,  one  being  the  result  of  an  abuornal  secretion  wliicli induces 
a  dropsical  condition  of  the  sac  without  any  acute  iuflammatory  action, 
while  the  other  is  characterized  by  excessive  inflammatory  symptoms, 
with  their  modifications,  constituting  synovitis. 

Synovial  dropsies. — We  have  already  considered  in  a  general  way  tho 
presence  of  these  peculiar  oil  bags  in  the  joints,  and  in  some  regions  of  the 
legs  where  the  passage  of  the  tendons  takes  place,  and  have  noticed  the 
similarity  of  structure  and  function  of  both  the  articular  and  the  tendi- 
nous biirscB,  as  well  as  the  etiology  of  their  injuries  and  their  patholog- 
ical history,  and  we  now  propose  to  treat  of  the  affections  of  both. 

Windgalls. — This  name  is  given  to  the  dilated  bursae  found  at  the 
posterior  part  of  the  fetlock  joint.  They  have  their  migin  in  a  drop- 
sical condition  of  the  bursaj  of  the  joint  itself,  and  also  of  the  tendon 
which  slides  behind  it,  and  are  therefore  further  known  by  the  desig- 
nations of  articular  and  tendinous. 

They  ai^pear  in  the  form  of  soft  and  somewhat  symmetrical  tumors,  of 
varying  dimensions,  and  generallj^  well  defined  in  their  circumference. 
They  are  more  or  less  tense,  according  to  the  amount  of  secretion  they 
contain,  apparently  becoming  softer  as  the  foot  is  raised  and  the  fetlock 
flexed.  Usually  they  are  painless  and  only  cause  lameness  under  cer- 
tain conditions,  as  when  they  began  to  develop  themselves  under  the 
stimulus  of  inflammatory  action,  or  when  large  enough  to  interfere  with 
the  functions  of  the  tendons,  or  again  when  they  have  undergone  cer- 
tain i)athological  changes,  such  as  calcification,  which  is  among  their 
tendencies. 

\Yindgalls  may  be  attributed  to  external  causes,  such  as  severe  labor 
or  strains  resulting  from  heavy  pulling,  fast  driving,  or  jumping,  or 
they  may  be  among  the  sequela)  of  internal  disorders  and  appear  as  re- 
sultants of  a  pleuritic  or  pneumonic  attack. 

An  unnecessary  amount  of  anxiety  is  sometimes  experienced  respect- 
ing these  growths,  with  much  questioning  touching  the  expediency  of 
their  removal,  all  of  which  might  be  spared,  for  while  they  constitute  a 
blemish  their  uusightliness  will  not  hinder  the  usefulness  of  the  animal, 
and  in  any  case  they  rarely  fail  to  show  themselves  easily  amenable  to 
treatm.ent. 

When  in  their  acute  stage,  and  when  the  dropsical  condition  is  not 
excessive,  pressure  by  bandages,  slight  alcoliolic  frictions,  sweating,  the 
use  of  liniments,  or  perhaps  a  stiff  blister  of  the  ordiuarj'  kind  will  ac- 
complish all  that  will  be  desired.  It  will  subdue  the  inflammation  and 
abate  the  soreness,  and  perhaps  if  the  animal  is  not  too  soon  returned 
to  labor  and  exposed  to  the  same  causes  by  which  they  were  before  in- 
duced, the  excess  of  secretion  will  be  absorbed  and  the  walls  of  the  sac 
strengthened,  and  the  windgall  will  disappear. 

But  if  the  inflammation  has  become  chronic,  and  the  enlargement  has 
been  of  considerable  duration,  the  negative  course  will  be  the  wiser  one. 
11035 21 


322 

If  any  benefit  results  from  treatment  it  will  be  of  only  a  transient  kind, 
the  dilatation  returning  when  the  imtient  is  again  subjected  to  labor, 
and  it  will  be  a  fortunate  circumstance  if  inflammation  has  not  super- 
vened. 

But  notwithstanding  the  generally  benignant  nature  of  the  tumor 
there  are  exceptional  cases,  usually  when  it  is  probably  undergoing  cer- 
tain pathological  changes,  which  may  result  in  lameness  and  disable 
the  animal,  in  which  case  surgical  treatment  will  be  indicated,  especially 
if  repeated  blisters  have  failed  to  improve  the  symptoms.  Firing  is 
then  a  preeminent  suggestion,  and  many  a  useful  life  has  received  a 
new  lease  as  the  result  of  this  operation  timely  performed.  The  opera- 
tion, wbich  consists  in  emptying  the  sac  by  means  of  punctures  through 
and  through,  made  with  a  red-hot  needle  or  wire,  and  the  subsequent 
injection  into  the  cavity  of  certain  irritating  and  alterative  compounds, 
designed  to  effect  its  closure  by  exciting  adhesive  inflammation,  such 
as  tincture  of  iodine,  may  be  commended;  but  they  are  all  too  active 
and  energetic  in  their  effects  and  require  too  much  special  attention  and 
intelligent  management  to  be  trusted  to  any  hands  other  than  those  of 
an  expert  veterinarian. 

Blood  spavin  and  tJiorougJiinns.— The  complicated  arrangement  of  the 
hock  joint,  and  the  powerful  tendons  which  pass  on  the  posterior  part, 
are  lubricated  with  the  product  of  secretion  from  one  tendinous  synovial 
and  several  articular  synovial  sacs.  One  large  articular  sac  contributes 
to  the  lubrication  of  the  shank  bone  (the  tibia)  and  the  bones  of  the 
hock  proper  (the  astragalus).  The  tendinous  sac  lies  back  of  the  artic- 
ulation itself  and  extends  upwards  and  downwards  in  the  groove  of  that 
joint  through  which  the  flexor  tendons  slide.  The  dilatation  of  this 
articular  synovial  sac  is  what  is  denominated  blood  spavin,  the  term 
thoroughpin  being  applied  to  the  dilatation  of  the  tendinous  capsule. 

The  blood  spavin  is  situated  in  front  and  a  little  inward  of  the  hock; 
the  thoroughpin  is  found  at  the  back  and  on  the  top  of  the  hock.  The 
former  is  round,  smootb,  well  defined,  presenting  on  its  outer  surface, 
running  from  below  upwards,  a  vein  which  is  more  or  less  prominent  as 
the  bursa  is  more  or  less  dilated,  and  it  is  from  this  conspicuous  blood 
vessel  that  the  tumor  derives  its  name.  The  thoroughpin  is  also  round 
and  smooth,  but  not  so  regularly  formed,  on  each  side  and  a  little  in 
front  of  the  tendons  in  that  part  of  the  hock  known  as  the  "hollows," 
immediately  back  of  the  posterior  face  of  the  tibia  or  shank  bone. 

In  their  general  characteristics  these  tumors  are  similar  to  windgalls, 
and  one  description  of  the  origin,  symptoms,  pathological  changes,  and 
treatment  will  serve  for  a>ll  equally,  except  that  it  is  possible  for  a  blood 
spavin  to  cause  lameness,  and  thus  to  involve  a  verdict  of  unsoundness 
in  the  patient,  a  circumstance  which  will  of  course  justify  its  classifica- 
tion by  itself  as  a  severer  form  of  a  single  type  of  disease. 

We  have  already  referred  to  the  subject  of  treatment  and  the  means 
emi>ioyed— rcsf,  of  course — with  liniments,  blisters,  etc.,  and  what  we 


323 

esteem  as  the  most  active  and  beneficial  of  any,  early,  deep,  and  well- 
performed  cauterization.  Tliere  are,  besides,  commeikdatory  reports  of 
a  form  of  ti^eatment  by  the  application  of  pads  and  peculiar  bandages 
upon  the  hocks,  and  it  is  claimed  that  the  removal  of  the  tumors  has 
been  affected  by  their  use.  But  our  experience  with  this  apparatus  has 
not  been  accompanied  by  such  favorable  results  as  would  justify  our 
indorsement  of  the  flattering  representations  which  have  sometimes 
appeared  in  its  behalf. 

Open  joints — BroJcen  Icnees — Synovitis — Arthritis. — The  nearness  of  the 
relations  which  exist  between  these  several  affections  and  their  apparent 
connection  as  perhaps  successive  developments  of  a  similar  if  not  an 
essentially  identical  origin,  with  the  advantage  to  be  gained  by  the 
avoidance  of  frequent  repetition  in  the  details  of  symptoms,  treatment, 
etc.,  are  our  reasons  for  treating  under  a  single  head  the  ailments  we 
have  grouped  together  in  the  present  chajiter. 

The  great,  comiireheusive,  common  cause  whose  effect  is  the  disa- 
bility, sometimes  permanent  and  sometimes  only  of  transient  duration, 
of  chiefly  the  horse  among  our  domestic  animals,  is  external  traumatism. 
Blows,  bruises,  hurts  by  nearly  every  known  form  of  violence,  falls, 
kicks,  lacerations,  punctures— we  may  add  compulsory  speed  in  racing 
and  cruel  overloading  of  draught  animals — cover  the  entire  ground  of 
the  diseases  and  injuries  of  the  joints,  now  receiving  our  consideration. 

In  one  case,  a  working  horse  making  a  misstep  stumbles,  and  falling 
on  his  knees  receives  a  hurt,  variously  severe,  from  a  mere  abrasion  of 
the  skin  to  a  laceration,  a  division  of  the  tegument,  a  slough,  mortifi- 
cation, and  the  escape  of  the  synovial  fluid  with  or  without  exposure  of 
the  bones  and  their  articular  cartilages. 

In  another  case  an  animal,  from  one  cause  or  another,  perhaps  an  im- 
patient temper,  has  formed  the  habit  of  striking  or  pawing  his  manger 
with  his  fore  feet  until  inflammation  of  the  knee-joint  is  induced,  first  as 
a  little  swelling,  diffused,  painless;  then  as  a  periostitis  of  the  bones  of 
the  knee ;.  later  as  bony  deposits,  then  lameness,  and  finally  the  impli- 
cation of  the  joint,  and  following  all  the  various  conditions  of  carpitis. 

In  another  case  a  horse  has  received  a  blow  with  a  fork  from  a  care- 
less hostler,  on  or  near  a  joint,  or  has  been  kicked  by  a  stable  com- 
panion, with  the  result  of  a  punctured  wound,  at  first  mild-looking, 
painless,  apparently  without  inflammation,  and  not  yet  causing  lame- 
ness, but  which,  in  a  few  hours,  or  it  may  be  not  until  a  few  days,  be- 
comes excessively  painful,  grows  worse;  the  entire  joint  swells,  pres- 
ently discharges,  and  at  last  a  case  of  suppurative  synovitis  is  presented, 
with  perhaps  disease  of  the  joint  proper,  and  arthritis  as  a  climax.  The 
symptoms  of  articular  injuries  vary  not  only  in  the  degrees  of  the  hurt, 
but  in  the  nature  of  the  lesion. 

Or.  the  condition  of  hroTcen  Tcnees,  resulting  as  we  have  said,  may  have 
for  its  starting  point  a  mere  abrasion  of  the  skin — a  scratch  apparently, 
•which  disappears  without  a  resulting  scar.     The  injury  may,  however. 


324 

have  been  more  severe,  tbe  blow  heavier,  the  fall  aggravated  by  occur- 
riug  npou  an  irregular  surface,  or  sharp  or  rough  object,  with  tearing 
or  cutting  of  the  skin,  and  this  laceration  may  remain.  A  more  serious 
case  than  the  first  is  now  brought  to  our  notice. 

Another  time,  immediately  following  the  accident,  or  possibly  as  a 
sequel  of  the  traumation,  the  tendinous  sacs  may  be  opened,  with  the 
escape  of  the  synovia;  or  worse,  the  tendons  which  pass  in  front  of  the 
knee  are  torn,  the  inflammation  has  spread,  the  joint  and  leg  are 
swollen,  the  animal  is  becoming  very  lame;  synovitis  has  set  in.  With 
this  the  danger  becomes  verj^  great,  for  soon  suppuration  will  be  estab- 
lished, the  external  coat  of  the  articulation  proper  become  ulcerated,  if 
it  is  not  already  in  that  state,  and  we  find  ourselves  in  the  presence  of 
an  openjointj  with  suppurative  synovitis — that  is,  with  the  worst  among 
the  conditions  of  diseased  processes,  because  of  the  liability  of  the  sup- 
puration to  become  infiltrated  into  every  part  of  the  joint,  macerating 
the  ligaments  and  irritating  the  cartilages,  soon  to  be  succeeded  by  their 
ulceration,  with  the  destruction  of  the  aiticular  surface,  or  the  lesion 
of  ulcerative  arthritis,  one  of  the  gravest  among  all  the  disorders  known 
to  the  animal  economy. 

But  ulcerative  arthritis  and  suppurative  synovitis  may  bo  developed 
in  other  connections  tlian  that  with  open  joints  ;  the  simplest  and  ap- 
parently most  harmless  i)unctures  may  prove  to  be  cause  sufficient 
For  example,  a  horse  may  be  kicked,  perhaps,  on  the  inside  of  the 
hock;  there  is  a  mark  and  a  few  drops  of  blood  to  indicate  the  spot; 
he  is  put  to  work,  apparently  free  from  pain  or  lameness,  and  per- 
forms his  task  with  his  usual  ease  and  facility.  But  on  the  following 
morning  the  hock  is  found  to  be  a  little  swollen  and  there  is  some  stiff- 
ness. A  little  later  on  he  betrays  a  degree  of  uneasiness  in  the  leg,  and 
shrinks  from  resting  his  weight  upon  it,  moving  it  up  and  down  for 
relief  The  swelling  has  increased  and  is  increasing,  the  pain  is  s-evere, 
and,  finally,  there  is  an  oozing  at  the  spot  where  the  kick  impinged  of 
an  oily  liquid  mixed  with  whitish  drops  of  suppuration.  The  mischief 
is  done  and  a  simple,  harmless  punctured  wound  has  expanded  into  a 
case  of  ulcerative  arthritis  and  suppurative  synovitis. 

From  ever  so  brief  and  succinct  description  of  this  traumatism  of  the 
articulations,  the  serious  and  important  character  of  these  lesions,  irre- 
spective of  which  particular  joint  is  affected,  will  be  readily  understood. 
Yet  there  will  be  modifications  in  the  prognosis  in  different  cases,  in 
accordance  with  the  peculiarities  of  structure  in  the  joint  specially 
involved,  as  for  example,  it  is  obvious  that  a  better  result  may  be  ex- 
pected from  treatment  when  but  a  single  joint,  with  only  its  plain  artic- 
ular surfaces  is  the  place  of  injury,  than  in  one  which  is  composed  of 
several  b(mes,  united  in  a  com[)lex  formation,  as  in  the  knee  or  hock. 
As  severe  a  lesion  as  suppurative  synovitis  always  is,  and  as  frequently 
fatal  as  it  proves  to  be,  still  cases  arise  in  which  the  inflammation,  as- 
suming a  moditled  character  and  at  length  subsidimg;  the  lesion  termi- 


325 

Qpvtes  fiavorably  and  leaves  the  animal  with  a  comparatively  sound  and 
useful  joiut.  There  are  cases,  however,  which  terminate  in  no  more 
fiivorable  a  result  than  the  union  of  the  bones  and  occlusion  of  the 
joint,  to  form  an  anchylosis,  which  is  scarcely  a  condition  to  justify  a 
high  degree  of  satisfaction,  since  it  insures  a  permanent  lameness  with 
very  little  capacity  for  usefulness. 

Appreciating  nOw  the  dangers  associated  with  all  wounds  of  articu- 
lations, however  simple  and  apparently  slight,  and  how  serious  and 
troublesome  are  the  complications  which  are  likely  to  arise  during  their 
progress  and  treatment,  we  are  prepared  to  understand  and  realize  the 
necessity  and  the  value  of  early  and  prompt  attention  upon  their  dis- 
covery and  diagnosis. 

For  simple  bruises,  like  those  which  appear  in  the  form  of  broken 
knees,  or  of  carpitis,  simple  remedies,  such  as  warm  fomentations  or 
cold  water  applications  and  compresses  of  astringent  mixtures,  suggest 
themselves  at  once.  Injuries  of  a  more  complicated  character,  as  lacer- 
ations of  the  skin  or  tearing  of  soft  structures,  will  also  be  benefited  by 
simple  dressings  with  antiseptic  mixtures,  as  those  of  the  carbolic  acid 
order.  The  escape  of  synovia  shoul  d  suggest  the  prompt  use  of  collodion 
dressings  to  check  the  flow  and  prevent  the  further  escape  of  the  fluid. 
But  if  the  discharge  is  abundant  and  heavily  suppurative,  little  can  be 
done  more  than  to  put  in  practice  the  "expectant  "  method  with  warm 
fomentations,  repeatedly  applied,  and  soothing  mucilaginous  poultices. 
Improvement,  if  any  is  possible,  will  be  but  slow  to  manifest  itself.  The 
most  difficult  of  all  things  to  do,  in  view  of  varying  interests  and  opin- 
ions—that is,  in  a  practical  sense — is  to  abstain  from  "  doing"  entirely, 
and  yet  we  are  firmly  convinced  that  non-interferuce,  in  the  cases  we 
arc  considering,  is  the  best  and  wisest  policy. 

In  cases  which  are  carried  to  a  successful  result  the  discharge  will  by 
degrees  diminish,  the  extreme  pain  will  gradually  subside  and  the  con- 
valescent will  begin  timidly  to  rest  his  foot  upon  the  ground,  and  pres- 
ently to  bear  weight  upon  it,  and  perhaps,  after  a  long  and  tedious 
process  of  recuperation,  ho  maybe  returned  to  his  former  and  normal 
condition  of  usefulness.  When  the  discharge  has  wholly  ceased  and  the 
wounds  are  entirely  healed,  a  blister  covering  the  whole  of  the  joint  for 
the  purpose  of  stimulating  the  absorption  of  the  exudation  will  be  of 
great  service.  But  if,  on  the  contrary,  there  is  no  amelioration  of  symp- 
toms and  the  progress  of  the  disease  resists  every  attempt  to  check  it; 
if  the  discharge  continues  to  flow,  not  only  without  abatement,  but  in 
an  increased  volume,  and  not  alone  by  a  single  opening  but  by  a  number 
of  fistulous  tracts  which  have  successively  formed  ;  if  it  seems  evident 
that  this  drainage  is  rapidly  and  painfully  sapping  the  suffering  animal's 
vitality,  and  a  deficient  vis  vitce  fails  to  cooperate  wi^h  the  means  of 
6ure,  all  rational  hope  of  recovery  may  be  finally  abandoned.  Any  fur- 
ther waiting  for  chances,  or  time  lost  in  experimenting,  will  be  mere 
cruelty  and  there  need  be  no  hesitation  concerning  the  next  step.    The 


326 

poor  beast  is  under  sentence  of  death,  and  every  consideration  of  inter- 
est and  of  humanity  demands  an  anticipation  of  nature's  evident  in- 
tent in  the  quick  and  easy  execution  of  the  sentence. 

One  of  the  essentials  of  treatment,  and  probably  an  indispensable 
condition  when  recovery  is  in  any  wise  attainable,  is  the  suspension  of 
the  patient  in  slings.  He  should  be  continued  in  them  as  long  as  he  can 
be  made  to  submit  quietly  to  their  restraint. 

X«xa^ions.— Strength  and  solidity  are  so  combined  in  the  formation  of 
the  joints  of  our  large  animals  that  dislocations  or  luxations  are  inju- 
ries which  are  but  rarely  encountered.  They  are  met  with  but  seldom 
in  cattle  and  less  so  in  horses,  while  dogs  and  smaller  animals  are  more 
often  the  sufierers. 

The  accident  of  a  luxation  or  (its  synonym)  dislocation  {disiilacement) 
is  less  often  encountered  in  the  animal  races  than  in  man.  This  is  not 
because  the  former  are  less  subject  to  occasional  violence  involving 
powerful  muscular  contractions,  or  are  less  often  exposed  to  casualties 
similar  to  those  which  result  in  luxations  in  the  human  skeleton,  but 
because  it  requires  the  cooperation  of  conditions,  anatomical,  physio- 
logical, and  perhaps  mechanical,  present  in  one  of  the  races  and  lacking 
in  the  other,  but  which  can  not  in  every  case  be  clearly  defined.  Per- 
haps the  greater  relative  length  of  the  bony  levers  in  the  human  for- 
mation may  constitute  a  cause  of  the  difference. 

Among  the  predisposing  causes  in* animals,  caries  of  articular  sur- 
faces, articular  abscesses,  excessive  dropsical  conditions,  degenerative 
softening  of  the  ligaments,  and  any  excessive  laxity  of  the  soft  struc- 
tures, may  be  enumerated. 

The  symptoms  of  fractures  and  of  dislocations  are  not  always  so  va- 
riant as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  error  in  determining  a  case  without 
a  thorough  examination,  but  the  essential  difference,  as  it  must  always 
exist,  must  always  be  discoverable. 

In  a  dislocation  there  is  one  very  peculiar  and  characteristic  feature 
in  the  impossibility  of  motion  associated  with  an  excessive  liberty  of 
movement— the  impossibility  of  active  or  controlled  motion,  and  a 
facility  of  passive  movement  (or  movableness)  at  either  the  affected 
joint  or  at  another  of  the  same  leg  near  to  it.  In  a  dislocation  of  the 
scapulo-humeral  (or  shoulder)  joint  the  animal  possesses  no  power  of 
motion  over  the  limb — uo  muscular  contraction  can  avail  to  cause  it  to 
perform  its  various  functions— but  in  the  hands  of  the  surgeon  it  may 
be  made  to  describe  a  series  of  movements  which  would  be  simply 
impossible  with  the  joint  in  a  state  of  integrity.  Both  fractures  and 
luxations  are  marked  by  deformity,  but  while  in  a  fracture  with  dis- 
placement there  will  usually  be  a  shortening  of  the  leg,  a  dislocation 
may  be  accompanied  by  either  a  shortening  or  a  lengthening.  Swelling 
of  the  parts  is  usually  a  well-defined  feature  of  these  injuries. 

With  all  this  similarity  in  the  symptomatology  of  luxations  and 
fractures,  there  is  one  sign  which  either  by  its  presence  or  its  absence 


327 

will  greatly  assist  in  settling  a  case  of  differential  diagnosis,  and  this  is 
the  existence  or  lack  of  crepitation.  It  has  no  place  or  cause  in  a  mere 
dislocation;  it  belongs  to  a  fracture,  if  it  is  a  cou!i)lete  one.  If  there  is 
crepitation  with  a  dislocation  then  it  proves  that  there  is  a  fracture 
also. 

The  prognosis  of  a  luxation  is  comparatively  less  serious  than  that  of 
a  fracture,  though  at  times  the  indications  of  treatment  may  prove  to 
be  so  difiBcult  to  apply  that  complications  may  arise  of  a  very  severe 
character. 

The  treatment  of  luxations  must  of  course  be  similar  to  that  of  frac- 
tures. Eeduction,  naturally,  will  be  the  first  indication  in  both  cases, 
and  the  retention  of  the  replaced  iiarts  must  follow.  The  reduction  in- 
volves the  same  steps  of  extension  and  counter-extension,  performed 
in  the  same  manner,  with  the  j)atient  subdued  by  anesthetics. 

The  difference  between  the  reduction  of  a  dislocation  and  that  of  a 
fracture  consists  in  the  fact  that  in  the  former  the  object  is  simply  to 
restore  the  bones  to  their  true  normal  position,  with  each  articular  sur- 
face in  exact  contact  with  its  companion  surface,  the  apparatus  neces- 
sary afterwards  to  keep  them  in  situ  being  similar  to  that  which  is  em- 
ployed in  fracture  cases,  and  which  will  usually  require  to  be  retained 
for  a  period  of  from  forty  to  fifty  days,  if  not  longer,  before  the  ruptured 
retaining  ligaments  are  sufficiently  firm  to  be  trusted  to  perform  their 
office  unassisted.  A  variety  of  manii^ulations  are  to  be  employed  by 
the  surgeon,  consisting  in  pushing,  pulling,  pressing,  rotating,  and 
indeed  whatever  movement  may  be  necessary,  until  the  bones  are  forced 
into  such  relative  positions  that  the  muscular  contraction,  operating 
in  just  the  right  directions,  pulls  the  opposite  matched  ends  together 
in  true  coaptation,  a  head  into  a  cavity,  an  articular  eminence  into  a 
trochlea,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  "■  setting"  is  accorajjanied  by  a  pe- 
culiar snapping  soiind,  audible  and  significant,  as  well  as  a  visible  re- 
turn of  the  surface  to  its  normal  symmetry. 

Special  dislocations. — While  all  the  articulations  of  the  body  are  liable 
to  this  form  of  injury,  there  are  three  in  the  large  animals  which  may 
claim  a  special  consideration,  viz: 

The  slioulder  joint. — We  mention  this  displacement  without  intending 
to  imply  the  practicability  of  any  ordinary  attempt  at  treatment,  which 
is  usually  unsuccessful,  the  animal  whose  mishap  it  has  been  to  become 
a  victim  to  it  being  disabled  for  life.  The  superior  head  of  the  arm 
bone  as  it  is  received  into  the  lower  cavity  of  the  shoulder  blade  is  so 
situated  as  to  be  liable  to  be  forced  out  of  place  in  four  directions.  It 
may  escape  from  its  socket,  according  to  the  manner  in  which  the  vio- 
lence affects  it,  outwards,  inwards,  backwards,  or  forwards,  and  the 
deformity  which  results  and  the  effects  which  follow  will  correspond- 
ingly differ.  We  have  said  that  treatment  is  generally  unsuccessful. 
It  may  be  added  that  the  difficulties  which  interpose  in  the  way  of  re- 
duction are  nearly  insurmountable,  and  that  the  application  of  means 


328 

for  the  retention  of  the  parts  after  reduction  would  be  next  to  impos- 
sible.  The  prognosis  is  sufficiently  grave  from  any  point  of  view  for 
the  luckless  animal  with  a  dislocated  shoulder. 

The  hip  joint— This  joint  partakes  very  much  of  the  characteristics 
of  the  humero-scapular  articulation,  but  is  more  strongly  built.  The 
head  of  the  thigh  bone  is  more  separated,  or  prominent  and  rounder  in 
form,  and  the  cup  like  cavity  or  socket  into  which  it  fits  is  much  deeper, 
forming  together  a  deep,  true  ball-and-socket  joint,  which  is,  moreover, 
reenforced  by  two  strong  cords  of  funicular  ligaments,  which  unite  them 
together.  It  will  be  easily  comprehended,  from  this  hint  of  the  anatomy 
of  the  region,  that  a  luxation  of  the  hip  joint  must  be  an  accident  of 
comparatively  rare  occurrence.  And  yet  cases  are  recorded  in  which 
the  head  of  the  bone  has  been  affirmed  to  slip  out  of  its  cavity  and  as- 
sume various  positions,  inwards,  outwards,  forwards,  and  backwards. 

The  indications  of  treatment  are  those  of  all  cases  of  dislocation. 
When  the  reduction  is  accom])lished  the  surgeon  will  be  apprised  of 
the  fact  by  the  peculiar  snapping  sound  usually  heard  on  such  occasions. 

Pseuflo  luxations  of  the  imtella. — This  is  not  a  true  dislocation.  The 
stifle  bone  is  so  peculiarly  articulated  with  the  thigh  bone  that  the 
means  of  union  are  of  sufficient  strength  to  resist  the  causes  which 
usually  give  rise  to  luxations.  Yet  there  is  sometimes  discovered  a 
peculiar  pathological  state  in  the  hind  legs  of  animals,  the  effect  of 
which  is  closely  to  simulate  the  manifestation  of  many  of  the  general 
symptoms  of  dislocations.  This  peculiar  pathological  condition  origin- 
ates in  muscular  cramps,  the  action  of  which  is  seen  in  a  certain  change 
in  the  coaptation  of  the  articular  surfaces  of  the  stifle  and  thigh  bone, 
resulting  in  the  exhibition  of  a  sudden  and  alarming  series  of  symptoms 
which  have  suggested  the  phrase  of  "  stifle  out"  as  a  descriptive  term. 
The  animal  so  affected  stands  quietly  and  firmly  in  his  stall,  or  perhaps 
with  one  of  his  hind  legs  extended  backwards,  and  resists  every  attempt 
to  move  him  backwards,  and  if  urged  to  move  forwards  he  will  either 
refuse  or  comply  with  a  jump,  with  the  toe  of  the  disabled  leg  dragging 
on  the  ground  and  brought  forward  by  a  second  effort.  There  is  no 
flexion  at  the  hock  and  no  motion  at  the  stifle,  while  the  circular  motion 
of  the  hip  is  quite  free.  The  leg  appears  to  be  much  longer  than  the 
other,  owing  to  the  straightened  position  of  the  thigh  bone,  which  forms 
almost  a  straight  line  with  the  tibia  from  the  hip  joint  down.  The 
stifle  joint  is  motionless,  and  the  motions  of  all  the  joints  belbw  it  are 
more  or  less  interfered  with.  External  examination  of  the  nmscles  of 
the  liip  and  thigh  discovers  a  certain  amount  of  rigidity,  with  perhaps 
some  soreness,  and  the  stifle  bone  may  be  seen  projecting  more  or  less 
on  the  outside  and  upper  part  of  the  joint. 

This  state  of  things  may  continue  for  some  length  of  time  and  until 

treatment  is  applied,  or  it  may  spontaneously  and  suddenly  terminate, 

lenving  everything  in  its  normal  condition,  but  perhaps  to  return  again. 

Pseudo  dialocatiou  of  the  patella  is  likely  to  occur  under  many  of 


329 

tliG  conditions  whicli  cause  actual  dislocation,  and  ;^  etit  may  often  occur 
in  animals  which  have  not  been  exposed  to  the  ordinary  causes,  but 
which  have  remained  at  rest  in  their  stables.  Sometimes  these  cases 
are  referred  to  falls  in  a  slippery  stall,  or  perhaps  slipping  when  en- 
deavoring to  rise;  sometimes  to  weakness  in  convalescing  patients; 
sometimes  to  lack  of  tonicity  of  structure  and  genertil  debility;  some- 
times to  relaxation  of  tissues  from  want  of  exercise  or  use. 

The  reduction  of  these  displacements  of  the  patella  is  not  usually  at- 
tended with  difficulty.  A  sudden  jerk  or  spasmodic  action  will  often 
be  all  that  is  required  to  spring  the  patella  into  place,  when  the  flexion 
of  the  leg  at  the  hock  ends  the  trouble  for  the  time.  But  this  is  not 
always  sufficient,  and  a  true  reduction  may  still  be  indicated.  To  effect 
this  the  leg  must  be  drawn  well  forward  by  a  rope  attached  to  the  lower 
end,  and  the  patella,  grasped  with  the  hand,  forcibly  pushed  forwards 
and  inwards  and  made  to  slip  over  the  outside  border  of  the  trochlea 
of  the  femur.  The  bone  suddenly  slips  into  position,  the  excessive  rigor 
of  the  leg  ceases  with  a  spasmodic  jerk,  and  the  animal  may  walk  or 
trot  away  without  suspicion  of  lameness.  But  though  this  may  end 
the  trouble  for  the  time,  and  the  restoration  seem  to  bo  perfect  and  per- 
manent, a  repetition  of  the  entire  transaction  may  subsequently  take 
place,  and  perhaps  from  the  loss  of  some  portion  of  tensile  power  which 
would  naturally  follow  the  original  attack  in  the  muscles  involved,  the 
lesion  might  become  a  habitual  weakness. 

Warm  fomentations  and  douches  with  cold  water  will  often  j)romote 
permanent  recovery,  and  liberty  in  a  box  stall  or  in  the  field  will  in 
many  cases  insure  constant  relief.  The  use  of  a  high-heeled  shoe  is 
recommended  by  European  veterinarians.  The  use  of  stimulating  lini- 
ments, with  frictions,  charges  or  even  severe  blisters,  may  be  resorted 
to  in  order  to  prevent  the  repetition  of  the  difficulty  by  strengthening 
and  toning  up  the  i)arts. 

DISEASES   OF   MUSCLES  AND   TENDONS. 

Sprains. — This  term  expresses  a  more  or  less  complete  laceration  or 
yielding  of  the  fibers  of  the  muscles,  tendons,  or  the  sheaths  surround- 
ing and  supporting  them.  The  usual  cause  of  a  sprain  is  external  vio- 
lence, such  as  a  fall  or  a  powerful  exertion  of  strength,  with  following 
symptoms  of  soreness,  heat,  swelling,  and  a  suspeusion  of  function. 
Their  termination  varies  from  simple  resolution  to  suppuration,  and 
commonly  plastic  exudation  difficult  to  remove,  i^oue  of  the  muscles 
or  tendons  of  the  body  are  exempt  from  liability  to  this  lesion,  though 
naturally  from  their  uses  and  the  exposure  of  their  situation  the  ex- 
tremities are  more  liable  than  other  regions  to  become  their  seat.  The 
nature  of  the  prognosis  will  be  determined  by  a  consideration  of  the  seat 
of  the  injury  a;nd  the  complications  likely  to  arise.  The  treatment  will 
resolve  itself  into  the  routine  of  local  applications,  including  warm 
fomentations,  stimulating  liniments,  counter  irritation  by  blistering, 


330 

ancl  in  some  cases  even  firing.  Kest,  in  the  stable  or  in  a  box  stall,  will 
be  of  advantage  by  promoting  the  absorption  of  whatever  plastic  exu- 
dation may  have  formed,  or  the  absorption  may  be  stimulated  by  the 
careful  and  persevering  application  of  iodine  in  the  form  of  ointments 
of  various  degrees  of  strength. 

There  are  many  conditions  in  which  not  only  the  muscular  and  tendi- 
nous structures  jproper  are  affected  by  a  sprain,  but,  by  contiguity  of 
partSj  the  periosteum  of  neighboring  bones  may  become  involved,  with 
a  complication  of  periostitis  and  its  sequelae. 

Lameness  ofthesJiouJder. — The  frequency  of  the  occurrence  of  lame- 
ness in  the  shoulder  from  sprains  entitled  it  to  precedence  of  mention  in 
our  present  category.  For,  though  so  well  covered  with  its  muscular 
envelope,  it  is  often  the  seat  of  injuries  which,  from  the  complex  struc- 
ture of  the  region,  become  difficult  to  diagnosticate  with  satisfactory 
precision  and  facility.  The  flat  bone  which  forms  the  skeleton  of  that 
region  is  articulated  in  a  comparatively  loose  manner  with  the  bone  of 
the  arm,  but  the  joint  is,  notwithstanding,  rather  solid,  and  is  i)ower- 
fully  strengthened  by  tendons  i)assiug  outside,  inside,  and  in  front  of 
it.  Still,  shoulder  lameness  or  sprain  may  exist,  originating  in  lacera- 
tions of  the  mucles,  the  tendons  or  the  ligaments  of  the  joint,  or  per- 
haj)s  in  diseases  of  the  bones  themselves.  "  Slip  of  the  shoulder  "  is  a 
phrase  frequently  applied  to  such  lesions. 

The  identification  of  the  particular  structures  involved  in  these 
lesions  is  of  much  importance,  in  view  of  its  bearing  upon  the  question 
of  i^roguosis.  For  example,  while  a  simple  sui^erficial  injury  of  the 
spinatus  muscles,  or  of  the  muscles  by  which  the  leg  is  attached  to  the 
trunk,  may  not  be  of  serious  import  and  may  readily  yield  to  treatment, 
or  even  recover  spontaneously  and  without  interference,  the  condition 
is  quite  changed  when  a  case  of  tearing  of  the  flexor  brachii,  or  of  its 
tendons  as  they  pass  in  front  of  the  articulation  occurs,  or,  what  is  still 
more  serious,  if  there  is  inflammation  or  ulceration  in  the  groove  over 
which  this  tendon  slides,  or  upon  the  articular  surfaces  or  their  sur- 
rouudiugs  or  jjeriostitis  at  any  point  adjacent. 

The  frequency  of  attacks  of  shoulder  lameness  is  not  difllcult  to  ac- 
count for.  The  superficial  and  unprotected  position  of  the  part,  and 
the  numerous  movements  of  which  it  is  capable,  and  which  in  fact  it 
performs,  render  it  both  subjectively  and  objectively  preeminently  lia- 
ble to  accident  or  injury.  It  would  be  difficult,  nor  would  it  materially 
avail,  to  enumerate  all  the  forms  of  violence  by  which  the  shoulder  may 
be  crippled.  A  fall,  accompanied  by  powerful  concussion  ^  a  violent 
muscular  contraction  in  starting  a  heavily  loaded  vehicle  from  a  stand- 
still; a  misstep  following  a  quick  muscular  effort;  ajumj)  accompanied 
by  miscalculated  results  in  alighting;  a  slip  on  a  smooth,  icy  road j 
balling  the  feet  with  snow;  colliding  with  another  horse  or  other  ob- 
ject— indeed,  the  list  might  be  indefinitely  extended,  but  it  would  be 
without  profit  or  utility.     Some  of  the  symptoms  of  shoulder  lameness 


331 

aro  peculiar  to  themselves,  and  yet  the  trouble  is  frequently  mistaken 
for  other  affections— navicular  disease  more  often  than  any  other.  The 
fact  that  in  both  affections  there  are  instances  when  the  external  symp- 
toms are  but  imperfectly  defined,  and  that  one  of  them  especially  is 
very  similar  in  both,  is  sufficient  to  mislead  careless  or  inexperienced 
observers  and  to  occasion  the  error  which  is  sometimes  committed  of 
applying  to  one  disease  the  name  of  the  other,  erring  both  ways  in  the 
interchange.  The  true  designation  of  pathological  lesions  is  very  far, 
at  times,  from  being  of  certain  and  easy  accomplishment,  and  owing 
to  the  massive  structure  of  the  parts  we  are  considering  this  is  espe- 
cially true  in  the  present  connection.  And  still  there  are  many  cases 
in  which  there  is  really  no  reasonable  excuse  for  an  error  in  diagnosis 
by  an  average  practitioner. 

Shoulder  lameness  will  of  course  manifest  itself  by  signs  and  appear- 
ances more  or  less  distinct  and  pronounced,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  degree  and  the  extent  of  the  originating  cause.  We  summarize 
some  of  these  signs  and  appearances  : 

The  lameness  is  not  intermittent  but  continued,  the  disturbance  of 
motion  gauging  the  severity  of  the  lesion  and  its  extent.  It  is  more 
marked  when  the  bones  are  diseased  than  when  the  muscles  alone  are 
affected.  When  in  motion  the  two  upper  bony  levers,  the  shoulder 
blade  and  the  bone  of  the  upper  arm,  are  reduced  to  nearly  complete 
immobility  and  the  walking  is  performed  by  the  complete  displacement 
of  the  entire  mass,  which  is  dragged  forward  without  either  flexion  or 
extension.  The  action  of  the  joint  below,  as  a  natural  consequence,  is 
limited  in  its  flexion.  In  many  instances  there  is  a  certain  amount  of 
swelling  at  the  point  of  injury— at  the  joint,  or  more  commonly  in  front 
of  it,  or  on  the  surface  of  the  spinatus  muscle.  Again,  instead  of  swell- 
ing there  will  be  muscular  atrophy,  though  while  this  condition  of  loss 
of  muscular  power  may  interfere  with  perfect  locomotion,  it  is  not  in 
itself  usually  a  cause  of  shoulder  lameness.  "  Swenied  "  shoulders  are 
more  often  due  to  disease  below  the  fetlock  than  to  affections  above  the 
elbow. 

During  rest  the  animal  often  carries  his  leg  forward,  somewhat  anal- 
ogous to  the  "pointing"  position  of  navicular  disease,  though  in  some 
cases  the  painful  member  drops  at  the  elbow  in  a  semi-flexed  position. 
The  backing  is  sometimes  typical,  the  animal  when  performing  it,  in- 
stead of  flexing  his  shoulder,  dragging  the  whole  leg  without  motion  in 
the  upper  segment  of  the  extremity.  The  peculiar  manner  in  which 
the  leg  is  carried  forward  in  the  act  of  walking  or  trotting  is  in  some 
instances  characteristic  of  injuries  of  the  shoulder,  the  power  of  exten- 
sion  being  limited  5  the  whole  leg  in  the  act  of  locomotion  is  moved  for- 
ward with  a  circumflex,  swinging  motion,  which  distinguishes  this  pecu- 
liar affection  from  others. 

With  the  utmost  scrutiny  and  care  the  vagueness  and  uncertainty  of 
the  symptoms  will  contribute  to  perplex  and  discredit  the  diagnosis 


332 

and  embarrass  the  surgeon,  and  sometimes  the  expedient  is  tried  of 
aggravatiug  the  symptoms  by  way  of  intensifying  their  significance, 
and  thus  rendering  them  more  intelligible.  This  has  been  sought  by 
requiring  the  patient  to  travel  on  soft  i^lowed  ground  and  compelling 
hiiu  to  turn  on  the  affected  leg  as  a  pivot,  with  other  motions  calculated 
to  betray  the  locality  of  the  pain. 

It  is  our  conviction  that  lameness  of  the  shoulder  will  in  many  cases 
disappear  with  no  other  prescription  than  that  of  rest.  Provided  the 
lesions  occasioning  it  are  not  too  severe  time  is  all  that  is  required.  But 
the  negation  of  letting  alone  is  seldom  accepted  as  a  means  of  doing 
good,  in  the  place  of  the  active  and  the  positive  forms  of  treatment. 
Tiiis  is  in  accordance  with  a  trait  of  human  nature  which  is  universal, 
and  is  unlimited  in  its  appliciitions.  Hence  th^re  must  he  something 
doue.  In  mild  cases  of  shoulder  lameness,  then,  the  indications  are 
water,  either  in  the  cold  douche  or  by  showering,  or  by  warm  fomenta- 
tions. Warm  wet  blankets  are  of  great  service ;  and  iu  addition,  or  as 
alternative,  anodyne  liniments,  camphor,  belladonna,  either  iu  the  form 
of  tiucture  or  the  oils,  are  of  benefit,  and  at  a  later  period  stimulating 
friction  with  suitable  mixtures,  sweating  liniments,  blistering  com- 
pounds, etc.,  will  find  their  place,  and,  finally,  when  necessity  demands 
it,  the  firing  iron  and  the  seton. 

The  duration  of  the  treatment  must  be  determined  by  its  effects  and 
the  evidence  that  may  be  offered  of  the  results  following  the  action  of 
the  reparative  process.  But  the  great  essential  condition  of  cure,  and 
the  one  without  v»hich  the  possibility  of  relapse  will  always  remain  as 
a  menace,  is,  as  we  have  often  reiterated  iu  analogous  cases,  rest,  im- 
peratively rest,  irrespective  of  any  other  prescriptions  with  which  it 
may  be  associated. 

Sprain  of  the  elbow  muscles.— This  injury,  which  fortunately  is  not 
very  common,  is  mostly  encountered  in  cities,  among  heavy  draught 
horses  or  rapidly  driven  animals  which  are  obliged  to  travel,  often 
smooth  shod,  upon  slippery,  icy,  or  greasy  pavements,  where  they  are 
easily  liable  to  lose  their  foothold.  The  region  of  the  strain  is  the  pos- 
terior part  of  the  shoulder,  and  the  muscles  which  are  affected  are  those 
which  occupy  the  space  betweeu  the  posterior  border  of  the  scapula 
and  the  posterior  face  of  the  arm.  It  is  the  muscles  of  the  olecranon 
which  give  way. 

The  symptoms  are  easily  recognized,  especially  when  the  animal  is 
in  action.  While  at  rest  the  attitude  may  be  normal,  or  by  close  scru- 
tiny a  peculiarity  may  perhaps  be  detected.  The  leg  may  seem  to  drop ; 
the  elbow  may  appear  to  be  lower  than  its  fellow,  with  the  knee  and 
lower  part  of  the  leg  flexed  and  the  foot  resting  on  the  toe,  with  the 
heel  raised.  Such  an  attitude,  however,  may  be  occasionally  assumed 
by  an  animal  without  having  any  special  significance.  But  when  it  be- 
comes more  pronounced  on  ])utting  him  in  motion  the  fact  acquires  a 
symptomatic  value,  and  this  is  the  case  m  the  present  instance.    A 


333 

rapid  gait  becomes  quite  impossible,  and  tlie  walk  as  in  some  few  otber 
diseases  becoaies  sufficiently  characteristic  to  warrant  a  diagnosis  even 
when  observed  from  a  distance.  An  entire  dropping  of  the  anterior 
part  of  the  trunk  becomes  manifest,  and  no  weight  is  carried  on  the 
disabled  side,  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of  action  in  the  suspensory 
muscles.  There  are  often  heat,  pain,  and  swelling  in  the  muscular  mass 
at  the  elbow,  though  at  times  a  hollow  or  depression  may  be  observed 
near  the  posterior  border  of  the  scapula,  which  is  probably  the  seat  of 
injury. 

These  hurts  are  of  various  degrees  of  importance,  varying  from  mere 
minor  casualties  of  quick  recovery  to  lesions  which  are  of  sufficient  se- 
verity to  render  an  animal  useless  and  valueless  for  life. 

The  prime  elements  of  treatment,  which  should  be  strictly  observed, 
are  rest  and  quiet.  Prescriptions  of  all  kinds,  however,  of  course,  have 
their  advocates.  Among  them  are  ether,  chloroform,  camphor,  alco- 
holic frictions,  warm  fomentations,  blisters,  setons,  etc.  But,  unless  the 
conclusions  of  experience  are  to  be  ignored,  our  own  judgment  is  de- 
cisive in  favor  of  rest,  judiciously  applied;  and  our  view  of  what  con- 
stitutes a  judicious  application  of  rest  has  been  more  than  once  presented 
in  these  pages.  There  are  degrees  of  this  rest.  One  contemplates 
simple  immobility  in  a  narrow  stall.  Another  means  the  enforced  mo- 
bility of  the  slings  and  a  narrow  stall  as  well.  Another  a  box  stall,  with 
ample  latitude  as  to  i^osture  and  space,  and  option  to  stand  up  or  lie 
down.  As  wide  as  this  range  may  appear  to  be,  radical  recovery  has 
occurred  under  all  of  these  modified  forms  of  Icttlnj  our  patients  alone. 

Hip  lameness. — The  etiology  of  injuries  and  diseases  of  the  hip  is  one 
and  the  same  with  that  of  the  shoulder.  The  same  causes  operate  and 
the  same  results  follow.  The  only  essential  change,  with  an  important 
exception,  which  would  be  necessary  in  passing  from  one  region  to  the 
other  in  a  description  of  its  anatomy,  its  pbysiology,  and  its  pathology, 
would  be  a  substitution  of  a-natomical  names  in  referring  to  celtain 
bones,  articulations,  muscles,  ligaments,  and  membranes  concerned  in 
the  injuries  and  diseases  described.  It  would  be  only  a  useless  repeti- 
tion to  cover  again  the  ground  over  which  we  have  so  recently  passed 
in  recital  of  the  manner  in  which  certain  forms  of  external  violence 
(falls,  blows,  kicks,  etc.)  result  in  other  certain  forms  of  lesion  (luxation, 
fracture,  periostitis,  ostitis,  etc.),  and  to  recapitulate  the  items  of  treat- 
ment and  the  names  of  the  medicaments  proper  to  use.  The  same  rules 
of  diagnosis  and  the  same  indications  and  prognosis  are  applicable 
equally  to  every  portion  of  the  organism,  with  only  such  modifications 
in  applying  dressings  and  a£)paratus  as  may  be  required  by  differences 
of  conformation  and  other  minor  circumstances,  which  must  suggest 
themselves  to  the  judg ment  of  every  experienced  observer  when  the  oc- 
casion arrives  for  its  exercise. 

There  is  an  exception  to  be  made,  while  considering  the  subject  in 
connection  with  the  region  now  under  advisemeut,  in  respect  to  the  for- 


334 

midable  affection  known  as  morbus  cosarius,  or  liipjoint  disease;  and 
leaving  the  detail  of  other  lesions  to  take  their  place  under  other  heads, 
that  relating  to  the  shoulder,  for  instance,  we  turn  to  the  hip  joint  and 
its  ailments  as  the  chief  subject  of  our  present  consideration. 

In  investigating  for  morbus  coxarius,  let  the  observer  first  examine 
the  lame  animal  by  scanning  critically  the  outlines  of  the  joint  and  the 
region  adjacent  for  auj  difference  of  size  or  disturbance  of  symmetry 
in  the  parts,  any  prominence  or  rotundity,  and  on  both  sides.  The 
lame  side  will  probably  be  warmer,  more  develoi^ed  and  fuller,  both  to 
the  touch  and  to  the  eye.  Let  him  then  grasp  the  lower  part  of  the 
leg  (as  he  would  in  examining  a  case  of  shoulder  lameness),  and  en- 
deavor to  produce  excessive  i3assive  motion.  Tliis  will  probably  cause 
pain  when  the  leg  is  made  to  assume  a  given  position.  Let  him  push 
the  thigh  forcibly  against  the  hip  bone,  and  the  contact  will  again  prob- 
ably cause  a  manifestation  of  x^ain.  If  the  horse  is  trotted,  the  limited 
action  of  the  hip  joint  proper  and  the  excessive  dropping  and  rising  of 
the  hip  of  the  opposite  side  will  be  easily  recognized.  The  abductivo 
or  circumflex  motion  observed  in  shoulder  lameness  is  also  present  in 
hip  lameness,  but  under  special  conditions,  and  the  test  of  the  difficulty, 
either  by  traveling  on  soft  ground  or  making  the  lame  leg  a  pivot  in 
turning  the  horse  in  a  circle,  may  here  also  contribute  to  the  diagnosis 
as  in  testing  for  lameness  in  the  anterior  extremity. 

The  prognosis  of  hip  lameness  is  at  times  quite  serious,  not  only 
on  account  of  the  long  duration  of  treatment  required  to  effect  good 
results,  and  because  of  the  characters  which  may  be  assumed  by  the 
disease,  but  of  the  permanence  of  the  disabihty  resulting  from  it.  Ex- 
ostosis and  ulcerative  arthritis  arc  sequela)  which  often  resist  every 
form  of  treatment. 

As  before  intimated,  this  is  little  more  than  a  repetition  of  our 
remarks  upon  the  lameness  of  the  shoulder,  with  slight  modifications 
occasioned  by  the  muscular  structure  of  the  hip,  and  we  are  limited  to 
the  same  recommendations  of  treatment.  The  advantages  of  rest  must 
be  reaffirmed  with  local  applications,  of  which,  however,  it  may  be  said 
that  they  are  more  distinctly  indicated  and  likely  to  be  more  effective 
in  their  results  than  in  shoulder  lameness,  and  may  be  more  freely  em- 
ployed, whether  in  the  form  of  liniments,  blisters  (singly  or  repeated), 
firing,  or  setoning. 

Sprains  of  susj)cnsory  ligaments  and  of  the  flexor  tendons  or  their  sheath. — 
The  fibrous  structure  situated  behind  the  cannon  bones,  both  in  the  fore 
and  hind  legs,  is  often  the  seat  of  lacerations  or  sprains  resulting  from 
violent  efforts  or  sudden  jerks.  The  injury  is  readily  recognized  by  the 
changed  aspect  of  the  region  and  the  accompanying  local  symptoms. 
The  parts,  which  in  health  are  well  defined,  with  the  outlines  of  the 
tendons  and  ligaments  well  marked,  become  the  seat  of  a  swelling, 
more  or  less  developed,  from  a  small  spot  of  the  middle  of  the  back  of 
the  tendon  to  a  tumefaction  reaching  from  the  knee  down  to  and  even 


335 

involving  the  fetlock  itself.  It  is  always  characterized  by  heat,  and  it 
is  variously  sensitive,  ranging  from  a  mere  tenderness  to  a  degree  of 
soreness  which  shrinks  from  the  lightest  touch.  The  degrees  of  the 
lameness  vary,  and  it  has  a  corresponding  range  with  the  soreness, 
sometimes  showing  only  a  slight  halting  and  at  others  the  extreme  of 
lameness  on  three  legs,  with  intermediate  degrees. 

It  has  for  its  cause,  like  all  the  other  forms,  external  traumatism  by 
falls,  blows,  etc.,  and  may  be  considered  serious  or  trifling,  according  to 
the  circumstances  of  each  case  as  judged  by  its  own  history.  It  may  be 
safely  assumed  on  general  principles  that  a  leg  which  has  received  such 
injuries  very  seldom  returns  to  a  perfect  condition  of  efficiency  and 
soundness,  and  that  as  a  fact  a  certain  absolute  amount  of  thickening 
and  deformity  will  remain  in  permanency,  even  when  the  lameness  has 
entirely  disappeared. 

For  this  reason  the  injured  member  should  receive  the  earliest  atten- 
tion possible,  not  only  when  the  inflammatory  condition  is  present  but 
when  it  is  subsiding,  and  there  is  only  the  thickening  of  the  ligaments, 
the  tendons,  or  the  sheath.  Cold  bathing,  cold-water  bandages,  either 
simple  or  with  astringent  solutions,  do  well  in  some  cases,  while  in 
others  hot  applications  have  the  preference,  with  complete  rest ;  also, 
moderate  exercise  j  frictions  with  alcohol  j  tincture  of  soap  ;  spirits  of 
camphor;  mild  liniments;  strong  sweating  liniments;  blisters;  the 
cautery — these  are  the  means  by  which  the  absorption  of  the  exudate 
must  be  promoted  and  the  work  of  restoration  effected.  The  prepara- 
tions of  iodine  are  often  of  benefit  in  mild  cases,  but  there  are  others 
in  which  the  thickening  of  the  tendons  refuses  to  yield  and  the  changed 
tissues  remain  firmly  organized,  leaving  them  in  the  form  of  a  tbick 
mass  resting  on  the  back  part  of  the  cannon  bone.  As  a  consequence 
the  deformity  remains  and  a  new  condition  presents  itself  in  the  artic- 
ular disposition,  constituting  the  deformity  known  as  theJcnucldhig  fet- 
locli. 

By  this  is  meant  a  deformity  of  the  fetlock  joint  by  which  the  natural 
angle  is  changed  from  that  which  pertains  to  the  healthy  articulation. 
The  first  pastern  or  suffraginis  loses  its  oblique  direction  and  assumes 
another  which  varies  from  the  upright  to  the  oblique,  from  before  back- 
wards, and  from  above  downwards ;  in  other  words,  forming  an  angle 
with  its  point  in  front. 

This  condition,  as  we  have  seen,  may  be  the  result  of  chronic  disease 
producing  structural  changes  in  the  tendons,  and  it  may  also  occur  as 
the  result  of  other  affections  or  some  peculiarity  independent  of  this 
and  situated  below  the  fetlock,  such  as  ringbones,  sidebones,  or  trau- 
matic disease  of  the  foot  proper.  Animals  are  sometimes  predisposed 
to  knuckling,  such,  for  example,  as  are  naturally  straight  in  their  pas- 
terns or  animals  which  are  compelled  to  labor  when  too  young.  The 
hind  legs  are  more  predisposed  than  the  fore  to  this  deformity,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  greater  amount  of  labor  they  are  required  to  perform 
as  the  propelling  levers  of  the  body. 


336 

The  symptoms  of  kuuckling  aro  easily  recognized.  Tlio  clianges  in 
the  direction  of  the  bones  vary  more  or  less  with  the  degree  of  thelesion, 
sometimes  assuming  suck  a  direction  that  it  almost  becomes  a  true  dis- 
location of  the  pastern. 

The  effect  of  knuckling  upon  the  gait  also  varies  according  to  the 
degree  of  the  deformity.  As  the  different  degrees  of  the  shortening  of 
the  leg  affect  the  motion  of  the  fetlock  the  lameness  may  be  very  slight 
or  quite  extreme.  Another  consequence  of  this  shortening  is  such  a 
change  in  the  position  of  the  foot  that  the  heels  cease  to  come  in  con- 
tact with  the  ground  and  assume  a  greater  elevation,  and  the  final  result 
of  this  is  soon  witnessed  in  the  development  of  a  clubfoot. 

To  whatever  cause  the  knuckling  may  be  ascribed  it  is  always  a  severe 
infirmity,  and  there  is  but  little  room  for  hoping  to  overcome  it  unless 
it  be  during  the  very  first  stages  of  the  trouble,  and  the  hope  dwindles  to 
still  ssnaller  dimensions  when  it  is  secondary  to  other  diseases  below 
the  fetlock.  If  it  is  caused  by  overworking  the  animal,  the  first  indica- 
tion will  of  course  bo  rest.  The  animal  must  be  turned  loose  and  left 
unemployed  and  careful  attention  given  to  the  condition  of  his  feet  and 
to  the  manner  of  shoeing,  while  time  is  allowed  for  the  tendons  to  be- 
come restored  to  their  normal  state  and  the  irritation  caused  by  excess- 
ive stretching  has  subsided.  A  shoe  with  a  thick  heel  will  contribute 
to  this.  But  if  no  improvement  can  be  obtained  and  the  tendons  though 
retracted  have  yet  been  relieved  of  much  of  their  thickening,  the  case 
is  not  a  desperate  one  and  may  yet  bo  benefited  by  the  operation  of  te- 
notomy, single  or  double — an  operative  expedient  which  must  be  com- 
mitted to  the  experienced  surgron  for  its  performance. 

Sjjyung  Icnees. — Though  not  positively  the  result  of  diseases  of  the  ten- 
dons acting  upon  the  knees,  wo  venture  to  consider  this  deformity  in 
connection  wi  h  that  which  we  have  just  described.  It  consists  in  such 
an  alteration  in  the  direction  and  articulation  of  the  bones  which  form 
the  various  carpal  joints  that  instead  of  forming  a  vertical  line  from 
the  lower  end  of  the  forearm  to  the  cannon  bone  they  are  so  united  that 
the  knee  is  more  or  less  bent  forward,  presenting  a  condition  due  to  the 
retraction  of  two  of  the  principal  muscles  by  which  the  cannon  bone  is 
flexed. 

This  flexion  of  tho  knee  may  also  be  a  congenital  deformity  and  have 
continued  from  the  foaling  of  the  animal.  Or,  like  clubfoot  it  may  be 
the  result  of  heavy  labor  which  the  animal  has  been  compelled  to  per- 
form at  too  early  an  ago.  It  may  also  be  due  to  other  diseases  existing 
iu  parts  below  the  knee  joint. 

This  change  of  direction  largely  influences  tho  movement  of  the  an- 
imal by  detracting  from  its  firmness  and  practically  weakeaing  the  en- 
tire frame,  even  to  tho  extent  of  rendering  him  insecure  on  his  feet,  and 
liable  to  fall.  This  condition  of  weakness  is  sometimes  so  pronounced 
that  he  is  exposed  to  fall  even  when  standing  at  rest  and  unmolested, 
the  knees  being  unable  even  to  bear  tho  portion  of  tho  mere  weight  of 


337 

the  frame  wliich  belongs  to  them.  This  results  in  another  trouble,  that 
of  being  unable  to  keep  permanently  upright.  He  is  apt  to  fall  on  his. 
knees,  and  by  this  act  becomes  presently  a  sufferer  from  the  lesion 
known  by  the  term  of  brolcen  Icnees. 

Whatever  may  be  the  originating  cause  of  this  imperfection  it  de- 
tracts very  largely  from  the  usefulness  and  value  of  a  horse,  disqualify- 
ing him  for  ordinary  labor  and  wholly  unfitting  him  for  service  under 
the  saddle  without  jeopardizing  the  safety  of  his  rider.  If,  however^ 
the  trouble  is  known  from  the  start,  and  is  not  the  result  of  congenital 
deformity  or  weakness  of  the  knee  joint,  or  secondary  to  other  diseases^ 
rest,  with  fortifying  frictions,  may  sometimes  aid  in  strengthening  tho 
joints  ;  and  the  application  of  blisters  on  the  posterior  part  of  the  knee^ 
from  a  short  distance  above  to  a  point  a  little  below  the  joint,  may  h& 
followed  by  some  satisfactory  results.  But  with  this  trouble,  as  with 
knuckling  fetlocks,  the  danger  of  relapse  must  not  be  ignored,  but  kept 
in  mind  as  a  contingency  always  liable  to  occur. 

Curb. — This  lesion  is  the  bulging  backwards  of  the  posterior  part  of 
the  hock,  where  in  the  normal  state  there  should  be  a  straight  line, 
extending  from  the  upper  end  of  the  point  of  the  hock  down  to  the  fet- 
lock. The  cause  may  be  a  sprain  of  the  tendon  which  passes  on  the 
posterior  part  of  the  hock,  or  of  one  of  its  sheaths,  or  of  the  strong^ 
ligament  situated  on  the  posterior  border  of  the  os  calcis.  This  condi- 
tion, if  not  commonly  the  result  of  malformation,  is  often  seen  in  hocks 
which  present  the  peculiar  condition  of  being  curby.  It  often  occurs, 
also,  as  the  result  of  violent  efforts,  of  heavy  pulling,  of  high  jumping 
or  of  slipping;  in  a  word,  it  may  result  from  any  of  the  causes  hereto- 
fore considered  as  instrumental  in  iiroducing  lacerations  of  muscular, 
tendinous,  or  ligamentous  struture. 

A  hock  affected  with  curb  will,  at  the  outset,  present  a  swelling  more 
or  less  diffuse  on  its  posterior  portion,  with  varying  degrees  of  heat  and 
soreness,  and  these  will  be  accompanied  by  lameness  of  a  permanent 
character.  At  a  later  period,  however,  the  swelling  will  become  better 
defined,  the  deformity  more  characteristic,  the  prominent  curved  line 
readily  detected,  and  the  thickness  of  the  infiltrated  tissue  easily  de- 
termined by  the  fingers.  At  this  time,  also,  there  may  be  a  condition 
of  lameness,  varying  in  degree:  while  at  others,  again,  the  irregularity 
of  action  at  the  hock  will  be  so  slight  as  to  escape  attention,  the  animal 
betraying  no  appearance  of  its  existence. 

A  curb  constitutes,  by  a  strict  construction  of  the  term,  an  "un- 
soundness," since  the  hock  thus  affected  is  less  able  to  endure  severe 
labor,  and  is  more  liable  to  give  way  with  the  slightest  effort.  And  yet 
the  prognosis  of  a  curb  can  not  be  considered  to  be  serious,  since  it 
generally  yields  to  treatment,  or  at  least  the  lameness  it  may  occasion 
is  generally  easily  relieved,  though  the  loss  of  contour  caused  by  the 
bulging  will  always  constitute  a  blemish  to  the  eye. 

On  the  first  appearance  of  a  curb,  when  it  exhibits  the  signs  of  an 

11035 22 


338 

acute  inflammation,  the  first  indication  is  to  subdue  this  by  the  use  of 
warm  fomentations  or  other  topical  applications.  But  when  these  have 
exhausted  their  effect  and  the  swelling  has  assumed  better  defined 
boundaries,  and  the  infiltration  of  the  tendons  or  of  the  ligaments  is 
all  that  remains  of  a  morbid  state,  then  every  effort  must  be  directed 
to  the  object  of  effecting'  its  absorption  and  reducing  its  dimensions  by 
pressure  and  other  methods.  The  medicaments  most  to  be  trusted  are 
blisters  of  cantharides  and  frictions  with  ointments  of  iodine,  or,  pref- 
erably, biniodide  of  mercury.  Mercurial  agents  alone,  by  their  thera- 
peutic properties,  or  by  means  of  the  artificial  bandages  which  they 
furnish  by  their  incrustations  when  their  vesicatory  effects  are  ex- 
hausted, will  give  good  results  in  some  instances  by  a  single  applica- 
tion, and  often  by  repeated  applications.  The  use  of  the  firing  iron 
must,  however,  be  frequently  resorted  to,  either  to  remove  the  lameness 
or  to  stimulate  the  exudation.  We  believe  that  its  early  application 
ought  to  be  resorted  to  in  preference  to  waiting  until  the  exudation  is 
firmly  organized.  Deep  and  fine  needle  firing  will  prove  as  beneficial 
in  curb  as  in  any  other  disease  of  a  similar  nature. 

Lacerated  tendons. — This  form  of  injury,  whether  of  a  simi^le  or  of  a 
compound  character,  may  become  a  lesion  of  a  very  serious  nature, 
and  will  usually  require  long  and  careful  treatment,  which  may  yet 
prove  unavailing  in  consequence  either  of  the  intrinsically  fatal  char- 
acter of  the  wound  itself  or  the  complications  which  have  rendered  it 
incurable. 

Like  all  similar  injuries,  these  are  the  result  of  traumatic  violence, 
such  as  contact  with  objects  both  blunt  and  sharp ;  a  curbstone  in  the 
city  J  in  the  country  a  tree  stump  or  a  fence,  especially  one  of  wire. 
It  may  easily  occur  to  a  runaway  horse  when  he  is  "whipped"  with 
fragments  of  harness  or  "  flogged  "  by  fragments  of  splintered  shafts 
"  thrashing"  his  legs,  or  by  the  contact  of  his  legs  with  the  wagon  he 
has  overturned  and  shattered  with  his  heels  while  disengaging  himself 
from  its  wreck. 

It  is  not  always  necessary  that  the  skin  should  be  involved  in  this 
form  of  injury.  On  the  contrary  the  tegument  is  frequently  left  entirely 
intact,  or  exhibits  only  some  slight  and  superficial  abrasions.  Yet, 
again,  the  skin  may 'be  cut  through  and  the  tendons  nearly  severed. 
A  point  a  little  above  the  fetlock  is  usually  the  seat  of  the  injury.  But 
irrespective  of  this,  and  whether  the  skin  is  or  is  not  implicated,  the 
symptoms  very  much  resemble  those  of  a  fracture.  There  is  excessive 
mobility,  at  least  more  than  in  a  normal  state,  with  more  or  less  inabil- 
ity to  carry  weight;  there  may  be  swelling  of  the  parts,  and  on  passing 
the  hands  carefully  along  the  tendon  to  the  point  of  division  the  stumps 
of  the  divided  structure  will  be  felt  more  or  less  separated^  perhaps 
wholly  divided.  The  position  of  the  animal  while  at  rest  and  standing 
is  peculiar  aud  characteristic.  While  the  heels  are  well  placed  on  the 
ground,  the  toe  is  correspondingly  elevated  with  a  disposition  to  turn 


339 

up — a  form  of  breaking  down  whicli  we  have  described  when  speaking 
of  the  fracture  of  the  sesamoids.  Carrying  weight  is  done  only  with 
considerable  difficulty,  but  with  comparatively  little  pain,  and  the  ani- 
mal will  unconsciously  continue  to  move  the  leg  as  if  in  great  safiFeriug, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  his  general  condition  may  be  very  good 
and  his  appetite  unimpaired. 

The  effect  upon  the  general  organism  of  compound  lacerated  wounds 
of  tendinous  structures,  or  those  which  are  associated  with  injuries  of  the 
skin,  are  different.  The  wound  becomes,  in  a  short  time,  the  seat  of  a 
high  degree  of  inflammation  with  abundant  suppuration,  filling  it  from 
the  bottom;  and  the  tendon,  whether  as  the  result  of  the  bruise  or  of 
the  laceration,  or  of  maceration  in  the  accumulated  pus,  undergoing  a 
process  of  softening,  and  necrosis  and  sloughing  ensue.  This  compli- 
cates the  case,  and  probably  some  form  of  tendinous  synovitis  follows, 
running  into  suppurative  arthritis,  to  end,  if  close  to  a  joint,  with  a 
fatal  result. 

The  prognosis  of  lacerated  tendons  should  be  very  cautiously  at- 
tempted. Under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  a  jieriod  of  from  six 
weeks  to  two  months  will  be  necessary  for  the  treatment,  before  the 
formation  of  the  cicatricial  callus  and  the  establishment  of  a  firm  union 
between  the  tendinous  stumps. 

As  with  fractures,  and  even  in  a  greater  degree,  the  necessity  is  im- 
perative, in  the  treatment  of  lacerated  tendons,  to  secure  as  perfect  a 
state  of  immobility  as  can  be  obtained  compatibly  with  the  disposition 
of  the  patient.;  the  natu-ral  opposition  of  the  animal,  sometimes  ill- 
tempered  and  fractious  at  best,  under  the  necessary  restraint,  causing 
at  times  much  embarrassment  to  the  practitioner  in  ai^plying  the  nec- 
essary treatment.  Without  the  necessary  immobility  no  close  connec- 
tion of  the  ends  of  the  tendons  can  be  secured.  To  fulfill  this  necessary 
condition  the  posterior  jiart  of  the  foot  and  the  fetlock  must  be  sup- 
ported and  the  traction  performed  by  them  relieved,  an  object  which 
can  be  attained  by  the  use  of  the  high-heeled  and  bar  shoe,  or  possibly 
better  accomplished  with  a  shoe  of  the  same  kind  extending  about  2  or 
2^  inches  back  of  the  heels.  The  perfect  immobility  of  the  legs  is  ob- 
tained in  the  same  way  as  in  the  treatment  of  fracture,  with  splints, 
bandages,  iron  apparatus,  plasters  of  adhesive  mixtures,  and  similar 
'means.  So  long  as  the  dressings  remain  in  place  undisturbed,  and  no 
chafing  or  other  evidence  of  jiain  are  present,  the  dressings  may  bo 
continued  without  changing,  the  i)atient  being  kept  in  the  slings  for  a 
period  sufficient  to  insure  the  perfect  union  of  the  tendons.  But  for  a 
compound  lesion,  when  there  is  laceration  of  the  skin,  some  special 
care  is  necessary.  The  wound  must  be  carefully  watched  and  the 
dressings  removed  at  intervals  of  a  few  days,  or  as  often  as  may  be 
needful,  all  of  which  additional  manipulation  and  extra  nursing,  how- 
ever indispensable,  still  adds  to  the  gravity  of  the  case  and  renders  the 
prognosis  more  and  more  serious.     When  the  tendons  have  sloughed 


340 

in  threads  of  various  dimeusious,  or  if  in  the  absence  of  this  process  of 
mortification  healthy  granulations  shoukl  form  and  fill  up  the  wound, 
still  very  careful  attention  will  be  required,  the  granulating  ends  of  the 
tendons  having  a  tendency  to  bulge  between  the  edges  of  the  skin  and 
to  assume  large  dimensions,  forming  bulk.Y  excrescences  or  growths  of  a 
warty  or  cauliflower  apiiearauce,  the  removal  of  which  becomes  a  trouble- 
some matter. 

The  union  of  the  tendons  will  at  times  leave  a  thickening  of  varying 
degree  near  the  point  of  cicatrization,  the  absorption  of  which  becomes 
an  object  of  difficult  and  doubtful  accomplishment,  but  which  may  be 
liromoted  by  moderate  blistering  and  the  use  of  alterative  and  absorbent 
mixtures  or  perhaps  the  fire  iron.  A  shoe  with  heels  somewhat  higher 
than  usual  will  prove  a  comfort  to  the  animal  and  aid  in  moderating 
and  relieving  the  tension  of  the  tendons. 

Rupture  of  the  flexor  metatarsi. — This  is  a  muscle  of  the  anterior  part 
of  the  shauk.  It  is  situated  in  front  of  the  tibia,  and  is  of  peculiar  for- 
mation, being  composed  of  a  muscular  j)ortion  with  a  very  powerful 
tendon,  which  are  at  first  distinct  and  separate,  to  be  intimately  united 
lower  down,  and  terminating  at  the  lower  end  by  a  division  into  four 
tendinous  bands.  It  is  a  powerful  muscle  of  the  hinder  shank  bone, 
and  also  acts  as  a  strong  means  of  support  for  the  stifle  joint,  that  is, 
of  the  articulation  of  the  thigh  and  shank  bone,  in  front  and  outside  of 
which  it  passes.  Its  situation  and  its  use  cause  it  to  be  liable  to  severe 
stretching  and  straining,  and  a  rupture  of  some  of  its  fibers  is  some- 
times the  consequence. 

This  may  be  the  result  of  a  violent  effort  of  the  animal  in  leaping 
over  a  high  obstacle;  in  missing  his  foothold  and  suddenly  slipping 
backwards  while  powerfully  grasping  the  ground  with  the  feet  in  striv- 
ing to  start  a  heavily  loaded  vehicle ;  or  in  making  a  violent  effort  to 
prevent  a  probable  fall. 

The  accident  is  immediately  followed  by  disability  which  will  vary 
both  as  to  the  true  seat  of  the  injury  and  the  iieriod  of  its  duration. 
This  rupture  will  not  prevent  the  horse  from  standing  perfectly  and 
firmly  on  his  feet  when  kept  at  rest,  and  while  no  muscular  efforts  are 
required  from  him  there  is  no  api^earance  of  any  lesion  or  unsoundness. 
An  attempt  to  move  him  backwards,  however,  will  cause  him  to  throw 
all  his  weight  upon  his  hind  quarters,  and  he  will  reluse  to  raise  his 
foot  from  the  ground.  If  compelled  to  do  so,  or  required  to  move  for- 
ward, the  hock  being  no  longer  capable  of  flexion,  the  muscle  which 
effects  that  movement  being  the  injured  one,  the  opposite  muscles,  the 
extensors,  acting  freely,  the  entire  lower  i^art  of  the  leg,  from  the  hock 
down,  will  be  suddenly,  with  a  jerk,  extended  over  the  tibia  or  shauk 
bone,  and  simultaneously  with  this  the  tendo-achilles,  the  cord  of  the 
hock,  the  tendons  of  the  extensors  of  the  hock  will  be  put  in  an  excess- 
ively relaxed  condition.  Examination  of  the  fore  part  of  the  shank 
from  the  stifle  down  to  the  hock  may  reveal  soreness,  and  i)ossibly  some 
swelling  and  heat  at  the  seat  of  the  lesion. 


341 

Onr  experience  with  injuries  of  this  form  satisfies  us  that,  generally 
speaking,  they  are  amenable  to  treatment.  Very  few  instances  have 
come  to  our  knowledge  in  which  radical  recovery  has  not  been  obtained, 
provided  a  sufficient  time  has  been  allowed  for  cicatrization  to  take 
place. 

In  these  cases,  as  in  those  already  considered  of  simple  laceration  of 
tendons,  the  indications  resemble  those  which  apply  in  the  treatment  of 
fractures;  as  near  a  coaptation  of  the  lacerated  ends  as  possible,  with 
immobility,  being  the  necessary  objects  to  secure.  The  first  is  a  matter 
of  very  difficult  accomplishment,  by  bandaging  alone,  and  some  have 
recommended  instead  the  application  of  charges  or  blisters.  To  these 
we  strongly  object  from  their  liability  to  cause  irritation  and  to  allow  of 
excessive  movement,  both  circumstances  being  unfiivorable  in  their 
influence  and  hindering  the  action  of  the  reparative  powers. 

To  secure  the  necessary  immobility  the  animal  should  be  placed  in 
slings  snugly  applied,  and  kept  in  a  narrow  stall.  He  should  also  be 
tied  short,  and  restrained  from  any  backward  movement  by  ropes  or 
boards,  and  he  should  moreover  be  kept  in  as  quiet  a  temper  as  pos- 
sible by  the  exclusion  of  all  causes  of  irritation  or  excitement.  Weeks 
must  then  ekapse,  not  less,  but  frequently  more  thau  six,  often  eight,  be. 
fore  he  can  be  considered  out  of  danger  and  able  to  return  to  his  labor, 
which  should  for  a  time  bo  light  and  easy,  and  only  gradually,  if  ever, 
increased  to  the  measure  of  a  thoroughly  sound  and  strong  animal. 

SUNDRY  ADDITIONAL   AFFECTIONS   OF   THE   EXTREMITIES. 

Among  these  there  are  three  which  will  principally  occupy  our  atten- 
tion, and  these  may  be  considered  as  forming  a  single  group.  In  some 
l)arts  of  the  legs  may  be  found  certain  peculiar  little  structures,  of  a  sac- 
like formation,  containing  an  oily  substance  designed  for  the  lubrica- 
tion of  the  parts  upon  which  they  are  placed  for  the  purpose  of  facilita- 
ting the  movements  of  the  tendons  which  pass  over  them.  These  little 
sacs  or  muco  synovial  capsules  are  liable  under  peculiar  coiiditions  of 
traumatism  to  become  subject  to  a  diseased  process,  which  consists 
principally  in  a  hyper-secretion  of  their  contents  and  an  increase  in 
dimensions,  and  they  may  undergo  peculiar  pathological  changes  of  a 
character  to  disable  an  animal,  and  in  many  instances  to  cause  serious 
blemishes  which  can  not  but  depreciate  his  value.  These  growths, 
which  are  known  as  hygromata,  may  result  from  external  violence,  as 
blows  or  bruises,  and  may  appear  in  the  form  of  small,  soft  tumors, 
painless  and  not  inflammatory  in  character,  but,  by  a  repetition  of  the 
cause  or  renewal  of  violence,  likely  to  acquire  a  new  severity.  Severe 
inflammation  may  supervene,  with  suppuration,  which  filling  up  the 
cavity,  the  walls  will  become  thickened  and  hard,  and  the  formation  of 
a  tumor  follow,  which,  resisting  all  forms  of  treatment,  can  only  be  made 
to  disappear  by  subjecting  them  to  the  edge  of  the  bistoury. 


342 

The  elbovr,  tbo  kuee,  anrl  the  hock  are  the  principal  parts  of  the  body 
where  these  lesions  are  ordinarily  found,  and  on  account  of  their  pecu- 
liar shape  and  the  position  they  occupy  they  have  received  the  de- 
nomination of  being  capped.  "We  shall  consider  them  in  their  jieculiar 
aspect. 

Capped  elbow. — The  shoe  boil,  commonly  so  called,  is  almost  too  well 
known  to  require  a  definition  from  us.  An  enlargement  at  the  point  of 
the  elbow  is  the  lesion,  so  called,  which  is  simply  the  result  of  pressure 
of  the  heels  of  the  shoe  upon  that  part.  There  are,  of  course,  some 
conditions  necessary  for  the  development  of  the  shoe  boil,  and  for  the 
pressure  of  the  heels  upon  the  spot  where  it  occurs.  Excessive  length 
in  the  shoe  and  a  formation  of  the  animal  with  a  cannon  bone  so  long 
that  the  flexure  of  the  knee  brings  the  heel  in  contact  with  the  elbow, 
may  be  termed  the  predisposing  causes,  but  to  these  must  be  added 
another  necessary- condition  in  the  peculiar  mode  of  resting  adopted  by 
the  affected  animal,  as  exhibited  in  his  manner  of  lying  down,  which  is 
that  of  the  cow,  by  resting  upon  the  breastbone  with  the  legs  flexed 
under  the  body — a  most  eligible  and  natural  jiosture  for  eff"ecting  the 
result  which  follows. 

The  heel  just  pressing  against  the  elbow,  the  hard  iron  of  the  shoe  in 
contact  with  the  soft  skin,  with  the  weight  of  the  body  added,  forms 
a  combination  of  causes  which  can  not  well  fail  to  i^roduce  the  bruise 
which  in  fact  does  follow,  and  which  soon  afterwards  becomes  charac- 
terized by  a  variety  of  sj'mptoms — for  a  capped  elbow  does  not  always 
exhibit  the  same  aspect.  In  one  case,  there  is  simply  a  bruise,  with 
symptoms  of  inflammation  more  or  less  marked  or  severe.  The  parts 
will  be  swollen,  sometimes  enormously,  with  heat  and  pain,  the  swell- 
ing not  only  covering  the  point  of  the  elbow,  but  sometimes  reaching 
the  axilla,  and  assuming  such  proportions  that  there  is  great  difiSculty 
in  using  the  leg,  the  animal  showing  signs  of  lameness  even  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  circumflex  step,  as  in  shoulder  lameness.  This  cedematous 
condition,  however,  does  not  remain  stationary.  It  may  by  degrees 
subside  or  perhaps  disappear.  In  the  first  instance  it  will  become  more 
distinctly  defined,  with  better  marked  boundaries,  until  it  is  reduced  to 
a  soft,  round,  fluctuating  tumor,  with  or  without  heat  or  pain.  There  is 
then  either  a  bloody  or  serous  tumor  or  a  purulent  collection,  and  fol- 
lowing the  puncture  of  its  walls  with  the  knife  there  will  be  an  escape 
of  blood,  of  serum,  or  of  pus,  as  the  case  may  be,  in  variable  quantities. 
In^ither  case,  but  principally  in  that  of  the  cystic  form,  the  tumor  will 
be  found  to  be  subdivided  by  septums  or  bands  running  in  various 
directions. 

Various  changes  will  follow  the  opening  of  the  tumor  aud  the  escapo 
of  its  contents.  In  a  majority  of  cases,  the  process  of  cicatrization  will 
take  place,  and  the  cavity  fill  up  by  granulation,  the  discharge,  at  first 
abundant,  gradually  diminishing  and  the  wound  closing,  usually  with- 
out leaving  any  mark.    At  times,  however,  and  especially  if  the  disease 


343 

has  several  times  repeated  its  course,  there  may  remain  a  pendulous 
sac,  partly  obliterated,  which  a  sufficient  amount  of  excitement  or  irri- 
tation may  soon  restore  to  its  i^revious  dimensions  and  condition. 

In  other  cases  an  entirely  different  process  takes  place.  The  walls  of 
the  cavity,  cyst,  or  abscess  become  ulcerated  and  thickened,  the  granu- 
lations of  the  sac  become  fibrous  in  their  structure  and  fill  up  the  cav- 
ity, and  it  assumes  the  character  of  a  hard  tumor  on  the  back  of  the 
elbow,  sometimes  partly  and  sometimes  entirely  covered  by  the  skin. 
It  is  fibrous  in  its  nature,  painless  to  the  touch,  well  defined  in  its  con- 
tour, and  may  vary  in  size  from  that  of  a  small  lady  apple  to  that  of  a 
child's  head. 

This  last  form  of  capped  elbow  is  the  most  serious  of  any,  resisting 
all  known  forms  of  mild  treatment,  and  removable  by  the  knife  only. 
The  other  forms,  even  that  with  the  inflammatory  aspect  and  its  large 
oedematus  swelling  which  interferes  with  the  work  of  the  animal,  may 
justify  a  much  milder  prognosis,  and  aside  from  their  liability  to  recur 
may  be  ranked  with  the  comparatively  harmless  affections. 

So  long  as  the  danger  of  recurrence  is  the  iDrincipal  bad  feature 
of  capped  elbow,  the  most  important  cousideration  is  that  of  devis- 
ing a  means  of  its  prevention  by  curing  the  animal  of  his  habit 
of  resting  in  the  cow-like  posture  of  sternal  decubitus.  To  prevent 
the  animal  from  lying  down  is  evidently  the  simplest  method  of 
keeping  the  heels  and  the  elbow  apart.  But  the  impracticability  of  this 
prescription  is  apparent,  since  a  majority  of  animals  are  obliged  to  lie 
down  when  they  sleep,  though  it  is  true  that  a  few  take  their  sleep  on 
their  feet.  The  question  of  shoeing  here  enters  into  the  discussion. 
The  shortening  of  the  inside  branch  of  the  shoe,  which  is  the  one  with 
which  the  pressure  is  made,  may  be  of  advantage,  and  especially  if  the 
truncated  end  of  the  shoe  is  smooth  and  filed  over  to  remove  all  possi- 
bility of  pressure  and  contusion  upon  the  skin.  The  protection  of  the 
skin  of  the  elbow  by  interposing  soft  tissues  between  that  and  the  shoe, 
or  by  bandaging  the  heel  with  bags,  or  covering  it  with  boots,  is  con- 
sidered by  many  the  best  of  the  preventive  methods,  and  the  advantage 
to  be  secured  by  resorting  to  it  can  not  be  overlooked  when  the  number 
of  horses,  which  develop  shoe  boil  whenever  the  use  of  the  boot  is  inter- 
mitted, is  considered.  In  order  to  prevent  the  animal  from  assuming 
the  sternal  decubitus,  many  give  preference  to  the  plan  of  fastening  a 
piece  of  wood  across  the  stall  at  some  distance  from  the  front  wall  or 
manger.  It  is  a  simple  expedient,  primitive  perhaps,  but  nevertheless 
practical  and  followed  by  good  results. 

The  therapeutic  treatment  is  also  important.  The  cedematous 
swelling,  indicative  by  its  external  appearance  and  the  existing  inflam- 
mation of  the  diseased  condition,  requires  the  use,  without  delay,  of 
all  the  means  attainable  for  its  abatement,  with  the  accompanying  pain 
and  the  heat,  with  whatever  may  tend  to  accelerate  the  absorption  of 
the  exudate.  Warm  fomentations,  repeated  several  times  daily,  are  then 


344 

indicated,  tlic  degree  of  warmth  being  as  liigli  as  can  be  comfortably 
borne.  Tliey  are  of  easy  application,  and  often  yield  important  relief  in 
a  few  honrs.  In  some  cases,  however,  astringents  are  used  in  prefer- 
ence, in  the  form  of  poultices  or  pastes,  which  are  made  to  cover  the 
entire  swelling  and  allowed  to  remain,  drying  after  a  short  time,  it  is 
true,  and  perhaps  falling  off,  but  easily  renewed  and  reapplied.  We 
have  often  recommended  for  these  cases  (and  we  renew  our  indorse- 
ment) a  putty  made  of  common  chalk,  i)owdered,  and  vinegar  (acetate 
of  lime — an  excellent  astringent),  and  covering  the  whole  swelling  with 
a  thick  coating  of  soft  clay,  made  into  a  softish  mass  with  water.  It 
has  proved  very  beneficial  in  our  experience. 

These  simple  remedies  are  often  all  that  is  required.  Under  their  use 
the  swelling  passes  off  by  degrees  and  after  a  short  interval  the  animal  is 
remanded  to  his  work  again.  But  not  uncommonly,  instead  of  this  a 
tumor  or  lump  develops  itself,  puffy,  not  painful,  and  perhaps  giving  a 
sensation  of  crepitation  when  pressure  is  made  on  it.  It  is  soft  and 
evidently  contains  a  liquid,  and  when  freely  opened,  with  a  good-sized 
incision,  discharges  a  certain  amount  of  blood,  jiartly  liquid  and  partly 
coagulated,  and  perhaps  a  little  hemorrhage  will  follow.  The  cavity 
should  then  be  well  washed  out  and  a  tent  of  oakum  introduced  leav- 
ing a  small  portion  protruding  through  the  cut  to  prevent  it  from  clos- 
ing prematurely.  It  may  be  taken  off  the  next  day,  and  a  daily  cleans- 
ing will  then  be  all  that  is  necessary.  In  another  case  the  tumor  be- 
comes very  soft  in  its  whole  extent,  with  evident  fluctuation  and  a  well- 
defined  form.  The  discharge  of  the  fluid  is  then  indicated,  and  a  free 
incision  will  be  followed  by  the  escape  of  a  quantity  of  thin,  yellowish 
liquid  from  a  single  sac.  The  irritation  of  the  lining  membrane  with  the 
finger  nails,  and  the  introduction  of  a  tent  of  oakum,  as  before,  but  which 
should  be  changed  every  two  or  three  days,  during  which  time  the  parts 
should  be  kept  free  from  suppuration,  will  inaugurate  a  siieedy  change 
and  recovery  will  soon  follow.  But  if  the  cavity  is  found  to  be  subdi- 
vided in  its  interior  by  numerous  bands,  and  the  cyst  proves  to  bemul- 
tilocular,  the  partitioning  sacules  should  be  torn  out  with  the  fingers, 
and  the  cavity  then  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  single  or  unilocu- 
lar sac.  Another  condition  is  that  when  the  tumor  is  warm  and  has 
been  painful,  and  lias  been  soft  and  fluctuating  indistinctly,  or  onl^^  at 
a  given  point,  the  evidence  is  of  an  abscess  again  indicating  the  use  of 
the  knife  for  a  free  incision  for  the  exit  of  the  contents,  the  general 
and  first  indication  in  all  suppurative  collections. 

But  cases  occur  when  all  the  treatment  that  has  been  detailed  has 
failed  to  effect  a  full  recovery,  and,  instead  of  closing  properly,  the  cav- 
ity has  become  the  seat  of  granulations  other  than  those  of  a  healthful 
and  benign  character,  having  assumed  a  new  and  peculiar  form,  and 
appearing  in  that  of  a  fibrous  tumor,  quite  apt,  if  not  evicted,  to  con- 
stitute a  mere  eyesore,  profitable  and  pleasing  to  no  one.  A  change  of 
treatment  is  of  course  then  in  order.     The  inflammation,  having  a  dis- 


345 

position  to  become  chronic,  will  require  stimulating  treatment  in  order 
to  counteract  that  tendency  by  the  quickened  activity  of  the  process  of 
absorption,  and  we  must  again  draw  upon  the  resources  of  experience 
in  the  form  of  the  blisters,  the  fomentations,  the  iodine  and  the  mercu- 
rial helps  as  heretofore  mentioned.     Good  results  may  always  be  insured 
from  their  judicious  and  timely  administration   while  combatting  the 
aberrations  of  nature,  but  little,  from  them  or  from  any  of  the  allies  of 
the  curative  art,  by  their  unintelligent  and  misdirected  employment. 
In  applying  the  powerful  mineral  inunctions  much  patience  and  wisdom 
are  demanded.     It  should  be  done  by  carefully  and  perseveringly  rub- 
bing in  small  quantities  daily  ;  it  should  be  done  softly  and  gently,  not 
with  force  of  arms,  nor  with  the  expectation  of  producing  an  astonish- 
ing effect  by  heavy  dosing  and  main  strength  in  a  few  hours;  it  should 
be  after  the  manner  of  a  siege  rather  than  that  of  a  charge.    The  ob- 
ject must  be  to  induce  the  drugs  to  permeate  the  afi'ected  part  until  the 
entire  mass  is  penetrated.     Of  course  cases  will  be  encountered  which 
resist  every  form  of  treatment  but  the  last  of  all  (in  dealing  with  ex- 
ternal and  excessive  growths).     The  tumor  remains  as  a  fixed  fact ; 
it  continues  to  grow;  it  is  large  and  pendulous  at  the  elbow;  its  weight 
is  estimated  in  pounds;  it  is  not  an  eyesore  merely,  but  an  uncomfort- 
able, burdensome  mass,  excoriating  all  the  surrounding  parts  and  being 
itself  excoriated  in  turn  ;  mild  treatment  has  failed  and  is  no  longer  to 
be  relied  on.     There  is  no  longer  an  alternative  between  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  patient  and  the  amputation  of  the  tumor.     But  there  is  a 
choice  of  modes  and  instrumentalities,  a  question  of  preference  between 
the  ligature,  the  electric  cautery,  and  the  bistoury.     Each  has  its  advo- 
cates among  practitioners.     In  a  case  like  the  present,  one  of  the  prac- 
tical embarrassments  arises  in  connection  with  the  application  and  re- 
tention of  bandages  and  other  dressings  after  the  amputation  has  been 
performed.     It  is  a  somewhat  difficult  problem,  owing  to  the  conforma- 
tion and  proportions  of  the  body  of  the  patient,  and  involves  the  exer- 
cise of  a  considerable  amount  of  practical  ingenuity  to  adjust  and  retain 
the  appliances  necessary  to  insure  a  good  final  result  in  obtaining  a 
proper  cicatrix. 

In  our  long  description  of  the  treatment  of  the  varieties  of  capped 
elbow  we  have  thus  far  omitted  any  mention  of  one  method  which  has 
to  some  extent  received  the  sanction  of  experience,  and  which  is  prac- 
ticed and  commended  by  not  a  few.  We  refer  to  the  use  of  setons,  in- 
troduced through  and  through  the  tumor.  We  mention  it  to  say  that 
our  experience  is  adverse  to  this  mode.  We  are  led  to  this  opinion  not 
only  by  our  observation  of  many  failures,  but  from  the  fact  that  in  many 
cases  the  use  of  the  seton  has  been  followed  by  the  formation  of  large 
fibrous  tumors,  which  in  our  opinion  have  resulted  from  it. 

Capped  Jcncc. — The  passage  of  the  tendons  of  the  extensor  muscle  of 
the  cannon,  as  it  glides  in  front  of  the  knee  joint,  is  assisted  by  one 
of  the  little  bursas  we  have  before  mentioned,  and  when  this  becomes 


346 

the  seat  of  a  droi^sical  collection  a  hygroma  is  formed  and  the  knee  is 
"capped."  Though  somewhat  analogous  in  its  history  to  the  capped 
elbow,  there  are  points  of  difference  between  them.  Their  development 
may  prove  a  source  of  great  annoyance  from  the  fact  of  the  blemish 
which  they  constitute. 

The  capped  knee  presents  itself  under  various  conditions.  It  is 
sometimes  the  result  of  a  cause  nearly  unique,  as  when  it  follows  a 
bruise  or  contusion,  often  repeated,  inilicted  upon  himself  by  a  horse 
addicted  to  the  habit  of  pawiug  while  in  the  stable  and  striking  the 
front  of  his  stall  with  his  knees.  Another  class  of  patients  is  formed 
of  those  weak-kneed  animals  which  are  subject  to  falling  and  bruising 
the  front  of  the  joint  against  the  ground,  the  results  not  being  always 
of  the  same  character. 

The  lesion  may  be  a  simple  bruise,  or  it  may  be  a  severe  contusion 
with  swelling,  cedematous,  hot,  painful,  and  interfering  with  locomotion, 
the  joint  becoming  stiff  and  sometimes  so  rigid  that  the  animal  is  unable 
to  Hex  it,  and  still,  nnder  simple  treatment,  the  trouble  may  subside 
almost  by  spontaneous  action. 

Or,  again,  instead  of  altogether  passing  off,  the  cedema  may  diminish 
in  extent,  becoming  more  defined  in  form  and  remain  as  a  tumor  more 
or  less  developed  on  the  front  part  of  the  knee.  Eesulting  from  the 
crushing  of  small  blood  vessels,  this  is  essentially  a  bloody  tumor.  It 
is  somewhat  soft,  not  painful,  surrounded  by  a  little  swelling,  round, 
more  or  less  fluctuatiug,  and  after  a  few  days  becomes  crepitant  under 
the  pressure  of  the  hand. 

But  instead  of  possessing  all  the  characteristics  of  a  bloody  tumor  it 
may  also  assume  those  of  a  serous  growth,  as  often  occurs  when  the  vio- 
lence (the  bruise),  though  perhaps  slight,  has  been  frequently  repeated. 
In  that  case  the  tumor  becomes  better  defined,  generally  painless,  with- 
out any  surrounding  swelling,  is  much  softer,  is  iluctuating,  and  more 
or  less  pendulous. 

In  other  cases,  however,  this  serous  tumor  becomes  the  seat  of  an 
acute  inflammation,  perhaps  from  repetition  of  the  original  violence  ;  or 
it  may  set  in  as  the  immediate  result  of  the  bruise,  and  a  phlegmonous 
inflammation  may  thus  be  established.  The  tumor  is  now  surrounded 
with  oedema,  more  or  less  diffused,  and  becomes  hot  and  painful.  The 
flexion  of  the  knee  can  no  longer  take  place ;  walking  is  much  inter- 
fered with— a  large  acute  abscess  has  been  formed,  and  it  is  this  that 
constitutes  the  capped  Imee. 

Whatever  may  be  the  nature  of  the  tumors,  whether  shown  when 
opened  to  be  bloody,  cystic,  or  purulent,  or  when  they  ulcerate  as  they 
sometimes  do,  though  the  cavity  of  the  abscess  may  fill  up  in  a  short 
time,  the  probability  is  that  there  will  always  remain  in  front  of  the 
knee  a  plastic  deposit,  developed  in  varying  degrees,  which  will  resist 
all  treatment  and  continue  unabsorbed  for  life. 

Though  simi)le  bruises  of  the  knee  without  extensive  lesions  are  usu- 


347 

ally  of  trifling  account,  a  different  prognosis  must  be  pronounced  when 
the  lesion  assumes  more  important  dimensions;  and  though  a  capped 
knee  may  be  comparatively  an  affair  of  little  importance  we  have  seen 
cases  where  not  only  extensive  blemishes  were  left  to  disfigure  the  pa- 
tient, but  where  the  animals  had  become  worthless  in  consequence  of 
the  extension  of  the  diseased  process  to  the  various  elements  of  struct- 
ure composing  the  joint,  and  giving  rise  to  the  most  complicated  cases 
of  carpitis. 

We  have  seen  that  usually  the  first  symptom  which  is  observed  is  the 
cedematous  swelling  on  the  fore  part  of  the  knee,  the  first  lesion,  in 
fact,  and  therefore  requiring  immediate  attention.  The  prevention  of 
the  inflammation,  and  consequently  of  the  abscess,  is  the  prime  object 
in  view,  and  it  may  be  realized  by  the  use  of  warm  water  fomentations 
or  compresses  applied  over  the  swelling,  which  may  be  used  either  in 
a  simple  form  or  combined  with  astringents,  such  as  Goulard's  extract, 
alum,  or  sulphate  of  zinc.  The  application  of  warm  jioultices  of  oil 
meal  or  ground  flaxseed,  enveloping  the  whole  joint  and  kept  in  place 
by  bandages,  is  often  followed  by  absorption  of  the  swelling,  or,  if  the 
abscess  is  in  process  of  formation,  by  the  active  secretion  of  pus. 
If  the  formation  of  a  tumor  has  followed  this  treatment,  or  if  it  has  de- 
veloped from  its  inception,  it  becomes  an  immediate  necessity  to  empty 
it,  and  the  mode  of  accomplishing  this  will  vary  with  different  cases.  In 
one  it  should  be  done  by  a  careful  incision,  which  will  allow  the  escape  of 
the  blood  of  the  serum,  or  of  the  pus  which  is  inclosed  in  the  sac;  in 
another  it  may  be  by  means  of  a  seton,  in  order  that  the  discharge  may 
be  maintained  and  allowed  to  escape;  and  for  another  the  more  cau- 
tious mode  may  be  adox)ted  of  emptying  the  cavity  by  means  of  punc- 
tures with  small  trochars  or  aspirators.  The  danger  attending  this  last 
method  arises  from  the  possible  sloughing  of  large  portions  of  the  skin, 
while  that  attending  the  first  is  the  hazard  of  the  possibility  of  the  ex- 
tension of  the  inflammation  to  the  capsular  ligament  of  the  knee,  with 
the  risk  of  an  open  joint  in  prospect. 

As  we  have  remarked,  the  cavity,  after  being  emptied,  may  rapidly 
close  and  leave  in  a  short  time  but  slight  traces  of  its  previous  exist- 
ence. But  in  many,  if  not  in  a  majority,  of  cases  there  will  remain 
after  the  cicatrization  is  complete  a  thickening  or  organized  exudation, 
at  one  time  round  and  well  defined,  at  another  spreading  by  a  diffused 
infiltration,  to  which  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  immediate  attention, 
from  the  fact  of  its  tendency  to  form  into  an  organized  and  permanent 
body.  To  stimulate  inflammation  in  this  diseased  structure  blisters  are 
recommended,  but  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  the  process  of 
absorption.  If  this  treatment  should  fail,  the  use  of  alteratives  prosier 
is  recommended,  mercury  and  its  compounds  and  iodine  preparations 
probably  receiving  a  majority  of  suffrages.  Plain  mercurial  or  plain 
iodine  ointment,  or  both  in  combination  as  iodide  of  mercury,  are  com- 
monly used,  and  may  either  be  applied  moderately  and  by  gentle  de- 


348 

grees,  as  we  bave  snggestetl,  or  more  freely  aud  vigorously  witli  a  view 
to  more  immediate  effects,  which,  however,  will  also  be  more  sujjerficial. 
The  use  of  the  firing  iron  applied  deeply  with  fine  points  is  then  to  bo 
strongly  recommended,  to  be  followed  by  blisters  and  various  liniments. 
This  course  may  generally  be  relied  on  as  quite  sure  to  be  followed  by 
satisfactory  results. 

While  the  treatment  is  in  progress  it  will  of  course  be  necessary  to 
secure  the  animal  in  such  a  manner  that  a  recurrence  of  the  injury  will 
be  impossible  from  similar  causes  to  those  which  were  previously 
responsible. 

Capped  hoclc. — A  bad  habit  prevails  among  some  horses  of  rubbing 
or  striking  the  partitions  of  their  stalls  with  their  hocks,  with  the  re- 
sult of  an  injury  which  shows  itself  on  the  upper  point  of  that  bone, 
the  summit  of  the  os  calcis.  From  its  analogy  to  the  condition  of 
capped  elbow  the  designation  of  capped  hock  has  been  applied  to 
this  condition. 

A  capped  hock  is  therefore  but  the  development  of  a  bruise  at  the 
point  of  the  hock,  which  if  many  times  repeated  may  excite  an  inflam- 
matory iirocess,  with  all  its  usual  external  symi)tomsof  swelling,  heat, 
soreness,  and  the  rest  of  the  uow  familiar  phenomena.  The  swelling  is 
at  first  diffused,  extending  more  or  lesson  the  exterior  part  of  the  hock, 
and  in  a  few  instances  running  up  along  the  tendons  and  muscles  of 
the  back  of  the  shank.  Soon,  however,  unless  the  irritating  causes 
are  continued  and  repeated,  the  oedema  diminishes,  and  becoming  more 
defined  in  its  external  outlines,  leaves  the  hock  capped  with  a  hygroma. 
The  hygroma,  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  trouble,  contains  a  bloody 
serosity  which  soon  becomes  strictly  serum,  but  through  the  influence 
of  an  acute  inflammatory  action  is  liable  to  undergo  a  metamorphosis 
which  converts  it  into  the  product  of  the  suppurative  process. 

The  external  appearance  ought  to  be  sufficient  to  determine  the  diag- 
nosis, but  there  are  a  few  signs  which  may  contribute  toward  a  nicer 
identification  of  the  lesion.  The  capped  hock,  whether  under  the  ap- 
pearance of  an  acute  cedematous  swelling,  or  as  a  sero-bloody  collection, 
or  as  a  simple  serous  cyst,  does  not  give  rise  to  any  remarkable  local 
manifestation  other  than  such  as  have  already  passed  under  our  survey 
in  considering  similar  cases,  nor  will  it  be  likely  to  interfere  with  the 
functions  which  belong  to  the  member  in  question,  unless  it  assumes 
very  large  dimensions  and  on  each  side  of  the  tendons,  as  well  as  on  the 
summit  of  the  bone.  But  if  the  inflammation  is  quite  high,  if  suppura- 
tion is  developing,  if  there  is  a  true  abscess,  or — and  this  is  a  common 
complication— especially  when  the  kicking  or  rubbing  of  the  animal  is 
frequently  recurring,  then,  besides  the  local  trouble  of  the  cyst  or  of 
the  abscess,  the  bones  become  diseased  and  the  periosteum  inflamed ; 
perhaps  the  superior  ends  of  the  bone  and  its  fibrocartilage  become 
affected,  and  a  simple  lesion  or  bruise,  whatever  it  may  have  been, 
becomes  complicated  with  periostitis  and  ostitis,,  aud  is  naturally  accom- 


349 

panied  with  lameness,  developed  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  which  in 
some  cases  may  be  permanent  and  in  others  increased  by  work.  But 
these  complications  are  not  common  or  frequent. 

Capped  hocks  are  in  many  cases  amenable  to  treatment,  and  yet  they 
often  become  the  opprobrium  of  the  practitioner  by  remaining,  as  they 
frequently  do,  an  eyesore  on  the  top  of  the  hock  ;  not  interfering,  it  is 
true,  with  the  work  of  the  horse,  but  fixing  upon  him  the  stigma  of 
what,  in  human  estimation,  and  especially  in  that  of  the  tribe  of  "prac- 
tical politicians,"  is  a  most  unreliable  and  objectionable  reputation,  to- 
wit,  that  of  being  a  habitual  "kicker,"  and,  worse  than  all,  one  that 
kicks  where  he  receives  his  provender. 

The  maxim  that  "an  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure" 
fits  the  present  case  very  neatly.  A  horse  whose  hocks  have  a  some- 
what puffy  look  and  whose  skin  on  the  front  of  the  hock  is  loose  and 
flabby,  justly  subjects  himself  to  a  suspicion  of  his  addictedness  to  this 
bad  habit.  But  ho  may  easily  be  either  convicted  or  exonerated — a  lit- 
tle watching  will  soon  establish  the  truth.  If,  then,  the  verdict  is  one 
of  conviction,  precautions  should  be  immediately  adopted  against  a  con- 
tinuance of  the  evil.  The  padding  of  the  sides  of  the  stall  with  straw 
mats  or  mattresses  and  covering  the  posts  with  similar  material  in  such 
a  manner  that  no  hard  surface  shall  be  exposed  with  which  to  come  in 
contact,  will  reduce  the  evil  to  its  minimum.  He  may  jar  his  frame 
when  he  kicks,  but  even  then  there  will  be  less  force  in  the  concus- 
sion than  if  it  impinged  upon  the  solid  i)lank,  and  cuts  and  abrasions 
can  not  be  inflicted  by  a  properly  made  cushion.  Hobbles  are  also 
rightly  recommended  with  a  view  to  the  required  restraint  of  motion, 
so  applied  as  to  secure  the  leg  with  which  the  kicking  is  performed,  or 
even  both  hind  legs,  yet  in  such  a  manner  as  shall  not  interfere  with 
the  movements  of  lying  down  and  rising  again  and  yet  allowing  that 
of  kicking  backwards.  Boots  similar  in  i^attern  to  those  which  are 
used  for  the  prevention  of  shoe  boil  are  also  prescribed.  These  are 
placed  above  the  hock  and  retained  by  straps  tightly  fastened.  But 
we  apprehend  that  the  difficulty  of  retaining  them  in  the  proper 
place  without  the  danger  of  chafing  from  the  tightness  of  the  straps 
might  form  an  objection  to  their  use.  Notwithstanding  all  precautious, 
Locks  will  be  capped  in  the  future  as  in  the  past,  and  the  study  of  their 
treatment  will  always  be  in  order. 

The  mode  of  dealing  with  them  will  of  course  be  greatly  influenced 
by  the  condition  of  the  parts.  When  the  inflammation  is  excessive  and 
the  swelling  large,  hot,  and  painful  to  the  touch,  the  application  of 
warm  water  will  be  very  beneficial.  The  leg  should  be  well  fomented 
several  times  a  day,  for  from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes  each  time,  a 
strong  decoction  of  marsh-mallow  leaves  being  added  to  the  water,  and 
after  each  ai)plication  swathed  with  flannel  bandages  soaked  in  the 
same  warm  mixture.    A  few  days  of  this  treatment  will  usually  effect 


350 

a  resolution  of  the  inflammation,  if  not  complete,  at  least  sufficiently  so 
to  disclose  the  correct  outlines  of  the  hygroma  and  exhibit  its  pecu- 
liar  and  specific  symptoms.  The  expediency  of  its  removal  and  the 
method  of  accomplishing  it  are  then  to  be  considered,  uith  the  question 
of  opening  it  to  give  exit  to  its  contents.  If  the  fluid  is  of  a  purulent 
character  the  indication  is  in  favor  of  its  immediate  discharge — no  time 
should  be  lost,  and  it  should  be  by  means  of  a  small  opening  made  with 
a  narrow  bistoury.  If,  however,  the  fluid  is  a  serosity,  we  prefer  to  re- 
move it  by  punctures  with  a  very  small  trochar.  Our  reason  for  special 
caution  in  these  cases  is  our  fear  of  the  possibility  of  the  existence  of 
diseased  conditions  of  a  severe  character  in  the  T)seudo  joint.  For  the 
same  reason  we  prefer  the  treatment  of  those  growths  by  external  ap- 
l)lications.  In  the  first  stages  of  the  disease  a  severe  and  stiff  blister 
entirely  covering  the  cyst,  jjerhaps  not  yet  completely  formed,  when 
the  inflammation  has  subsided  will  be  of  great  benefit  by  its  stimulat- 
ing effect,  the  absorption  it  may  excite,  and  the  i3ressure  which  when 
dry  it  will  maintain  u])ou  the  tumor.  If,  however,  the  thickening  of  the 
growth  fails  to  diminish  it  should  be  treated  with  some  of  the  iodine 
preparations  in  the  form  of  ointments,  pure  or  in  combination  with  po- 
tassa,  mercury,  etc.,  of  various  streugths  and  in  various  proportions. 
Our  opinion  of  setons  is  not  favorable,  but  the  actual  canter^',  by  deep 
and  fine  firing,  in  points— needle  cauterization — we  believe  to  be  the 
best  mode  of  treatment,  and  especially  when  applied  early. 

Whatever  treatment  may  be  adopted  for  capped  hock,  patience  must 
be  one  of  the  ingredients.  In  these  parts  absori^tion  is  slow  and  the 
skin  is  very  thick,  and  its  return  to  a  soft,  j)liable,  natural  condition, 
if  effected  at  all,  will  only  take  place  after  weeks  added  to  other  weeks 
of  medical  treatment  and  patient  waiting. 

Interfering — Speedy  cuts. — These  designations  belong  to  certain  special 
injuries  of  the  extremities,  produced  by  similar  causes,  giving  rise  to 
kindred  pathological  lesions  with  allied  phenomena,  requiring  about 
the  same  treatment  and  often  followed  by  the  same  results,  to- wit,  a 
blemish  which  may  not  only  subject  the  animal  to  a  suspicion  of  un- 
soundness, but  in  some  special  circnmstances  interfere  with  his  ability 
to  labor.  It  is  known  as  "  interfering  "  when  the  location  of  the  trouble 
is  the  inside  of  the  fetlock  of  either  the  fore  or  hind  leg.  It  is 
called  "speedy  cut"  when  it  occurs  on  the  inside  of  the  fore  leg,  a  little 
below  the  knee,  at  the  point  of  contact  of  that  joint  with  the  cannon. 

It  is  always  the  result  of  a  blow,  self-inflicted,  of  varying  severity, 
and  giving  rise  to  various  lesions.  At  times  the  injury  is  too  slight  to 
be  seriousl3'^  noticed,  the  hair  being  scarcely  cut  and  the  skin  unmarked. 
At  other  times  the  skin  will  be  cut  through,  partly  or  wholly,  and  it 
may  for  the  time  cause  a  sufiicient  amount  of  pain  to  check  the  motion 
of  the  animal  and  induce  him  to  suspend  his  labor  through  his  inability 
to  use  the  wounded  limb,  traveling  meanwhile  for  a  short  space  on  three 
legs  only.     Sometimes  a  single  blow  will  sufiice,  or  again  there  will  be 


351 

a  repetition  of  lighter  strokes.  In  the  latter  case  the  parts  ivill  become 
much  swollen,  hot  and  so  painful  to  the  touch  that  the  motion  of  the 
knee  or  the  fetlock  will  be  sufficiently  disturbed  to  cause  lameness  of  a 
degree  of  severity  corresponding  wi!  h  that  of  the  lesion.  Following  the 
subsidence  of  this  diffused  and  (Edematous  swelling  is  sometimes  the 
formation  of  a  tumor,  either  at  the  knee  or  the  fetlock.  This  may  be 
soft  at  first  or  become  so  by  degrees,  with  fluctuation,  its  contents  being 
at  first  extravasated  blood,  and  later  a  serosity  j  or,  if  there  has  been  a 
sufficient  degree  of  inflammation,  it  may  become  suppurative.  The  re- 
sult of  the  fault  of  interfering  may  thus  be  exhibited,  whether  at  the 
knee  or  at  the  fetlock,  as  characterized  by  all  the  pathological  condi- 
tions which  have  appeared  as  accompaniments  of  capi^ed  knee  or  capped 
hock.  If,  in  consequence  of  the  force  of  the  blow  or  blows,  the  inflam- 
mation has  been  unusually  severe,  a  mortification  of  the  skin  may  be- 
come one  of  the  consequences,  a  slough  taking  place,  succeeded  by  a 
cutaneous  ulcer  on  the  inside  of  the  fetlock  or  where  the  greater  num- 
ber of  the  original  wounds  are  inflicted.  If  the  interfering  has  been 
often  repeated  it  may  be  followed  by  another  condition,  which  has  been 
considered  in  our  remarks  upon  other  affections.  It  is  a  plastic  exuda- 
tion or  thickening  of  the  parts,  which  are  commonly  said  to  ha.ve  be- 
come "  callous,"  and  the  efiect  of  it  is  to  destroy  the  regularity  of  the 
outlines  of  the  joint  to  an  extent  which  constitutes  a  serious  blemish, 
which  will  be  permanent,  and  according  to  the  degree  of  the  aberration 
from  the  natural  and  symmetrical  lines  will  inevitably  depreciate  the 
commercial  value  of  the  animal. 

An  animal  in  interfering  may  thus  exhibit  a  range  of  symptoms 
whicb,  from  the  simplest  form  of  a  mere  ''touching,"  may  successively 
assume  the  serious  characters  of  an  ugly  cicatrix,  a  hard,  plastic 
swelling,  or  perhaps,  as  witnessed  at  the  knee,  of  periostitis  with  its 
sequela3. 

If  a  single  and  constantly  recurring  cause — a  blow — be  the  starting 
point  in  interfering,  we  may  now  consider  the  subject  of  the  predispo- 
sition which  brings  such  serious  results  upon  the  suffering  animal,  and 
the  conditions  which  lead  to  and  accompany  it.  These  are  numerous, 
but  the  first  in  frequency  and  importance  is  peculiarity  of  conforma- 
tion in  the  animals  addicted  to  it.  The  first  class  will  include  horses 
whose  chest  is  narrow  and  whose  legs  do  not  stand  straight  and  up- 
right, but  are  crooJied  and  pigeon-toed  in  and  cut.  The  second  class 
includes  those  whose  legs  are  weak,  either  from  youth  or  hard  labor, 
or  from  severe  attacks  of  sickness.  Another  class  is  made  up  of  those 
having  abnormally  developed  feet,  or  which  have  been  badly  shod  with 
unnecessarily  wide  or  heavy  shoes.  Another  class  consists  of  those 
that  are  affected  with  swollen  fetlocks  or  chronic  cedematous  swellinsr 
of  the  leg.  Another  is  formed  of  animals  with  a  peculiar  action,  as  those 
whose  knee  action  is  very  high,  and  it  is  these  that  furnish  most  of  the 
cases  of  speedy  cut. 


352 

The  prognosis  of  interfering  is  never  a  very  serions  one.  However 
violent  tlie  blow  may  bo  it  is  rarely  that  subsequent  complications  of  a 
troublesome  nature  occur.  The  principal  evil  attending  it  is  a  liability 
to  be  followed  by  a  tliiclieucd  or  callous  deposit  which  is  not  only  an 
eyesore  and  a  blemish,  but  constitutes  a  new  and  increased  predisposi- 
tion. The  remark  that "  an  animal  which  has  interfered  once  is  always 
liable  to  interfere,"  is  often  confirmed  and  sanctioned  by  a  recurrence 
of  the  trouble. 

Another  point  in  which  there  is  a  resemblance  between  this  lesion 
and  others  which  we  have  considered  is  in  its  responsiveness  to  the  same 
treatment  with  them.  Indeed,  the  prescription  of  warm  fomentations, 
soothing  applications,  and  astringent  and  resolvent  mixtures,  in  a  ma- 
jority of  cases,  is  the  first  that  occurs  all  through  the  list.  If  the  swell- 
ing assumes  the  character  of  a  serous  collection,  pressure,  cold  water 
and  bandages  will  contribute  to  its  removal.  If  suppuration  seems  to 
be  established,  and  the  swelling  assumes  the  character  of  a  developing 
abscess,  the  hot  poultices  of  flaxseed  or  of  boiled  vegetables  and  the 
embrocations  of  suppurative  or  sedative  ointments,  those  of  basilicon, 
or  propuleum,  impregnated  with  xirejiarations  of  opium  or  belladonna — 
all  these  recommend  themselves  by  their  general  adaptation  and  the 
beneficial  results  which  have  followed  their  administration,  not  less  in 
one  case  than  in  another.  When  an  abscess  has  formed  and  is  fluctu- 
ating, it  should  be  carefully  but  fully  opened  to  evacuate  the  pus.  If 
it  is  a  serous  cyst,  some  care  is  necessary  in  emptying  it,  and  the  pos- 
sibility of  the  extension  of  the  inflammation  to  the  joint  must  be  taken 
into  consideration.  When  the  cavities  have  been  emptied  and  have 
closed  by  filling  up  with  granulations,  or  if,  not  being  opened,  the  con- 
tents have  been  reabsorbed,  and  there  remains  in  either  case  a  plastic 
exudation  and  a  tendency  to  the  callous  organization  that  may  yet  exist, 
blisters  under  their  various  forms,  including  those  of  cantharides,  of 
mercury,  and  of  iodine  arc  then  indicated,  principally  in  the  early  stages, 
as  it  is  then  that  their  effects  will  prove  most  satisfiictory.  The  use  of 
the  actual  cautery,  with  fine  points,  penetrating  deeply  throughout  the 
enlargement,  has  in  our  hands,  when  employed  in  the  very  early  stages 
of  its  formation,  nearly  always  brought  on  a  radical  recovery  with  com- 
plete absorption  of  the  thickening. 

Stringhalt. — The  characteristic  symptom,  if  not  in  fact  the  sum  of 
the  symptomatology  of  this  disease,  is  the  spasmodic  flexion,  more  or 
less  violent,  of  the  hock,  sometimes  to  the  extent  of  striking  the  abdo- 
men with  the  fetlock  of  the  affected  leg,  and  at  others  only  sufficient  to 
lift  it  a  few  inches  from  the  ground,  but  always  with  the  same  sudden, 
uncontrollable  jerk.  The  habit  is  unaffected  by  the  gait  of  the  animal, 
and  whether  trotting,  walking,  or  merely  turning  around,  it  is  all  the 
same.  It  does  not  seem  to  be  influenced  by  the  horse's  age,  young  and 
old  being  alike  affected.  Its  first  manifestations  are  sometimes  very 
slight.     It  has  been  noticed  as  occurring  to  an  animal  when  backing 


353 

out  of  his  stable  and  ceasing  immediately  after.  In  some  animals  it  is 
best  seen  when  the  animal  is  turning  around  on  the  affected  leg,  and  is 
not  noticed  when  he  moves  straight  forward.  That  this  peculiar  action 
interferes  with  facility  of  locomotion  and  detracts  from  a  horse's  claim 
to  soundness  can  not  for  a  moment  be  denied. 

Veterinarians  and  pathologists  are  yet  in  doubt  in  respect  to  the 
cause  of  this  affection,  as  well  as  to  its  essential  nature.  Whether  it 
results  from  disease  of  the  hock,  of  an  ulcerative  character;  whether  it 
springs  from  a  malformation ;  Whether  it  is  purely  a  muscular  or  purely 
a  nervous  lesion,  or  a  compound  of  both,  it  still  continues,  if  an  etiolo- 
gist  is  bound  to  possess  universal  knowledge  within  the  scope  of  his 
special  studies,  to  be  his  opjirobrium  and  his  puzzle. 

Various  experiments  in  the  line  of  treatment  have  been  instituted, 
but  none  have  been  crowned  with  satisfactory  results.  We  iucliue  to 
the  opinion  that  some  undesignated  disease  of  the  hock  is  responsible 
for  it,  and  believe  that  in  the  present  state  of  knowledge  the  best  pre- 
scription that  can  be  devised  is  the  safe  and  economical  one  of  rest,  a 
long  rest  in  a  pasture,  where  unmolested  nature  shall  be  permitted  to 
bring  about  any  necessary  change  that  may  be  appropriate  to  the  case. 
Whatever  other  treatment  it  may  be  considered  wise  to  undertake  must 
be  of  a  widely  different  character,  and  must  be  determined  upon  by 
those  whose  chosen  and  approjiriate  sphere  is  the  domain  of  operative 
surgery. 

UmboUsms. — There  are  certain  forms  of  lameness  which  are  very 
peculiar  in  their  manifestation,  and  which  to  the  non-professional  mind 
must  appear  to  belong  rather  to  the  domain  of  mystery  or  theory  than 
to  be  subjects  of  experimental  and  definite  knowledge.  Yet  they  are 
none  the  less  susceptible  of  demonstration  and  positive  knowledge  than 
many  facts  which,  plain  and  familiar  to  the  general  comprehension  now, 
were  once  ranked  among  things  occult  and  unsearchable.  An  embo- 
lism, considered  as  a  cause  of  lameness,  may  find  a  place  among  these 
understood  mysteries. 

Under  certain  peculiar  conditions  of  inflammation  of  the  blood  ves- 
sels, clots  of  blood  are  sometimes  formed  in  the  arteries  and  find  their 
way  in  the  general  circulation.  At  first,  while  very  small,  or  suffi- 
ciently  so  to  pass  from  one  vessel  to  another,  they  move  from  a  small 
vessel  to  a  larger,  and  from  that  to  one  still  larger,  constantly  increas- 
ing in  size  until  at  some  given  point,  from  their  inability  to  enter  smaller 
vessels,  their  movement  is  finally  arrested.  The  artery  is  thus  effect- 
ually dammed,  and  the  clot  in  a  short  time  cuts  off  completely  the  sup- 
ply of  blood  from  the  parts  beyond.  This  is  the  embolism,  and  it  often 
gives  rise  to  sudden  and  excessive  lameness  of  a  very  i^ainful  character. 

Embolisms  may  form  in  any  of  the  arteries  of  the  body,  and  doubt- 
less have  been  the  cause  of  many  cases  of  lameness  which  could  never 
be  accounted  for.  If  they  exist  in  small  arteries  their  diagnosis  will 
probably  fail  to  be  made  out  with  certainty,  but  when  situated  in  the 
11035 23 


354 

larger  trunks  a  strong  suspicion  of  their  presence  may  be  excited.  In 
some  cases  they  may  even  be  recognized  with  positive  accuracy,  as 
when  the  vessels  which  supply  the  posterior  extremities  are  affected  by 
the  blocking  up  of  the  posterior  aorta  or  its  ramifications. 

The  existence  of  embolisms  of  the  arteries  of  the  hind  leg  may  always 
be  suspected  when  the  following  history  is  known :  The  general  health 
of  the  animal  is  good,  but  symptoms  of  lameness  in  one  of  the  legs  have 
been  developed,  becoming  more  marked  as  he  is  worked,  and  especially 
when  driven  at  a  fast  gait.  But  the  disturbance  is  not  permanent,  and 
the  lameness  disappears  almost  immediately  upon  his  being  permitted 
to  rest.  There  is  an  increase  of  the  difficulty,  however,  and,  though  he 
may  walk  normally,  he  will,  when  made  to  trot,  very  soon  begin  to 
slacken  his  pace  and  to  show  signs  of  the  trouble,  and  if  urged  to  in- 
crease his  speed  will  become  lamer  aud  lamer ;  an  abundant  perspira- 
tion will  break  out;  he  will  refuse  to  go,  aud  if  forced  he  shows  weak- 
ness behind ;  seems  ready  to  fall,  and  perhaps  does  fall.  While  on  his 
feet  the  leg  is  kept  in  constant  motion,  up  and  down,  and  is  kept  from 
the  ground  as  if  the  contact  was  too  painful  to  bear.  If  undisturbed 
this  series  of  symptoms  will  gradually  subside,  sometimes  very  soon, 
and  occasionally  after  a  few  hours  he  will  return  to  an  apparently  per- 
fect condition.  A  return  to  labor  will  lead  to  a  renewal  of  the  same 
incidents. 

A  history  like  this  suggests  a  strong  suspicion  of  embolism  of  an 
artery  of  the  hind  leg,  and  this  suspicion  will  be  confirmed  by  the  ex- 
ternal symptoms  exhibited  by  the  animal.  The  total  absence  of  any  other 
disease  which  might  account  for  the  lameness,  and  a  manifest  diminu- 
tion of  heat  over  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  extremity,  when  compared 
with  the  opposite  side  or  with  any  other  portion  of  the  body;  a  sensa- 
tion of  cold  attendant  on  the  pain,  but  gradually  subsiding  as  the  pain 
subsides,  and  the  circulation,  quickened  by  the  rest,  has  been  reestab- 
lished throughout  the  extremity;  all  these  are  confirmatory  circum- 
stances. Still,  it  is  thus  far  only  a  suspicion,  and  absolute  certainty  is 
yet  wanting.  To  establish  the  truth  of  the  case  the  rectal  taxis  must 
be  resorted  to.  The  hands  then,  well  i^repared  and  carefully  introduced 
into  the  rectum,  must  explore  for  the  truth,  first  feeling  for  the  large 
blood  vessels  which,  dividing  at  the  aorta,  separate  to  supply  the  right 
and  left  legs.  These  must  be  compared  in  respect  to  the  pulsation  and 
other  particulars.  The  artery  which  is  health^'  will  of  course  exhibit 
all  the  proper  conditions  of  that  state.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  vessel 
appears  to  the  feel  hard,  more  or  less  cordj^,  aud  pulseless,  or  giving  a 
sensation  of  fluttering,  as  of  a  small  volume  of  blood  with  a  trickling 
motion  passing  through  a  confined  space,  the  difference  between  the 
sides  will  make  the  case  plain.  The  first  will  be  the  full  flow  of  the  cir- 
culation through  an  unobstructed  channel,  the  other  a  forced  passage 
of  the  fluid  between  the  embolism  and  the  coats  of  the  artery. 


355 

In  sucli  a  case  tbe  prognosis  is  necessarily  a  grave  one.  'So  form  of 
treatment  can  be  advised;  and  tbe  safferiug  of  a  helpless  and  useless 
animal  can  only  be  terminated  by  that  which  ends  all. 

Cases  occur,  however,  where  this  condition  of  the  blood-vessels  exists 
in  a  much  less  degree,  and  the  diseased  condition  is  not  sufticiently  pro- 
nounced for  final  condemnation.  There  may  even  be  a  possibility  of  the 
absorption  of  the  clot,  and  that  an  increase  of  the  circulation  may  be 
sufiticient  to  supply  the  parts  with  blood.  In  such  cases  attempts  may 
be  made  looking  to  the  possibility  of  relief,  and  the  pasture,  field,  or  the 
stable,  and  unmolested  nature  must  be  trusted  for  the  rest. 

Sprains  of  the  loins. — This  is  an  affection  which  suggests  to  the  mind 
the  idea  of  muscular  injury,  and  is  ditficnlt  to  distinguish  from  many 
similar  cases.  If  the  animal  slirinks  from  the  slightest  pressure  or 
pinching  of  the  spine,  in  the  region  of  the  loins,  he  is  by  many  pro- 
nounced to  be  '•  lame  in  the  loins,"  or  "  sprained  in  the  loins,"  or  "  weak 
in  the  kidneys."  This  is  a  grave  error,  as  in  fact  this  simple  and  gentle 
yielding  to  such  a  pressure  is  not  a  pathological  sign,  but  is  normal  and 
significant  of  health.  Yet  there  are  sev^eral  conditions  to  which  the 
definition  of  "  sprains  of  the  loins"  may  apply  which  are  not  strictly 
normal.  The  muscles  of  the  back  and  those  of  the  loins  proper,  as  the 
psoas,  may  have  been  injured,  or  again  there  may  be  trouble  of  a  rheu- 
matic nature,  perhaps  suggestive  of  lumbago.  Diseases  of  the  bones 
of  the  vertebral  column,  or  even  those  of  the  organs  of  circulation,  may 
give  rise  to  an  exhibition  of  similar  symptoms.  These  symptoms  are 
characteristic  of  a  loss  of  rigidity  or  firmness  of  the  vertebral  column, 
both  when  the  animal  is  at  rest  and  in  action.  In  the  former  condition, 
or  when  at  rest,  there  is  an  arched  condition  of  the  back  and  a  con- 
strained posture  in  standing,  with  the  hind  legs  separated.  In  the  latter 
there  is  a  lateral,  balancing  movement  at  the  loins,  principally  noticea- 
ble while  the  animal  is  in  the  act  of  trotting — a  iieculiar  motion,  some- 
times referred  to  as  a  "crick  in  the  back,"  or  what  the  French  call  a 
"tour  de  bateau.''''  If,  while  in  action,  the  animal  is  suddenly  made  to 
halt,  the  act  is  accompanied  with  much  pain,  the  back  suddenly  arching 
or  bending  laterally,  and  perhaps  the  hind  legs  thrown  under  the  bod}'-, 
as  if  unable  to  ijerform  their  functions  in  stopping,  and  sometimes  it  is 
only  accomplished  at  the  cost  of  a  sudden  and  severe  fall.  This  mani- 
festation is  also  exhibited  when  the  animal  is  called  upon  to  back,  when 
a  repetition  of  the  same  symptoms  will  also  occur. 

If  a  slight  pressure  on  the  back  or  the  loins  is  followed  by  a  moderate 
yielding  of  the  animal,  it  is,  as  we  before  remarked,  a  good  sign  of 
health.  With  a  sprain  of  the  loins  pressure  of  any  kind  is  painful,  and 
will  cause  the  animal  to  bend  or  to  crouch  under  it  more  or  less,  accord- 
ing to  the  weight  of  the  pressure.  Heavy  loads,  and  even  heavy  har- 
nessing will  develop  this  tenderness.  In  lying  down  he  seems  to  suffer 
much  discomfort,  and  often  accompanies  the  act  with  groaning,  and 
wiien  compelled  to  rise  does  so  only  with  great  diflQculty  and  seldom 
succeeds  without  repeated  efforts. 


356 

Sprains  of  muscles  proper,  when  receut,  will  always  be  accompanied 
by  this  series  of  symptoms,  and  the  fact  of  tlieir  exhibition,  with  an  ex- 
cessive sensibility  of  the  parts,  and  possibly  with  a  degree  of  swelling, 
will  always  justify  a  diagnosis  of  acute  muscular  lesion ;  and  especially 
so  if  accompanied  by  a  history  of  violent  efforts,  powerful  muscular  I 
strains,  falls,  heavy  loading,  etc.,  connected  with  the  case.  But  if  the  | 
symptoms  have  been  of  slow  development  and  gradual  increase,  it  be- 
comes a  more  difficult  task  to  determine  whether  the  diagnosis  points 
to  i^athological  changes  in  the  structure  of  the  muscles  or  of  the  bones, 
the  nervous  centers  or  the  blood-vessels  of  the  region.  And  yet  it  is 
important  to  decide  as  to  which  particular  structure  is  affected  in  ref- 
erence to  the  question  of  prognosis,  since  the  degree  of  the  gravity  of 
the  lesion  will  depend  largely  upon  whether  the  disabled  condition  of 
the  animal  is  due  to  an  acute  or  a  chronic  disease.  The  prescription 
which  will  necessarily  first  of  all  suggest  itself  for  sprains  of  the  loins 
is  rest.  An  animal  so  affected  should  be  immediately  placed  in  slings 
and  none  of  his  efibrts  to  release  himself  should  be  allowed  to  succeed. 
Hot  compresses,  cold-water  douches,  sweating  applications,  stimulat- 
ing frictions,  strengthening  charges,  blistering  ointments  of  cantharides 
and  the  actual  cautery,  all  have  their  advocates ;  but  in  no  case  can 
the  immobility  obtained  by  the  slings  be  dispensed  with.  In  many 
cases  electricity  has  also  yielded  good  results,  where  the  weakness  of 
the  hind  quarters  was  dependent  on  disease  of  the  nervous  centers. 


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PLATh:    XXVI 


.S'oiinr/  liofL- 


Ciirpil    f^|^a^■|ll 


Si-xt  1  'i "  ■     — 


[aines.dcl 


Haines,  del.Nos.1,2  and  3,  Original.Nn   'i ,  after  Percival , 


'T3  0NT5      SPAVIN 


PJL^^TE    XX\1I. 


1  Brax:e  for  dlsLocatioix.  of  tlie  eJ.bow  rtppLi^t^d  to  the.  fhorse. 
1  a.,  The  same  brace-  seen  aloiie,.  2,  Brax:e  for  cUslocation. 
of  fetlock    2a^,  The  same  brace   applied,  to  the  horse. 


if 


3a 


f 


/ 


3,  Brace  for  sprairted  or  dislocated    sjioiilder-^ 
,3 a.  The  same  brace  applied   to  the   shoiLlder: 

laines,  del.af  terPeucti  ai\d  Toussainl 


DISLOCATION  OF  SHOULDER  AND  KLBOW 

Bourgelat's  apparatus 


PLxVTE  xx^^rl 


/  I' 


K-.. 


< 


■i>- 


laines,  del.  aftei-  Hcvnders. 


THE    SLINTG    IIST    USK 


DISEASES  OF  THE  FETLOCK,  ANKLE,  AND  FOOT. 


BY  A.  A.   HOLCOMBE,    D.  V.   S. 


ANATOMICAL  REVIEW   OF   THE   FOOT. 

In  a  descriptiou  of  the  foot  of  the  horse  it  is  customary  to  include 
only  the  hoof  and  its  contents,  yet,  from  a  zoological  standpoint,  the 
foot  includes  all  the  leg  from  the  knee  and  the  hock  down. 

The  foot  of  the  horse  is  undoubtedly  the  most  important  part  of  the 
animal,  in  so  far  as  veterinary  surgery  is  concerned,  for  the  reason  that 
this  member  is  subject  to  so  many  injuries  and  diseases,  which,  in  part 
or  in  whole,  render  the  patient  unfit  for  the  labor  demanded  of  him.  The 
old  aphorism,  '' no  foot  no  horse,"  is  as  true  to-day  as  when  first  ex- 
pressed; in  fact,  domestication,  coupled  with  the  multiplied  uses  to 
which  the  animal  is  put,  aud  the  constant  reproduction  of  hereditary 
defects  and  tendencies,  have  largely  transformed  the  ancient  "  compan- 
ion of  the  wind"  into  a  very  common  piece  of  machinery  which  is  often 
out  of  repair,  and,  at  best,  is  but  short-lived  in  its  usefulness. 

Since  the  value  of  the  horse  depends  largely,  or  even  entirely  upon 
his  ability  to  labor,  it  is  essential  that  his  organs  of  locomotion  should 
be  kept  sound  ;  and  to  accomplish  this  end  it  is  necessary  not  only  to 
know  how  to  cure  all  diseases  to  which  these  organs  are  liable,  but,  bet- 
ter still,  hov\^  to  prevent  them. 

An  important  prerequisite  to  the  detection  and  cure  of  disease  is  a 
knowledge  of  the  construction  and  function  of  the  parts  which  may  be 
involved  in  the  diseased  process  5  hence,  first  of  all,  the  anatomical 
structures  must  be  understood. 

The  bones  of  the  fetlock  and  foot  constitute  the  skeleton  on  which  the 
other  structures  are  built,  and  comprise  the  lower  end  of  the  cannon 
bone  (the  metacarpus  in  the  fore  leg,  the  metatarsus  in  the  hind  leg),  the 
two  sesamoids,  the  large  pastern  or  suffraginis,  the  small  pastern  or 
coronet,  the  coffin  bone  or  os  pedis,  aud  the  small  sesamoid  or  navicular 
bone.     (Plate  xxxii,  Fig.  3.) 

The  cannon  hone  extends  from  the  knee  or  hock  to  the  fetlock,  is 
cylindrical  in  shape  and  stands  nearly  or  quite  perpendicular. 

The  sescunoids  occur  in  pairs,  are  small,  shaped  like  a  three-faced 

pyramid,  and  are  set  behind  the  fetlock  joint,  at  the  upper  end  of  the 

suffraginis,  with  the  base  of  the  pyramid  down. 

357 


358 

The  suffragims  is  a  very  compact  bone,  set  in  an  oblique  direction 
downward  and  forward,  and  extends  from  the  cannon  bone  to  the 
coronet. 

The  coronet  is  a  short,  cube-shaped  bone,  set  between  the  suffragiuis 
and  coffin  bone,  in  the  same  oblique  direction. 

The  coffin  hone  forms  the  end  of  the  foot  and  is  shaped  like  the  horny 
box  in  which  it  is  enclosed. 

The  navicuJar  bone  is  short,  flattened  above  and  below,  and  is  attached 
to  the  coffin  bone  behind. 

All  of  these  bones  are  covered  on  the  surfaces  with  a  cartilage  of 
incrustation  which  goes  to  make  up  the  joints,  while  the  i)ortion8 
between  are  covered  with  a  fibrous  membrane  called  the  periosteum. 

The  joints  of  the  legs  are  of  especial  importance,  since  any  inter- 
ference with  their  function  very  largely  impairs  the  value  of  the  animal 
for  most  purposes.  As  the  joints  of  the  foot  and  ankle  are  at  the  point 
of  greatest  concussion  they  are  the  ones  most  subject  to  injury  and 
disease. 

There  are  three  of  these  joints — the  fetlock,  pastern,  and  coffin.  They 
are  made  by  the  union  of  two  or  more  bones,  held  together  by  ligaments 
of  fibrous  tissue,  and  are  lubricated  by  a  thick  viscid  fluid,  called  syno- 
via, which  is  secreted  by  a  special  membrane  inclosing  the  joints. 

The  fetlocl^  joint  is  made  by  the  union  of  the  lower  end  of  the  cannon 
and  the  upper  end  of  the  large  pastern  bones,  supplemented  by  the  two 
sesamoids,  so  i^laced  behind  the  upper  end  of  the  pastern  that  the  joint 
is  capable  of  a  very  extensive  motion.  These  bones  are  held  together 
by  ligaments,  only  one  of  which — the  suspensory — demands  special 
mention. 

The  suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlock  starts  from  the  knee,  extends 
down  behind  the  cannon,  lying  between  the  two  splint  bones,  until  near 
the  fetlock,  where  it  divides  and  sends  a  branch  on  either  side  of  the 
joint,  downward  and  forward,  to  become  attached  on  the  sides  of  the 
extensor  tendon  at  the  lower  end  of  the  pastern  bone.  As  it  crosses  the 
sesamoids  on  the  posterior  borders  of  the  fetlock  it  throws  out  fibers, 
which  hold  it  fast  to  these  bones.     (Plate  xxxii.  Fig.  2.) 

The  paster  n  joint  \'&  made  by  the  union  of  the  two  pastern  bones. 

The  coffin  joint  is  made  by  the  union  of  the  small  pastern,  coffin,  and 
small  sesamoid  or  navicular  bones,  the  latter  being  set  behind  and  be- 
neath the  joint  surface  of  the  coffin  bone,  in  such  a  way  as  to  largely 
receive  the  weight  of  the  small  j)astern. 

Three  tendons  sevye  to  move  the  bones  of  the  foot  one  on  another. 
Two  of  these  flex  or  bend  the  joints,  while  the  other  extends  or  straight- 
ens the  column  of  bones.     (Plate  xxx.  Fig.  5.) 

The  flexor  pedis  r>crforans,  or  deep  flexor  of  the  foot,  passes  down  be- 
hind the  cannon  bone,  lying  against  the  suspensory  ligament  in  front. 
Crosses  the  fetlock  joint  in  the  groove  made  by  the  union  of  the  two 
sesamoids,  and  is  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  coffin  boncj  after  cover- 


359 

h)g  the  navicular,  by  a  wide  expansion  of  its  fibers.     It  is  the  function 
of  this  tendon  to  flex  the  coffin  bone  and  with  it  the  horny  box. 

The  flexor  pedis  perforaius^  or  superficial  flexor  of  the  foot,  follows 
the  course  of  the  precedinf?  tendon  and  is  attached  to  the  middleof  the 
anlde.     The  function  of  this  tendon  is  to  flex  the  foot  at  the  fetlock. 

The  extensor  pedis  runs  down  in  front  of  the  leg,  is  attached  on  the 
most  prominent  point  of  the  coffin  bone,  and  has  for  function  the 
straightening  of  the  bones  of  the  ankle  and  foot. 

The  bones,  ligaments,  and  tendons  are  covered  by  a  loose  connective 
tissue,  which  gives  a  symmetry  to  the  parts  by  filling  up  and  rounding 
ofl",  and  all  are  protected  by  the  skin  and  hoof. 

The  slcin  of  the  fetlock  and  ankle  is  generally  characterized  by  its 
thickness  and  the  length  of  its  hairs,  especially  around  the  hind  parts 
of  the  fetlock  joint  in  certain  breeds  of  horses.  The  most  important 
part  of  this  envelope  is  that  known  as  the  coronary  band. 

The  coronary  hand  is  that  portion  of  the  skin  which  secretes  the  horn 
by  which  the  wall  of  the  hoof  is  made.  This  horn  much  resembles  the 
nail  which  grows  on.  the  fingers  and  toes  of  man.  It  is  composed  of 
hollow,  cylindrical  tubes,  extending  from  the  coronary  band  to  the 
lower  border  of  the  hoof,  which  are  held  together  by  a  tenacious  opaque 
matter.     (Plate  xxix,  Fig.  1.) 

The  lioof  is  a  box  of  horn,  consisting  of  a  wall,  sole,  and  frog,  and 
contains,  besides  the  cofiiu,  navicular  and  part  of  the  small  pastern 
bones,  the  sensitive  laminae,  plantar  cushion  and  the  lateral  cartilages. 
(Plate  XXX,  Fig.  4.) 

The  sole  of  the  foot  incloses  the  box  on  the  ground  surface,  is  shaped 
like  the  circumference  of  the  foot,  except  that  a  V-shaped  opening  is 
left  behind  for  the  reception  of  the  frog,  and  is  concave  on  the  lower 
surface.  The  sole  is  produced  by  the  velvety  tissue,  a  thin  membrauce 
covering  the  irlautar  cushion  and  other  soft  tissues  beneath  the  coffin 
bone.  The  horn  of  the  sole  differs  from  the  horn  of  the  wall,  in  that 
its  tubes  are  not  straight,  and  from  the  fact  that  it  scales  off  in  pieces 
over  the  whole  surface. 

T  he/ro</is  a  triangular  shaped  body,  divided  into  two  equal  parts  by 
a  deep  fissure,  extending  from  its  apex  in  front  to  the  base.  It  fills  the 
triangular  space  in  the  sole  to  which  it  is  intimately  attached  by  its  bor- 
ders. The  horn  of  the  frog  is  produced  iu  the  same  manner  as  the  sole, 
but  it  differs  from  both  the  wall  and  sole,  in  that  the  horn  is  soft,  moist, 
and  elastic  to  a  remarkable  degree.  It  is  the  function  of  the  frog  to 
destroy  shock  and  to  prevent  slipping. 

The  sensitive  htminw  are  thin  plates  of  soft  tissue,  covering  the  en- 
tire anterior  surface  of  the  coffin  bone.  They  are  present  in  great  num- 
bers, and  by  fitting  into  corresponding  grooves  on  the  inner  surface  of 
the  horn  of  the  wall  the  union  of  the  soft  and  horny  tissues  is  made 
comi)lete.     (Plate  xxix.  Fig.  1.) 

The  plantar  cushionis  a  thick  pad  of  fibrous  tissue,  placed  behind  and 
under  the  navicular  and  coffin  bones,  and  resting  on  the  sole  and  frog, 


360 

forthe  purpose  of  receiving  the  downward  pressure   of  the  column  of 
bones  and  to  destroy  shock.     (Plate  xxix,  Fig.  4.) 

The  lateral  cartilages  are  attached,  one  on  either  side,  to  the  wings  of 
the  cofiin  bone  byxheir  inferior  borders.  Tliey  are  thin  plates  of  fibro- 
cartilage,  and  their  function  is  to  assist  the  frog  and  adjacent  structures 
to  regain  their  proper  position  after  having  been  displaced  by  the  weight 
of  the  body  while  the  foot  rested  on  the  ground.     (Plate  xxix,  Fig.  2.) 

FAULTS   OF   CONFORMATION. 

A  large  percentage  of  the  horses  have  feet  which  are  not  perfect  in 
conformation,  and  as  a  consequence  of  these  imperfections  the^^  are  es- 
pecially i^redisposed  to  certain  injuries  and  diseases. 

Flat  feet  is  that  condition  in  which  the  sole  has  little  or  no  convexity. 
It  is  a  iieculiarity  common  to  some  breeds,  especially  heavy,  lymphatic 
animals  raised  on  low,  marshy  soils.  It  is  confined  to  the  forefeet,  which 
are  generally  broad,  low  heeled,  and  with  a  wall  less  upright  than  is 
seen  in  the  perfect  foot. 

In  flat-foot  there  can  be  little  or  no  elasticity  in  the  sole,  for  the  rea- 
son that  it  has  no  arch,  and  the  weight  of  the  animal  is  received  on  the 
entire  jilantar  surface  as  it  rests  upon  the  ground  instead  of  on  the  wall. 
For  these  reasons  such  feet  are  i)articularly  liable  to  briiises  of  the  sole, 
corns,  i^umiced  sole,  and  excessive  suppuration  when  the  process  is  once 
established.  Horses  with  flat-foot  should  be  shod  with  a  shoe  having  a 
wide  web,  pressing  on  the  wall  only,  while  the  heels  and  frog  are  never 
to  be  pared.  Flat-foot  generally  has  weak  walls,  and  as  a  consequence 
the  nails  of  the  shoe  are  readily  loosened  and  the  shoe  cast. 

Clubfoot  is  a  term  applied  to  such  feet  as  have  the  wall  set  nearly  per- 
pendicular. When  this  condition  is  present  the  heels  are  high,  the  fet- 
lock joint  is  thrown  forward,  or  knuckles,  and  the  weight  of  the  animal 
is  received  on  the  toes.  Many  mules  are  clubfooted,  especially  behind, 
where  it  seems  to  cause  little  or  no  inconvenience.  Clubfoot  may  be 
cured  by  cutting  the  tendons  in  severe  cases,  but  as  a  rule  special  shoe- 
ing is  the  only  measure  of  relief  that  can  be  adopted.  The  toe  should 
not  be  pared,  but  the  heels  are  to  be  lowered  as  much  as  possible,  and 
a  shoe  put  on  with  a  long  projecting  toe  piece,  slightly  turned  up,  while 
the  heels  of  the  shoe  are  to  be  made  thin, 

Croolied  foot  is  that  condition  in  which  one  side  of  the  wall  is  higher 
than  the  other.  If  the  inside  wall  is  the  higher,  the  ankle  is  thrown 
outward,  so  that  the  fetlock  joints  are  abnormally  wide  apart  and  tlie 
toes  close  together.  Animals  with  this  deformity  are  "pigeon-toed," 
and  are  prone  to  interfere,  the  inside  toe  striking  the  opposite  fetlock. 
If  but  one  foot  is  affected,  the  other  being  perfect,  the  liability  to  in- 
terfere is  still  greater,  for  the  reason  that  the  fetlock  of  the  perfect  leg 
is  more  near  the  center  iilane. 

When,  the  outside  heel  is  the  higher  the  ankle  is  thrown  in  and  the 


361 

toe  turns  out.  Horses  with  such  feet  interfere  with  tlie  heel.  If  but 
one  foot  is  so  affected,  the  liability  to  interfere  is  less  than  where  both 
feet  are  affected,  for  the  reason  that  the  ankle  of  the  perfect  leg  is  not 
so  near  to  the  center  line.  Such  animals  are  especially  liable  to  stum- 
bling and  to  lameness  from  injury  to  the  ligaments  of  the  fetlock  joints. 
The  deformity  is  to  be  overcome  by  such  shoeing  as  will  equalize  the 
disparity  in  length  of  walls,  and  by  proper  boots  to  protect  the  fetlocks 
from  interfering. 

INTERFERING. 

An  animal  is  said  to  interfere  when  one  foot  strikes  the  opposite  leg, 
as  it  passes  by,  during  locomotion.  Tlie  inner  surface  of  the  fetlock 
joint  is  the  part  most  subject  to  this  injury,  althougb,  under  certain 
conditions,  it  may  happen  to  any  part  of  the  ankle.  It  is  seen  more 
often  in  the  hind  than  in  the  fore  legs.  Interfering  causes  a  bruise  of 
the  skiu  and  deeper  tissues,  generally  accompanied  by  an  abrasion  of 
the  surface.  It  may  cause  lameness,  dangerous  tripping,  and  thickening 
of  the  injured  parts. 

Causers.— Faulty  conformation  is  the  most  prolific  cause  of  interfer- 
ing. When  the  bones  of  the  leg  are  so  united  that  the  toe  of  the  foot 
turns  in  (pigeon-toed),  or  when  the  fetlock  joints  are  close  together 
and  the  toe  turns  out,  when  the  leg  is  so  deformed  that  the  whole  foot 
and  ankle  turn  either  in  or  out,  interfering  is  almost  sure  to  follow.  It 
may  happen,  also,  when  the  feet  grow  too  long  ;  from  defective  shoeing; 
rough  or  slippery  roads ;  from  the  exhaustion  of  labor  or  sickness ; 
swelling  of  the  leg ;  high  knee  action ;  fast  work,  and  because  the  chest 
or  hips  are  too  narrow. 

^j/m^jfoms.— Generally,  the  evidences  of  interfering  are  easily  de- 
tected, for  the  parts  are  tender,  swollen,  and  the  skin  broken.  Buf 
very  often,  especially  in  trotters,  the  flat  surface  of  the  hoof  strikes  the 
fetlock  without  evident  injury,  and  attention  is  directed  to  these  parts 
only  by  the  occasional  tripping  and  unsteady  gait.  In  such  cases  proof 
of  the  cause  may  be  had  by  walking  and  trotting  the  animal,  after  first 
painting  the  inside  toe  and  quarter  of  the  suspected  foot  with  a  thin 
coating  of  chalk,  charcoal,  mud,  or  paint. 

Treatment. — When  the  trouble  is  due  to  deformity  or  faulty  conforma- 
tion it  may  not  be  possible  to  overcome  the  defect. 

In  such  cases,  and  as  well  in  those  due  to  exhaustion  or  fiitigue,  the 
fetlock  or  ankle  boot  must  be  used.  In  many  instances  interfering 
may  be  prevented  by  proper  shoeing.  The  outside  heel  and  quarter  of 
the  foot  on  the  injured  leg  should  be  lowered  sufficiently  to  change  the 
relative  position  of  the  fetlock  joint,  by  bringing  it  further  away  from 
the  center  plane  of  the  body,  thereby  permitting  the  other  foot  to  pass 
by  without  striking. 

A  very  slight  change  is  often  sufficient  to  effect  this  result.  At  the 
same  time  the  offending  foot  should  be  shod,  that  the  shoe  may  set  well 


362 

nnder  tlie  lioof  at  the  point  responsible  for  the  injury.     The  shoo 
should  be  reset  every  three  or  four  weeks. 

When  the  cause  has  been  removed  cold  water  bandages  to  the  in- 
jured parts  will  soon  remove  the  soreness  and  swelling,  especially  in 
recent  cases.  If,  however,  the  fetlock  has  become  calloused  from  long- 
continued  bruising,  a  Spanish  fly  blister  over  the  parts,  rei)eated  in 
two  or  three  weeks'  time  if  necessary,  will  aid  in  reducing  the  leg  to  its 
natural  condition. 

KNUCKLING   OR   COCKED   ANKLES^. 

Knuckling  is  a  partial  dislocation  of  the  fetlock  joint,  in  which  the 
relative  i)06ition  of  the  pastern  bone  to  the  cannon  and  coronet  bones 
is  changed,  the  pastern  becoming  more  nearly  perpendicular,  with  the 
lower  end  of  the  cannon  bone  resting  behind  the  center  line  of  the 
sufiraginis,  while  the  lower  end  of  this  bone  rests  behind  the  center 
line  of  the  coronet.  While  knuckling  is  not  always  an  unsoundness,  it 
nevertheless  predisposes  to  stumbling  and  to  fracture  of  the  pastern. 

Causes. — Young  foals  are  quite  subject  to  this  condition,  but  in  the 
great  majority  of  cases  it  is  only  temporary.  It  is  largely  due  to  the 
fact  that,  before  birth,  the  legs  were  flexed;  and  time  is  required,  after 
birth,  for  the  ligaments,  tendons,  and  muscles  to  adapt  themselves  to 
the  function  of  sustaining  the  weight  of  the  body. 

Horses  with  erect  pasterns  are  very  prone  to  knuckle  as  they  grow 
old,  especially  in  the  hind  legs.  All  kinds  of  heavy  work,  particularly 
in  hilly  districts,  and  fast  work  on  hard  race-tracks  or  roads  are  excit- 
ing causes  of  knuckling.  It  is  also  commonly  seen  as  an  accompani- 
ment to  that  faulty  conformation  called  club-foot,  in  which  the  toe  of 
the  wall  is  peri^endicular  and  short  and  the  heels  high,  a  condition 
most  often  seen  in  the  mule,  especially  the  hind  feet. 

Lastly,  knuckling  is  i:)roduced  by  disease  of  the  suspensory  ligaincnt, 
or  of  the  flexor  tendons,  whereby  they  arc  shortened,  and  by  disease 
of  the  fetlock  joints. 

Treatment. — In  young  foals  no  treatment  is  necessary,  unless  there  is 
some  deformity  present,  since  the  legs  straighten  up  without  inter- 
ference in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks'  time.  When  knuckling  has  com- 
menced the  indications  are  to  relieve  the  tendons  and  ligaments  by 
proper  shoeing.  The  foot  is  to  be  prepared  for  the  shoe  by  shortening 
the  toe  as  much  as  possible,  leaving  the  heels  high;  or  if  the  foot  is 
IDrepared  in  tiie  usual  way  the  shoe  should  be  thin  in  front,  with  thick 
heels  or  high  calks.  For  the  hind  feet  a  long-heeled  shoe  with  calks 
seems  to  do  best.  Of  course,  when  j^ossible,  the  causes  of  knuckling 
are  to  be  removed,  but  since  this  can  not  always  be  done,  the  time  may 
come  when  the  patient  can  no  longer  perform  any  service,  particularly 
in  those  cases  where  both  forelegs  are  affected,  and  it  becomes  neces- 
sary either  to  destroy  the  animal  or  secure  relief  by  surgical  inter- 
ference.    In  such  cases  the  tendons,  between  the  fetlock  and  knee,  may 


363 

be  divided  for  the  purpose  of  securing  temporary  relief.  Firing  and 
blistering  the  parts  responsible  for  the  knuckling  may,  in  some  in- 
stances, effect  a  cure;  but  a  consideration  of  tbese  measures  properly 
belongs  to  the  treatment  of  the  diseases  in  which  knuckling  simply 
appears  as  a  sequel. 

WIND-GALLS. 

Joints  and  tendons  are  furnished  with  sacs  containing  a  lubricating 
fluid  called  synovia.  When  these  sacs  are  overdistended,  by  reason 
of  an  excessive  secretion  of  synovia,  they  are  called  wind-galls.  They 
form  a  soft,  puffy  tumor  about  the  size  of  a  hickory  nut,  and  are  most 
often  found  in  the  foreleg,  at  the  upper  part  of  the  fetlock  joint,  be- 
tween the  tendon  and  the  shin-bone.  When  they  develop  in  the  hind 
leg  it  is  not  unusual  to  see  them  reach  the  size  of  a  walnut.  Occasion- 
ally they  appear  in  front  of  the  fetlock  on  the  border  of  the  tendon. 
The  majority  of  the  horses  are  not  subject  to  them  after  colthood  is 
passed. 

Causes. — Wind-galls  are  often  seen  in  young,  overgrown  horses, 
■where  the  body  seems  to  have  outgrown  the  ability  of  the  joints  to  sus- 
tain the  weight.  In  cart  and  other  horses  used  to  hard  work,  in  trotters 
with  excessive  knee  action,  in  hurdle  racers  and  hunters,  and  in  most 
cow-ponies  there  is  a  predisposition  to  wind-galls.  Street-car  horses 
and  others  used  to  start  heavy  loads  on  slippery  streets  are  the  ones 
most  apt  to  develop  wind-galls  in  the  hind  legs. 

Spnptoms. — The  tumor  is  more  or  less  firm  and  tense  when  the  foot 
is  on  the  ground,  but  is  soft  and  compressible  when  the  foot  is  off  the 
ground.  In  old  horses  wind-galls  generally  develop  slowly  and  cause 
no  inconvenience.  If  they  are  caused  by  excessive  tension  of  the  joint 
the  tumor  develops  rapidly,  is  tense,  hot,  and  painful,  and  the  animal 
is  exceedingly  lame.  The  patient  stands  with  the  joint  flexed,  walks 
with  short  steps,  the  toe  only  being  placed  on  the  ground.  When  the 
tumor  is  large  and  situated  upon  the  inside  of  the  leg  it  may  be  injured 
by  interfering,  causing  stumbling  and  inflammation  of  the  sac.  Rest 
generally  causes  the  tumor  to  diminish  in  size,  only  to  fill  up  again  after 
renewed  labor.  In  old  cases  the  tumors  are  hardened,  and  may  be- 
come converted  into  bone  by  a  deposit  of  the  lime  salts. 

Treatment.— The  Jarge,  puffy  joints  of  suckling  colts,  as  a  rule,  re- 
quire no  treatment,  for  as  the  animal  grows  older  the  parts  clean  up, 
and  after  a  time  the  swelling  entirely  disappears. 

When  the  trouble  is  due  to  an  injury,  entire  rest  is  to  be  secured  by 
the  use  of  slings  and  a  high-heeled  shoe.  Cold  water  douches  should 
be  used  once  or  twice  a  day,  followed  by  cold  water  bandages,  until 
the  fever  has  subsided  and  the  soreness  is  largely  removed,  when  a 
blister  is  to  be  applied. 

In  old  wind-galls,  which  cause  more  or  less  stiffness,  some  relief  may 
be  had  by  the  use  of  cold  compress  bandages,  elastic  boots,  or  the  red 


364 

iodide  of  mercury  blisters.  Opening  the  sacs,  as  recommended  by  some 
authors,  is  of  doubtful  utility,  and  should  only  be  adopted  by  the  sur- 
geon capable  of  treating  the  wound  he  has  made.  Enforced  rest  until 
complete  recovery  is  eifected  should  always  be  insisted  on,  as  a  too  early 
return  to  work  is  sure  to  be  followed  by  a  relapse. 

SPRAIN   OF   THE  FETLOCK. 

Sprain  of  the  fetlock  joint  is  most  common  in  the  fore  legs,  and  as  a 
rule  affects  but  one  at  a  time.  Horses  doing  fast  work,  as  trotters, 
runners,  steeplechasers,  hunters,  cow-ponies,  and  those  that  interfere, 
are  particularly  liable  to  this  injury. 

Causes.  — Horses  knuckling  at  the  fetlock,  and  all  those  with  diseases 
which  impair  the  powers  of  locomotion,  such  as  navicular  disease,  con- 
tracted heels,  side  bones,  chronic  laminitis,  etc.,  are  predisposed  to 
sprains  of  the  fetlock.  It  generally  happens  from  a  misstep,  stum- 
bling, or  slipping,  which  results  in  the  joint  being  extended  or  flexed  to 
excess.  The  same  result  may  happen  where  the  foot  is  caught  in  a  rut, 
hole  in  a  bridge,  or  in  a  car  track,  and  the  animal  falls  or  struggles 
violently.  Direct  blows  and  punctured  wounds  may  also  set  up  inflam- 
mation of  the  joint. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  sprain  of  the  fetlock  vary  with  the 
severity  of  the  injury.  If  slight  there  may  be  no  lameness,  but  simply 
a  little  soreness,  especially  when  the  foot  strikes  on  uneven  ground,  and 
the  joint  is  twisted  a  little.  In  cases  more  severe  the  joint  swells,  is 
hot  and  puffy,  and  the  lameness  may  be  so  intense  as  to  compel  the 
animal  to  hobble  on  three  legs.  While  at  rest  the  leg  is  flexed  at  the 
joint  affected,  and  the  toe  rests  on  the  ground. 

Treatment.— U  the  injury  is  slight,  cold-water  bandages  and  a  few 
days'  rest  are  sufficient  to  effect  recovery.  In  cases  where  there  is  in- 
tense lameness,  swelling,  etc.,  the  leg  should  be  placed  under  a  constant 
stream  of  cold  water,  as  described  in  the  treatment  for  quitter.  When 
the  inflammation  has  subsided  a  blister  to  the  joint  should  be  applied. 

In  some  cases,  especially  in  old  horses  long  accustomed  to  fast  work, 
the  ligaments  of  the  joints  are  ruptured,  in  whole  or  in  part,  and  the 
lameness  may  last  a  long  time.  In  these  cases  the  joint  should  be  kept 
completely  at  rest;  and  this  condition  is  best  secured  by  the  applica- 
tion of  the  plaster  of  Paris  bandages,  as  in  cases  of  fracture.  As  a  rule, 
patients  take  kindly  to  this  bandage,  and  may  be  given  the  freedom  of 
a  roomy  box  or  yard  while  wearing  it.  If  they  are  disposed  to  tear  it 
off,  or  if  sufficient  rest  can  not  otherwise  be  secured,  the  patient  must 
be  kept  in  slings. 

In  the  majority  of  instances  the  plaster  bandage  should  remain  on 
from  two  to  four  weeks.  If  the  lameness  returns  when  the  bandage 
is  removed,  a  new  one  should  be  put  on.  The  swelling,  which  always 
remains  after  the  other  evidences  of  the  disease  have  disappeared, 


365 

may  belar^^ely  dissipated  aud  the  joint  strengthened  by  the  use  of  the 
firing  iron  and  blisters. 

A  joint  once  injured  by  a  severe  sprain  never  entirely  regains  its 
original  strength,  and  is  ever  after  particularly  liable  to  a  repetition  of 
the  injur}'. 

KUPTURE    OP    THE   SUSPENSORY   LIGAMENT. 

Sprain,  with  or  without  rupture,  of  the  suspensoiy  ligament,  may 
happen  in  both  the  fore  and  hind  legs,  and  is  occasionally  seen  in  horses 
of  all  classes  and  at  all  ages.  Old  animals,  however,  and  especially  hunt- 
ers, runners,  and  trotters,  are  the  most  subject  to  this  injury,  and  with 
these  classes  the  seat  of  the  trouble  is  nearly  always  in  one,  or  both, 
the  fore  legs.  Ilorses  used  for  heavy  draught  are  more  liable  to  have 
the  ligament  of  the  hind  legs  affected. 

When  the  strain  ui)on  the  suspensory  ligament  becomes  too  great 
one  or  both  of  the  branches  may  be  torn  from  their  attachments  to 
the  sesamoid  bones ;  one  or  both  of  the  branches  may  be  torn  com- 
pletely across ;  or  the  ligament  may  rupture  above  the  point  of  division. 

Si/m2)toms. — The  most  common  injury  to  the  suspensory  ligament  is 
sprain  of  the  internal  braucli  in  one  of  the  fore  legs.  The  trouble  is  pro- 
claimed by  lameness,  heat,  swelling  and  tenderness  of  the  affected 
branch,  beginning  just  above  the  sesamoid  bone  and  extending  ob- 
liquely downward  aud  forward  to  the  front  of  the  ankle.  If  the  whole 
ligament  is  involved  the  swelling  comes  on  gradually,  aud  is  found 
above  the  fetlock  and  in  front  of  the  flexor  tendons.  The  patient 
stands  or  walks  upon  the  too  as  much  as  possible,  keeping  the  fetlock 
joint  flexed  so  as  to  relieve  the  ligament  of  tension. 

When  both  branches  are  torn  from  their  attachments  to  the  sesa- 
moids, or  both  are  torn  across,  the  lameness  comes  on  suddenly  and  is 
most  intense  ;  the  fetlock  descends,  the  toe  turns  up  and,  as  the  animal 
attempts  to  walk,  the  leg  has  the  appearance  of  being  broken  off  at  the 
fetlock.  These  symptoms,  followed  by  heat,  pain,  and  swelling  of  the 
parts  at  the  point  of  injury  will  enable  any  one  to  make  a  diagnosis. 

Treatment. — Sprain  of  the  suspensory  ligament,  no  matter  how  mild 
it  may  be,  should  always  be  treated  by  enforced  rest  of  at  least  a  month, 
and  the  application  of  cold  douches  and  cold  water  bandages,  firmly 
applied  until  the  fever  has  subsidetl,  when  a  cantharides  blister  should 
be  put  on  and  repeated  in  two  or  three  weeks'  time,  if  necessary.  When 
rupture  has  taken  place  the  patient  should  be  put  iu  slings,  and  a  con- 
stant stream  of  cold  water  allowed  to  trickle  over  the  seat  of  injury 
uutil  the  fever  is  reduced.  In  the  course  of  a  week  or  ten  days'  time  a 
plaster  of  Paris  splint,  such  as  is  used  in  fractures,  is  to  be  applied  and 
left  on  for  a  month  or  six  weeks.  When  this  is  taken  off  blisters  may 
be  used  to  remove  the  remaining  soreness  ;  but  it  is  useless  to  expect 
a  removal  of  all  the  thickening,  for  in  the  process  of  repair  new  tissue 
has  been  formed  which  will  always  remain. 


366 

In  old  cases  of  sprain  the  firing  iron  may  often  be  used  v:ith  good  re- 
sults. As  a  rule,  severe  injuries  to  the  suspensory  ligament  incapaci- 
tate the  subject  for  anything  but  slow,  light  work, 

OVERREACn. 

An  overreach  is  where  the  shoe  of  the  hind  foot  stril^es  and  injures 
the  heel  or  quarter  of  the  fore  foot.  It  rarely  happens  except  w^hen  the 
animal  is  going  fast,  hence  is  most  common  in  trotting  and  running 
horses.  In  trotters  the  accident  generally  happens  when  the  animal 
breaks  from  a  trot- to  a  run.  The  outside  heels  and  quarters  are  most 
liable  to  the  injury. 

Sym])toms. — The  coronet  at  the  heel  or  quarter  is  bruised  or  cut,  the 
injury  in  some  instances  involving  the  horn  as  well.  Where  the  hind 
foot  strikes  well  back  on  the  heel  of  the  forefoot— an  accident  known 
among  horsemen  as  "grabbing" — the  shoe  may  be  torn  from  the  fore- 
foot  or  the  animal  may  fall  to  his  knees.  Horses  accustomed  to  over- 
reaching are  often  "  bad  breakers,"  for  the  reason  that  the  pain  of  the 
injury  so  excites  them  that  they  can  not  readily  be  brought  back  to  the 
trotting  gait. 

Treatment — If  the  injury  is  but  a  slight  bruise  cold  water  bandages 
appliad  for  a  few  days  will  remove  all  of  the  soreness.  If  the  parts  are 
deeply  cut  more  or  less  suppuration  will  follow,  and,  as  a  rule,  it  is  well 
to  poultice  the  parts  for  a  day  or  two,  after  which  cold  baths  may  be 
used,  or  the  wounds  dressed  with  tincture  of  aloes,  oakum,  and  a  roller 
bandage. 

When  an  animal  is  known  to  be  subject  to  overreaching,  he  should 
never  be  driven  fast  without  quarter-boots,  which  are  specially-  made 
for  the  protection  of  the  heels  ami  quarters. 

If  there  is  a  disposition  to  "  grab "  the  forward  shoes,  the  trouble 
may  be  remedied  by  having  the  heels  of  these  shoes  made  as  short  as 
possible,  while  the  toe  of  the  hind  foot  should  project  well  over  the  hind 
shoe.  When  circumstances  will  permit  of  their  use,  the  forefeet  may 
be  shod  with  the  tips  instead  of  the  common  shoe,  as  described  in  the 
treatment  for  contracted  heels. 

CALK  WOUNDS. 

Horses  wearing  shoes  with  sharp  calks  are  liable  to  wounds  of  the 
coronary  region,  either  from  tramping  on  themselves,  or  on  each  other. 
These  injuries  are  most  common  in  heavy  draught  horses,  especially  on 
rough  roads  and  slippery  streets.  The  fore  feet  are  more  liable  than 
the  hind  ones,  and  the  seat  of  injury  is  commonly  on  the  quarters.  In 
the  hind  feet  the  wound  often  results  from  the  animal  resting  with  the 
heel  of  one  foot  set  directly  over  the  front  of  the  other.  In  these  cases 
the  injury  is  generally  close  to  the  horn,  and  often  involves  the  coronary 
band,  the  sensitive  iamiuai,  the  extensor  tendon,  and  even  the  coffin 
bone. 


367 

Treatment. — Preventive  measures  would  include  the  use  of  boots  to 
protect  the  coronet  of  the  hind  foot,  and  the  use  of  a  blimt  calk  on  the 
outside  heel  of  the  fore  shoe,  since  this  is  generally  the  offending  instru- 
ment where  the  fore  feet  are  injured.  If  the  wound  is  not  deep  and 
the  soreness  slight,  cold-water  bandages  and  a  ligiit  i)rotective  dressing, 
•  such  as  carbolized  cosinoline,  will  bs  all  that  is  needed.  Where  the  in- 
jury is  deep,  followed  by  inflammation  and  suppuration  of  the  coronary 
band,  lateral  cartilages,  sensitive  lauiinte,  etc.,  active  measures  must  be 
resorted  to.  In  these  cases  cold,  astringent  baths,  made  by  adding  two 
ounces  of  sulphate  of  iron  to  a  gallon  of  water,  should  be  used,  followed 
by  poultices  if  it  is  necessary  to  hasten  the  cleansing  of  the  wound  by 
stimulating  the  sloughing  process.  Where  the  wound  is  deep  between 
the  horn  and  skin,  especially  over  the  anterior  tendon,  the  horn  should 
be  cub  away  so  that  the  injured  tissues  may  be  exposed.  The  subse- 
quent treatment  in  these  cases  should  follow  the  directions  laid  down 
in  the  article  on  toe-cracks. 

FROST   BITES. 

Excepting  the  ears,  the  feet  and  legs  are  abont  the  only  parts  of  the 
horse  liable  to  become  frost  bitten.  The  cases  most  commonly  seen  are 
found  in  cities,  especially  among  car  horses,  where  salt  is  used  for  the 
purpose  of  melting  the  snow  on  curves  and  switches.  This  mixture  of 
snow  and  salt  is  splashed  over  the  feet  and  legs,  rapidly  lowering  the 
temperature  of  the  parts  to  the  freezing  point.  In  mountainous  dis- 
tricts where  the  snowfall  is  heavy  and  the  cold  often  intense,  frost  bites 
are  not  uncommon  even  among  animals  running  at  large. 

Symiitojus. — When  the  frosting  is  slight  the  skin  becomes  pale  and 
bloodless,  followed  soon  after  by  intense  redness,  heat,  pain,  and  swell- 
ing. In  these  cases  the  hair  may  fall  out  and  the  epidermis  peel  off, 
but  the  inflammation  soon  subsides,  the  swelling  disappears,  and  only  an 
increased  sensitiveness  to  cold  remains. 

In  cases  more  severe,  irregular  patches  of  skin  are  destroyed,  and  after 
a  few  days' time  slough  away,  leaving  slow-healing  ulcers  behind.  In 
the  cases  produced  by  low  temperatures  and  deep  snow  the  coronary 
band  is  the  part  most  often  aifected. 

In  many  instances  there  is  no  destruction  of  the  skin,  but  simply  a 
temporary  suspension  of  the  horn-producing  function  of  the  coronary 
baud.  The  fore  feet  are  more  often  affected  than  the  hind  ones,  and 
for  some  reason  the  heels  and  quarters  are  less  often  involved  than  the 
front  part  of  the  foot.  The  coronary  band  becomes  hot,  swollen  and 
painful,  and  after  two  or  three  days'  time  the  horn  separates  from  the 
band  and  slight  suppuration  follows.  For  a  few  days  the  animal  is 
lame,  but  as  the  suppuration  disappears,  the  lameness  subsides ;  new 
horn,  often  of  an  inferior  quality,  is  produced  by  the  coronary  band, 
and  in  time  the  cleft  is  grown  off  and  complete  recovery  is  eflected. 


368 

The  frog  is  occasionally  frost  bitten  and  may  slongli  off,  exposing  tho 
soft  tissues  beneath  and  causing  severe  lameness  for  a  time. 

Treatment. — Simple  frost  bites  are  best  treated  by  cold  fomentations 
followed  by  applications  of  a  5  per  cent,  solution  of  carbolized  oil. 
When  portions  of  the  skiu  are  destroyed  their  early  separation  should 
be  hastened  by  warm  fomentations  and  poultices.  Ulcers  arc  to  be 
treated  by  the  ai^plication  of  stimulating  dressings  such  as  carbolized 
oil,  a  1  per  cent,  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  or  of  chloride  of  zinc,  with 
pads  of  oakum  and  flannel  bandages.  In  many  of  these  cases  recovery 
is  exceedingly  slow.  The  new  tissue  by  which  the  destroyed  skin  is 
replaced  always  shrinks  in  healing,  and  as  a  consequence  unsightly 
scars  are  unavoidable.  Where  the  coronary  band  is  involved  it  is  gen- 
erally advisable  to  blister  the  coronet  over  the  seat  of  injury  as  soon  as 
the  suppuration  ceases,  for  the  purpose  of  stimulating  the  growth  of 
new  horn.  Where  a  crevasse  is  formed  between  the  old  and  new  horn, 
no  serious  trouble  is  likely  to  be  met  with  until  the  cleft  is  nearly  grown 
out,  when  the  soft  tissues  may  be  exposed  by  a  breaking  off  of  the 
partly  detached  horn. 

But  even  where  this  accident  happens  final  recovery  is  secured  by 
poulticing  the  foot  until  a  sufficient  growth  of  horn  i>rotects  the  part 
from  injury. 

QUITTOR. 

Quittor  is  a  term  applied  to  various  affections  of  the  foot  wherein  the 
tissues  which  are  involved  undergo  a  process  of  [degeneration  that  re- 
sults in  the  formation  of  a  slough,  followed  by  the  elimination  of  the 
diseased  structures  by  means  of  a  more  or  less  extensive  suppuration. 

For  convenience  of  consideration  quitters  may  be  divided  into  four 
classes,  as  suggested  by  Girard.  (1)  Cutaneous  quittors,  which  is 
known  also  as  simple  quittor,  skin  quittor,  and  carbuncle  of  the  coronet; 
(2)  tendinous  quittor ;  (3)  subhorny  quittor ;  and  (4)  cartilaginous 
quittor. 

CUTANEOUS   QUITTOR. 

Simple  quittor  consists  in  a  local  inflammation  of  the  skin  and  of  the 
subcutaneous  connective  tissue  on  some  part  of  the  coronet,  followed 
by  a  slough  and  the  formation  of  an  ulcer,  which  heals  by  suppuration. 

It  is  an  extremely  painful  disease,  owing  to  the  dense  character  of 
the  tissues  involved;  for,  in  all  dense  structures,  the  swelling,  which 
accompanies  inflammation,  always  produces  intense  pressure.  This 
pressure  not  only  adds  to  the  patient's  suffering,  but  may,  at  the  same 
time,  endanger  the  life  of  the  affected  parts  by  strangulating  the  blood 
vessels,  which  alone  constitute  the  means  whereby  a  nutritive  supply 
is  constantly  maintained.  It  is  held  by  some  writers  on  the  subject 
that  simple  quittor  is  most  often  met  with  in  the  hind  feet,  but  in  the 
author's  experience  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  cases  have  developed 


369 

in  the  fore  feet.    While  any  part  of  the  coronet  may  become  the  seat  of 
attacli,  the  heels  and  quarters  are  undoubtedly  most  liable. 

Causes.— Bvmsen  and  other  wounds  of  the  coronet  are  often  the  cause 
of  cutaneous  quittor,  yet  there  can  be  no  question  but  that  in  the  great 
majority  of  these  cases  the  disease  develops  without  any  known  cause. 
For  some  reason,  not  yet  satisfactorily  explained,  most  cases  happen  in 
the  fall  of  the  year.  One  explanation  of  this  fact  has  been  attempted 
in  the  statement  that  the  disease  is  due  to  the  injurious  action  of  cold 
and  mud.  This  claim,  however,  seems  to  lose  force  when  it  is  remem- 
bered that  in  many  parts  of  this  country  the  most  mud,  accompanied 
by  freezing  and  thawing  weather,  is  seen  in  the  early  springtime  with- 
out a  corresponding  increase  of  quittor.  Furthermore,  the  serious  out- 
breaks of  this  disease  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  Colorado,  Wyo- 
ming, and  Montana  are  seen  in  the  fall  and  winter  seasons,  when  the 
weather  is  the  driest.  It  may  be  claimed,  and  i^erhaps  with  justice, 
that  during  these  seasons,  when  the  water  is  low,  animals  are  compelled 
to  wade  through  more  mud  to  drink  from  lakes  and  pools  than  is  neces- 
sary at  other  seasons  of  the  year,  when  these  lakes  and  pools  are  full. 
Add  to  these  conditions  the  further  fact  that  much  of  this  mud  is  im- 
pregnated with  alkaline  salts,  which,  like  the  mineral  substances  always 
found  in  the  mud  of  cities,  are  more  or  less  irritating,  and  it  seems  fair 
to  conclude  that  under  certain  circumstances  mud  may  become  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  production  of  quittor.* 

While  this  disease  at  times  attacks  any  and  all  classes  of  horses,  it  is 
the  large,  common  breeds,  with  thick  skins,  heavy  coats,  and  coarse 
legs  that  are  most  often  affected.  Horses  well  groomed  and  cared  for 
in  stables  seem  to  be  less  liable  to  the  disease  than  those  running  at 
large  or  than  those  which  are  kept  and  worked  under  adverse  circum- 
stances. 

Sijm2)toms. — Lameness,  lasting  from  one  to  three  or  four  days,  nearly 
always  precedes  the  development  of  the  strictly  local  evidences  of 
quittor.  The  next  sign  is  the  appearance  of  a  small,  tense,  hot,  and 
painful  tumor  in  the  skin  of  the  coronary  region.  If  the  skin  of  the 
afi'ected  foot  is  white  the  inflamed  portion  will  present  a  dark  red  or 
even  a  purplish  appearance  near  the  center.     Within  a  few  hours'  time 

*A  recent  outbreak  of  quittor  near  Cheyenne,  Wyo.,  wbicli  came  under  the  author's 
observation,  ^Tas  caused  by  the  mud  through  -which  the  horses  had  to  wado  to  reach 
the  watering  troughs.  These  troughs  were  furnished  with  water  by  windmills,  and 
the  mud-holes  were  caused  by  the  wastewater.  More  than  tifty  cases  developed  in- 
side of  two  mouths'  time  or  during  September  and  October.  Among  these  fifty  cases 
all  forms  of  the  disease  and  all  possible  complications  were  i^resented.  During  the 
rainy  season  at  Leadville,  Colo.,  outbreaks  of  quittor  are  common,  and  the  disease  is 
so  virulent  that  it  has  long  been  known  as  the  "  Leadville  foot-rot."  The  soil  being 
rich  in  mineral  matters  is  no  doubt  the  cause  of  the  outbreaks.  In  the  city  of  Mon- 
treal quittor  is  said  to  be  very  common  in  the  early  springtime,  when  the  streeis  are 
muddy  from  the  melting  of  the  snow  and  ice. 
11035 24 


370 

tlie  ankle,  or  even  the  whole  leg  as  high  as  the  knee  or  hock,  becomes 
much  swollen.  The  lameness  is  now  so  great  that  the  patient  refuses 
to  use  the  foot  at  all,  but  carries  it  in  the  air  if  compelled  to  move.  As 
a  consequence  the  opposite  leg  is  required  to  do  the  Avork  of  both,  and 
if  the  animal  persists  in  standing  a  greater  part  of  the  time  it,  too,  be- 
comes swollen.  In  many  of  these  cases  the  suffering  is  so  intense 
during  the  first  few  daj's  as  to  cause  general  fever,  dullness,  loss  of  ap- 
petite, and  increased  thirst.  Generally  tb?  tumor  shows  signs  of  sup- 
puration within  from  forty-eight  to  seventy-two  hours  after  its  first 
appearance;  the  summit  softens,  a  fluctuating  fluid  is  felt  beneath  the 
skin,  which  soon  ulcerates  completely  through,  causing  the  discharge 
of  a  thick,  yellow,  bloody  pus,  containing  shreds  of  dead  tissue  which 
have  sloughed  away.  The  sore  is  now  converted  into  an  open  ulcer, 
generally  deep,  nearly  or  quite  circular  in  outline,  and  with  hardened 
base  and  edges.  In  exceptional  cases  large  patches  of  skin,  varying 
from  1  to  2i  inches  in  diameter,  slough  away  at  once,  leaving  an  ugly 
superficial  ulcer.  These  sores,  especially  when  deep,  suppurate  freely ; 
if  there  are  no  complications  they  tend  to  heal  rapidly  as  soon  as  the  de- 
generated tissue  has  softened  and  is  entirely  removed.  When  suppura- 
tion is  fully  established  the  lameness  and  general  symptoms  subside. 
Where  but  a  single  tumor  and  abscess  form,  the  disease  progresses  rap- 
idly and  recovery^  under  i^roper  treatment,  may  be  effected  in  from  two 
to  three  weeks'  time ;  but  when  two  or  more  tumors  are  developed  at 
once  or  where  the  formation  of  one  tumor  is  ra])idly  succeeded  by 
another  for  an  indefinite  time  the  sufterings  of  the  patient  are  greatly 
increased,  the  case  is  more  difficult  to  treat,  and  recovery  is  more  slow 
and  less  certain. 

This  form  of  quittor  is  often  complicated  with  the  tendinous  and  sub- 
horny  quitters  by  an  extension  of  the  sloughing  jirocess. 

Treatment. — The  first  step  in  the  treatment  of  an  outbreak  of  quittor 
should  be  the  removal  of  all  exciting  causes.  Crowding  animals  into 
small  corrals  and  stables,  where  injuries  to  the  coronet  are  likely  to 
happen  from  tramping,  especially  among  unbroken  range  horses,  must 
be  avoided  as  much  as  possible. 

Watering  places,  accessible  without  having  to  wade  through  mud,  are 
to  be  supplied.  In  towns,  where  the  mud  or  dust  is  largely  impregnated 
with  mineral  products,  it  is  not  possible  to  adopt  complete  prophylactic 
measures.  Much  can  be  done,  however,  by  careful  cleansing  of  the  feet 
and  legs  as  soon  as  the  animal  returns  from  work.  Warm  water  should 
be  used  to  remove  the  mud  and  dirt,  after  which  the  parts  are  to  be 
thoroughly  dried  with  soft  cloths. 

The  means  which  are  to  be  adopted  for  the  cure  of  cutaneous  quittor 
vary  with  the  stage  of  the  disease  at  the  time  the  case  is  presented  for 
treatment.  If  the  case  is  seen  early,  that  is,  before  any  of  the  signs  of 
suppuration  have  developed,  the  affected  foot  is  to  be  placed  under  a 


371 

constant  stream  of  cold  water,  Avitli  the  object  of  arresting  a  farther 
extension  of  the  inflammatory  process.  To  accomplish  this  pat  the 
patient  in  slings  in  a  narrow  stall  having  a  slat  or  open  floor.  Bandage 
the  foot  and  leg  to  the  knee  or  hock,  as  the  case  may  be,  with  flannel 
bandages  loosely  applied.  Set  a  tab  or  barrel  filled  with  cold  water 
above  the  patient  and  by  the  use  of  a  small  rubber  hose  of  sufficient 
length  make  a  siphon  which  will  carry  the  water  from  the  bottom  of 
the  tub  to  the  leg  at  the  top  of  the  bandages.  The  stream  of  water 
should  be  quite  small,  and  it  is  to  be  continued  until  the  inflammation 
has  -entirely  subsided  or  until  the  presence  of  pus  cau  be  detected  in 
the  tumor.  When  suppuration  has  commenced  the  process  should  be 
aided  by  the  use  of  warm  baths  and  poultices  of  linseed  meal  or  boiled 
turnips.  If  the  tumor  is  of  rapid  growth,  accompanied  by  intense  paiQj 
relief  is  secured  and  sloughing  largely  limited  by  a  free  incision  of  the 
parts.  The  incision  should  be  vertical  and  deep  into  the  tumor,  care 
being  taken  not  to  entirely  divide  the  coronary  band.  If  the  tumor  ia 
large  more  than  one  incision  may  be  necessary. 

The  foot  should  now  be  placed  in  a  warm  bath  for  half  an  hour  or 
longer  and  then  poulticed.  The  hemorrhage  produced  by  the  cutting 
and  encouraged  by  the  warm  bath  is  generally  very  copious  ami  soon 
gives  relief  to  the  overtension  of  the  parts. 

In  other  cases  it  will  be  found  that  suppuration  is  well  under  way,  so 
that  the  center  of  the  tumor  is  soft  when  the  patient  is  first  presented 
for  treatment.  It  is  always  good  surgery  to  relieve  pus  whenever  its 
presence  can  be  detected;  hence  in  these  cases  a  free  incision  must  be 
made  into  the  softened  parts,  the  pus  evacuated  and  the  foot  poulticed. 
By  surgical  interference  the  tumor  is  now  converted  into  an  open 
sore  or  ulcer,  which,  after  it  has  been  well  cleaned  by  warm  baths  and 
poultices  applied  for  two  or  three  days,  needs  to  be  protected  by  proper 
dressings.  The  best  of  all  protective  dressings  is  made  of  small  balls 
or  pledgets  of  oakum,  carefully  packed  into  the  wound  and  held  in 
place  by  a  roller  bandage  4  yards  long,  from  3  to  4  inches  wide,  made 
of  common  bedticking  and  skillfully  applied.  The  I'cmedies  which  may 
be  used  to  stimulate  the  healing  i)rocess  are  many,  and  as  a  rule  they 
are  applied  in  the  form  of  solution  or  tinctures. 

In  my  own  jiractice  I  prefer  a  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury  1 
part,  water  oOO  parts,  with  a  few  drops  of  muriatic  acid  or  a  few  grains 
of  muriate  of  ammonia  added  to  cause  the  mercury  to  dissolve.  The 
balls  of  oakum  are  wet  with  this  solution  before  they  are  applied  to  the 
wound. 

Among  the  other  remedies  which  may  be  used,  and  perhaps  with 
equally  as  good  results,  will  be  noted  the  sulphate  of  copper,  iron,  and 
zinc,  5  grains  of  either  to  the  ounce  of  water ;  chloride  of  zinc,  5  grains 
to  the  ounce;  carbolic  acid,  20  drops  dissolved  in  an  equal  amount  of 
glycerine  and  added  to  one  ounce  of  water,  and  the  nitrate  of  silver,  10 
grains  to  the  ounce  of  water. 


372 

If  the  woiiud  is  slow  to  beal  it  will  be  found  of  advantage  to  change 
the  remedies  used  every  few  days,  for  after  a  time  a  remedy  seems  to 
lose  its  stimulating  effect  upon  the  slow-growing  granulations. 

If  the  wound  is  pale  in  color,  the  granulations  transparent  and  glis- 
tening, the  tincture  of  aloes,  tincture  of  gentian,  or  the  spirits  of  cam- 
phor may  do  best. 

When  the  sore  is  red  in  color  and  healing  rapidly  an  ointment  made 
of  1  part  of  carbolic  acid  to  40  parts  of  cosmoline  or  vaseline  is  all  that 
is  needed. 

If  the  granulations  continue  to  grow  until  a  tumor  is  formed,  which 
lirojects  beyond  the  surrounding  skin,  it  should  be  cut  off  with  a  sharp, 
clean  knife,  the  foot  poulticed  for  twenty-four  hours,  after  which  the 
wound  is  to  be  well  cauterized  daily  with  lunar  caustic  and  the  baud- 
ages  applied  with  great  firmness. 

The  question  as  to  how  often  the  dressings  should  be  renewed  must 
be  determined  by  the  condition  of  the  wound,  etc.  If  the  sore  is  sup- 
l^uratiug  freely  it  will  be  necessary  to  renew  the  dressing  every  twenty- 
four  or  forty-eight  hours.  If  the  discharge  is  small  in  quantity  and  the 
patient  comfortable  the  dressing  may  be  left  on  for  several  days ;  in 
fact,  the  less  often  the  wound  is  disturbed  the  better,  in  so  long  as  the 
healing  process  is  healthy.  When  the  sore  commences  to  skin  over  the 
edges  should  be  lightly  touched  with  the  lunar  caustic  at  each  dressing. 
The  patient  may  now  be  given  a  little  exercise  tlaily,  but  the  bandages 
must  be  kept  on  until  the  wound  is  entirely  healed. 

TENDINOUS   QUITTOR. 

This  form  of  quittor  differs  from  the  cutaneous  in  tbat  it  not  only 
affects  the  skin  and  subcutaneous  tissues,  but  involves,  also,  the  ten- 
dons of  the  leg,  the  ligaments  of  the  joints,  and,  in  many  cases,  the  bones 
of  the  foot  as  well. 

Fortunately  this  form  of  quittor  is  less  common  than  the  preceding; 
yet  any  case  beginning  as  simple  cutaneous  quittor  may,  at  any  time 
during  its  course,  become  complicated  by  the  death  of  some  part  of  the 
tendons  by  gangrene  of  the  ligaments,  sloughing  of  the  coronary  band, 
caries  of  the  bones,  or  inflammation  accompanied  by  suppuration  of 
the  synovial  sacs  and  joints,  thereby  converting  a  simple  quittor  into 
one  which  will,  iu  all  probability,  either  destroy  the  patient's  life  or 
maim  him  for  all  time. 

Causes. — Tendinous  quittor  is  caused  by  the  same  iujuries  and  in- 
fluences that  produce  the  simple  form.  Zundel  believes  it  to  be  a  not 
infrequent  accompaniment  of  distemper.  In  my  own  experience  I  have 
seen  nothing  to  verify  this  belief,  but  I  am  satisfied  that  young  animals 
are  more  liable  to  have  tendinous  quittor  than  older  ones,  and  that  they 
are  much  more  likely  to  make  a  good  recovery. 

8inni)toms. — When  a  case  of  simi^le  quittor  is  transformed  into  the 
tendinous  variety  the  development  of  the  complications  is  announced 


373 

by  a  sudden  increase  in  the  severity  of  all  of  tlie  symptoms.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  attack  primarily  is  one  of  tendinous  quittor,  the 
earliest  symptom  seen  is  a  well-marked  lameness  in  the  affected  leg. 
In  those  cases  due  to  causes  other  than  injuries  this  lameness  is  at  first 
very  slight,  and  the  animal  limps  no  more  in  trotting  than  in  walking; 
but  later  on,  generally  during  the  next  forty-eight  hours,  the  lameness 
increases  to  such  an  extent  that  the  patient  often  refuses  to  use  the  leg 
at  all.  An  examination  made  during  the  first  two  days  rarely  discloses 
any  cause  for  this  lameness ;  it  may  not  be  possible  even  to  say,  with 
certainty,  that  the  foot  is  the  seat  of  the  trouble.  On  the  third  or 
fourth  day,  sometimes  so  late  as  the  fifth,  a  doughy-feeling  tumor  will 
be  found  forming  on  the  heel  or  quarter.  This  tumor  grows  rapidly, 
feels  hot  to  the  touch,  and  is  extremely  painful.  As  the  tumor  devel- 
ops all  the  other  symptoms  increase  in  intensity  ;  the  pulse  is  rapid 
and  hard,  the  breathing  quick,  the  temperature  elevated  three  or  four 
degrees,  the  appetite  is  gone,  thirst  is  increased,  and  the  lameness  is  so 
great  that  the  foot  is  carried  in  the  air  if  locomotion  is  attempted.  At 
this  stage  of  the  disease  the  patient  generally  seeks  relief  by  lying 
upon  the  broad  side,  with  outstretched  legs,  the  coat  bedewed  with  a 
clammy  sweat,  while  every  respiration  is  accompanied  by  a  moan.  The 
leg  soon  swells  to  the  fetlock ;  later  this  swelling  gradually  extends  as 
as  high  as  to  the  knee  or  hock,  and  in  some  cases  it  even  reaches  the 
body.  As  a  rule  several  days  elapse  before  the  disease  develops  a  well 
defined  abscess,  for,  owing  to  the  dense  structure  of  the  bones,  liga- 
ments and  tendons,  the  suppurative  process  is  a  slow  one,  and  the  pus 
when  formed  is  prevented  from  readily  collecting  in  a  mass. 

Recently  I  made  ix,  post  mortem  examination  on  a  typical  case  of  this 
disease,  where  the  animal  had  died  on  the  fourth  day  after  being  found 
on  the  range  slightly  lame.  The  suffering  had  been  intense;  yet  the 
only  external  evidences  of  the  disease  consisted  in  the  shedding  of  the 
hoof  from  the  right  fore  foot,  and  a  limited  swelling  of  the  leg  to  the 
knee.  The  sloughing  of  the  hoof  took  place  two  or  three  hours  before 
death,  and  was  accompanied  with  but  little  suppuration  and  no  hemor- 
rhage. The  skin,  from  the  knee  to  the  foot,  was  thickened  from  watery 
infiltration  (cedema),  and  on  the  inside  quarter  three  holes,  each  about 
one-half  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  were  found.  All  had  ragged  edges, 
while  but  one  had  gone  deep  enough  to  perforate  the  coronary  band. 
The  loose  connective  tissue,  found  beneath  the  skin,  was  distended  with 
a  gelatinous  infiltration,  over  the  whole  course  of  the  flexor  tendons, 
and  to  the  fetlock  joint  over  the  tendon  in  front.  The  soft  tissues 
covering  the  cofQn  bone  were  loosened  in  patches  by  collections  of  pus 
which  had  formed  beneath  the  sensitive  lamiure.  The  coffin  and  pastern 
joints  were  both  inflamed,  as  were  also  the  coflin,  navicular  and  coronet 
bones,  while  the  outside  toe  of  the  coffin  bone  had  become  softened 
from  suppuration,  until  it  could  readily  be  crumbled  between  the  fin- 
gers.   The  coronary  band  was  largely  destroyed  and  completely  sepa- 


374 

rated  from  tlie  other  tissues  of  the  foot ;  the  inner  lateral  cartilage  M'as 
gangrenous,  as  was  also  a  small  spot  on  the  extensor  tendon,  near  its 
point  of  attachment  on  the  colfin  bone.  Several  small  collections  of 
pus  were  found  deep  in  the  connective  tissue  of  the  coronary  region ; 
along  the  course  of  the  sesamoid  ligaments  ;  in  the  sheath  of  the  flexor 
tendons;  under  the  tendon  just  below  the  fetlock  joint  in  front,  and  in 
the  coffin  joint. 

But  all  cases  of  tendinous  quittor  are  by  no  means  so  complicated  as 
this  one  was.  In  rare  instances  the  swelling  is  slight,  and,  after  a  few 
daj's'  time  the  lameness  and  other  symptoms  subside  without  any  dis- 
charge of  pus  from  an  external  opening.  In  most  cases,  however,  from 
one  to  half  a  dozen  or  more  soft  points  arise  on  the  skin  of  tbe  coronet, 
open,  and  discharge  slowly  a  thick,  yellow,  fetid,  and  bloody  matter. 
In  other  cases  the  suppurative  process  is  largely  confined  to  the  sensi- 
tive lam.inae  and  plantar  cushion ;  in  these  cases  the  suftering  is  intense 
until  the  pus  finds  an  avenue  of  escape,  which  it  generally  does  by 
separating  the  hoof  from  the  coronary  band,  at  or  near  the  heels,  with- 
out causing  a  loss  of  the  whole  horny  box.  When  the  flexor  tendon  is 
involved  deep  in  the  foot,  the  discharge  of  pus  usually  takes  place  from 
an  opening  in  the  hollow  of  the  heel  5  if  the  sesamoid  ligament,  or  the 
sheath  of  the  flexors,  are  affected,  the  opening  is  nearer  the  fetlock 
joint ;  although  in  most  of  these  cases  the  suppuration  spreads  along 
the  course  of  the  tendons  until  the  navicular  joint  is  involved,  and  ex- 
tensive sloughing  of  the  deeper  i^arts  follows. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  tendinous  quittor  is  to  be  directed  to- 
ward the  saving  of  the  foot.  First  of  all,  an  effort  must  be  made  to 
prevent  suppuration;  and  if  the  patient  is  seen  at  the  beginning,  the 
cold  irrigation,  recommended  in  the  treatment  for  cutaneous  quittor,  is 
to  be  resorted  to.  Later  on,  when  the  tumor  is  forming  on  the  coronet, 
the  knife  must  be  used,  and  a  free  and  deep  incision  made  into  the 
swelling.  Whenever  openings  appear  from  which  the  pus  escapes  they 
should  be  carefully  probed  ;  in  all  instances  these  fistulous  tracts  will 
be  found  leading  down  to  dead  tissue  which  nature  is  trying  to  remove 
by  the  process  of  sloughing.  If  a  counter  opening  can  be  made,  which 
will  enable  a  more  ready  escape  of  the  pus,  it  should  be  done  at  once; 
for  instance,  if  the  probe  shows  that  the  discharge  originates  from  the 
bottom  of  the  foot  the  sole  must  be  pared  through,  over  the  seat  of 
trouble.  Whenever  suppuration  has  commencet),  the  process  is  to  be 
stimulated  by  the  use  of  warm  baths  and  poultices.  The  pus  which  ac- 
cumulates in  the  deeper  i^arts,  especially  along  the  tendons,  around  the 
joints  and  in  the  hoof,  is  to  be  removed  by  pressure  and  injections,  made 
with  a  small  syringe  and  repeated  two  or  three  times  a  day.  As  soon 
as  the  discharge  assumes  a  healthy  character  and  diminishes  in  quan- 
tity, stimulating  solutions  are  to  be  injected  into  the  open  wounds. 
Where  the  tendons,  ligaments,  and  other  deeper  parts  are  affected,  a 


375 

strong  solution  of  carbolic  acid — 1  to  4 — should  be  used  at  first.  Or, 
strong  solutions  of  tincture  of  iodine,  sulphate  of  iron,  sulphate  of  cop- 
per, bichloride  of  mercury,  etc.,  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  carbolic; 
after  which  the  remedies  and  dressings,  directed  for  use  in  simple  quit- 
tor,  are  to  be  used.  In  those  cases  where  the  fistulous  tracts  refuse  to 
heal,  it  is  often  necessary  to  burn  them  out  with  a  saturated  solution 
of  caustic  soda,  equal  parts  of  muriatic  acid  and  water,  or,  better  still, 
with  along,  thin  iron,  heated  white  hot. 

But  no  matter  what  treatment  is  adopted,  a  large  percentage  of  the 
cases  of  tendinous  quittor  fail  to  make  good  recoveries.  Where  the 
entire  hoof  sloughs  away,  the  growth  of  a  new,  but  soft  and  imperfect, 
hoof  may  be  secured  by  carefully  protecting  the  soft  and  exposed  tis- 
sues with  proper  bandages.  When  the  joints  are  opened  by  deep 
sloughing,  recovery  may  eventually  take  place,  but  the  joint  remains 
immovable  ever  after.  If  caries  of  a  small  part  of  the  cofiin  bone  takes 
place,  it  may  be  removed  by  an  operation  ;  but  if  much  of  the  bone  is 
affected,  or  if  the  navicular  and  coronet  bones  are  involved  in  the  cari- 
ous process,  the  only  hope  for  a  cure  is  in  the  amputation  of  the  foot. 
Of  course,  this  operation  would  only  be  advisable  where  the  animal  was 
valuable  for  breeding  purposes.  In  all  other  cases  where  there  is  no 
hope  for  recovery  the  patient's  suffering  should  be  relieved  by  death. 
In  tendinous  quittor  much  thickening  of  the  coronary  region,  and  some- 
times of  the  ankle  and  fetlock,  remains  after  suppuration  has  ceased 
and  the  fistulous  tracts  have  healed.  To  stimulate  the  reabsorption  of 
tliis  new  and  unnecessary  tissue  the  parts  should  be  fired  with  the  hot 
iron  ;  or,  in  its  absence,  repeated  blistering,  with  the  biniodide  of  mer- 
cury ointment,  may  largely  accomplish  the  same  result. 

SUBHORXY  QUITTOR. 

This  is  the  mostcommon  form  of  the  disease.  It  is  generally  seen  in  but 
one  foot  at  a  time,  and  more  often  in  the  fore  feet  than  in  the  hind  ones. 
It  nearly  always  attacks  the  inside  quarter,  but  may  affect  the  outside 
quarter,  the  toe  or  the  heel,  where  it  is  but  of  little  consequence.  It 
consists  in  the  inflammation  of  a  small  part  of  the  coronary  baud  and 
adjacent  skin,  followed  by  sloughing  and  more  or  less  suppuration, 
which  in  most  cases  extends  to  the  neighboring  sensitive  laminae. 

Causes. — Injuries  to  the  coronet,  such  as  bruises,  overreaching,  and 
calk  wounds,  are  considered  as  the  common  causes  of  this  disease. 
Still,  cases  occur  in  which  there  appears  to  be  no  exciting  cause,  just  as 
in  the  other  forms  of  quittor,  and  it  seems  fair  to  conclude  that  sub- 
horny  quittor  may  also  be  produced  by  internal  causes. 

S>jm2)toms. — At  the  outset  the  lameness  is  always  severe,  and  the 
patient  often  refuses  to  use  the  affected  foot.  Swelling  of  the  cor- 
onet takes  place  close  to  the  top  of  the  hoof,  causing  the  quarter 
to  protrude  beyond    the  wall  of  the  foot.     This  tumor   is  extremely 


376 

sensitive,  and  the  whole  foot  is  hot  and  i)ainfii].  After  a  few  days' 
time  a  small  spot  in  the  skin,  over  the  most  elevated  part  of  the 
tumor,  softens  and  opens,  or  else  the  hoof  separates  from  the  coronary 
band  at  the  quarter  or  well  back  toward  the  heel.  From  this  opening, 
wherever  it  may  be,  a  thin,  watery,  offensive  discharge  escapes,  often 
dark  in  color,  at  times  mixed  with  blood,  and  always  containing  a  con- 
siderable percentage  of  pus. 

Probing  will  now  disclose  a  fistulous  tract  leading  to  the  bottom  of 
the  diseased  tissues.  If  the  opening  is  small  there  is  a  tendency  upon 
the  part  of  the  suppurative  process  to  spread  downward  ;  the  pus  grad- 
ually separating  the  hoof  from  the  sensitive  lamiuje  until  the  sole  is 
reached,  and  even  a  portion  of  this  may  also  be  undermined. 

As  a  rule,  the  slough  in  this  form  of  quittor  is  not  deep,  so  that  if  the 
case  receives  early  and  proper  treatment  complications  are  generally 
avoided,  but  if  the  case  is  neglected,  and,  occasionally,  even  in  spite  of 
the  best  of  treatment,  the  disease  spreads  until  the  tendon  in  front,  the 
lateral  cartilage,  or  the  coffin  bone  and  joint  as  well,  are  involved. 

In  all  cases  of  subhorny  quittor  much  relief  is  experienced  as  soon 
as  the  slough  has  come  away,  and  rapid  progress  toward  recover^"  is 
made.  If,  however,  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  days'  time,  the  lameness 
still  remains  and  the  wound  continues  to  discharge  a  thin  unhealthy 
matter,  the  probabilities  are  that  the  disease  is  spreading,  and  that  pus 
is  collecting  in  the  deeper  parts  of  the  foot.  In  Zundel's  opinion,  if  the 
use  of  the  probe  now  detects  a  pus  cavity  below  the  opening,  a  car- 
tilaginous quittor  is  in  the  course  of  development. 

Treatment. — Hot  baths  and  poultices  are  to  be  used  until  the  presence 
of  pus  can  be  determined,  when  the  tumor  is  to  be  opened  with  a  knife 
or  sharp-pointed  iron  heated  white  hot.  The  hot  baths  and  poultices 
are  now  continued  for  a  few  days,  or  until  the  entire  slough  has  come 
away  and  the  discharge  is  diminished,  when  the  dressings  recommended 
in  the  treatment  for  cutaneous  quittor  are  to  be  used  until  recovery  is 
completed.  In  cases  where  the  discharge  comes  from  a  cleft  between 
the  upper  border  of  the  hoof  and  the  coronary  band,  always  pare  away 
the  loosened  horn,  so  that  the  soft  tissuea  beneath  are  fully  exposed, 
care  being  taken  not  to  injure  the  healthy  j^arts.  This  operation  per- 
mits of  a  thorough  inspection  of  the  diseased  parts,  the  easy  removal 
of  all  gangrenous  tissue,  and  a  better  application  of  the  necessary  rem- 
edies and  dressings.  The  only  objection  to  the  operation  is  that  the 
patient  is  prevented  from  being  early  returned  to  work. 

When  the  probe  shows  that  pus  has  collected  under  the  coffin  bone, 
the  sole  must  be  pared  through,  and  if  caries  of  the  bone  is  present, 
the  dead  parts  must  be  cut  away.  After  either  of  these  operations  tlie 
wound  is  to  be  dressed  with  the  oakum  balls  saturated  in  the  bi- 
chloride of  mercury  solution,  as  previously  directed,  and  the  bandages 
tightly  applied.  Generally  the  discharge  for  the  first  two  or  three  days 
is  so  great  that  the  dressings  need  to  be  changed  every  twenty-four 


377 

hours;  but  when  the  discharge  diminishes,  the  dressing  maybe  left  on 
from  one  to  two  weeks.  Before  the  patient  is  returned  to  work,  a  bar 
shoe  should  be  applied,  since  the  removed  quarter  or  heel  can  only  be 
made  perfect  again  by  a  new  growth  from  the  coronary  band. 

Tendinous  or  cartilaginous  complications  are  to  be  treated  as  directed 
under  these  headings. 

CARTILAGINOUS   QUITTOn. 

This  form  of  quittor  may  commeuce  as  a  primary  inflammation  of  the 
lateral  cartilage,  but  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  it  appears  as  a  se- 
quel to  cutaneous  or  sub-horny  quittor.  It  may  affect  either  the  fore 
or  hind  feet,  but  is  most  commonly  seen  in  the  former.  As  a  rule,  it 
attacks  but  one  foot  at  a  time,  and  but  one  of  the  cartilages,  and  that 
is  generally  the  inner  one.  It  is  always  a  serious  affection  for  the  rea- 
son that,  in  many  cases,  it  can  only  be  cured  by  a  surgical  operation, 
requiriug  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  the  parts  involved 
and  much  surgical  skill. 

Causes. — Direct  injuries  to  the  coronet,  such  as  tramping,  pricks, 
burns,  and  the  blow  of  some  heavy  falling  object  which  may  puncture, 
bruise,  or  crush  the  cartilage,  are  the  common  direct  causes  of  cartilag- 
inous quittor.  Besides  being  a  sequel  to  the  other  forms  of  quittor,  it 
sometimes  develops  as  a  complication  in  suppurative  corn,  canker, 
grease,  laminitis,  and  i)unctured  wounds  of  the  foot.  Animals  used  for 
heavy  draught,  and  those  with  flat  feet  and  low  heels,  are  more  liable 
to  the  disease  than  others,  for  the  simple  reason  that  they  are  more  ex- 
posed to  injury.  Eough  roads  also  predispose  to  the  disease  by  in- 
creasing liability  to  injury. 

Sym2)fo)ns. — When  the  disease  commences  as  a  primary  inflammation 
of  the  cartilage,  lameness  develops  with  the  formation  of  a  swelling  on 
the  side  of  the  coronet  over  the  quarter.  The  severity  of  this  lameness 
depends  largely  upon  the  part  of  the  cartilage  which  is  diseased  ;  if  the 
disease  is  situated  in  that  part  of  the  cartilage  nearest  the  heel,  where 
the  surrounding  tissues  are  soft  and  spongy,  the  lameness  may  be  very 
slight,  especially  if  the  patient  is  required  to  go  no  faster  than  a  walk; 
but  when  the  middle  and  anterior  parts  of  the  cartilage  are  diseased 
the  pain  and  consequent  lameness  are  much  greater,  for  the  tissues  are 
less  elastic  and  the  coffin  joint  is  more  likely  to  become  affected. 

Except  in  the  cases  to  be  noted  hereafter,  one  or  more  fistulous  open- 
ings finally  appear  in  the  tumor  on  the  coronet.  These  openings  are 
surrounded  by  a  small  mass  of  granulations,  which  are  elevated  above 
the  adjacent  skin  and  bleed  readily  if  handled.  A  probe  shows  these 
fistulous  tracts  to  bo  more  or  less  sinuous,  but  always  leading  to  one 
point — the  gangrenous  cartilage.  When  cartilaginous  quittor  happens 
as  a  complication  of  suppurative  corn,  or  from  punctured  wounds  of  the 
foot,  the  fistulous  tract  may  open  alone  at  the  point  of  injury  on  the 
sole. 


378 

Tbe  discharge  in  tliis  form  of  quittor  is  generally  thin,  -svatery,  and  con- 
tains enough  pus  to  give  it  a  pale  yellow  color ;  it  is  ofieusive  to  the  sense 
of  smell,  due  to  the  detachment  of  small  flakes  of  the  cartilage  which 
have  become  gangrenous  and  are  are  to  be  seen  in  the  discharge  in  the 
form  of  small  greenish-colored  particles.  In  old  cases  it  is  not  unusual 
to  find  some  of  the  fistulous  openings  heal  at  the  surface  5  this  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  gradual  collection  of  pus  in  the  deeper  parts,  forming  an 
abscess,  which  in  a  short  time  opens  at  a  new  point.  The  wall  of  the 
hoof,  over  the  affected  quarter  and  heel,  in  very  old  cases,  becomes 
rough  and  wrinkled  like  the  horn  of  a  ram  ;  and  generally  it  is  thicker 
than  the  correspondiug  quarter,  owing  to  the  stimulating  effect  which 
the  disease  has  upon  the  coronary  band. 

Complications  may  arise  by  an  extension  of  the  disease  to  the  lateral 
ligament  of  the  coflQn  joint,  to  the  joint  itself,  to  the  plantar  cushion, 
and  by  caries  of  the  cofiin  bone. 

Treatment. — Before  recovery  can  take  place  in  these  cases  all  of  the 
dead  cartilage  must  be  removed.  In  rare  instances  this  is  effected  by 
nature  without  assistance.  Usually,  however,  the  disease  does  not  tend 
to  recovery,  and  active  curative  measures  must  be  adopted.  The  best 
and  simj)lest  treatment  in  a  majority  of  cases  is  the  injection  of  strong- 
caustic  solutions,  which  are  intended  to  destroy  the  diseased  cartilage, 
and  to  cause  its  removal,  along  with  the  otlier  products  of  suppuration. 
In  favorable  cases  these  injections  will  secure  a  healing  of  the  wound 
in  from  two  to  three  week's  time.  While  the  saturated  solution  of  the 
sulphate  of  copper,  or  a  solution  of  10  parts  of  bi-chloride  of  mercury  to 
100  parts  of  water,  has  given  the  best  results  in  my  hands,  equally  as 
favorable  success  has  been  secured  by  others  from  the  use  of  caustic 
soda,  nitrate  of  silver,  sulphate  of  zinc,  tincture  of  iodine,  etc.  But  no 
matter  which  one  of  these  remedies  may  be  selected,  it  must  be  used  at 
least  twice  a  day  for  a  time.  The  solution  is  to  be  injected  into  the 
various  openings  with  enough  force  to  drive  it  to  the  bottom  of  the 
wound,  after  which  the  foot  is  to  be  dressed  with  a  pad  of  oakum,  held 
in  place  by  a  roller  bandage  tightly  applied.  T\'hile  it  is  not  always 
necessary,  in  many  cases  it  is  of  advantage  to  relieve  the  pressure  on 
the  parts  by  rasping  away  the  horn  over  the  seat  of  the  cartilage;  the 
coronary  band  and  the  laminpe  should  not  be  injured  in  the  operation. 

If  the  caustic  injections  prove  successful,  the  discharge  will  become 
healthy  and  gradually  diminish,  so  that  by  the  end  of  the  second  week 
it  will  be  found  that  the  fistulous  tracts  are  closing  up,  and  that  the 
injections  are  made  with  much  difficulty. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  but  little  or  no  improvement  after  this 
treatment  has  been  used  for  three  weeks,  it  may  reasonably  be  con- 
cluded that  the  operation  for  the  removal  of  the  lateral  cartilage  must 
be  resorted  to  for  the  cure  of  the  trouble.  As  this  operation  can  be 
safely  undertaken  only  by  an  expert  surgeon,  it  will  not  be  described  in 
this  connection. 


379 


THRUSH. 


Thrush  is  a  disease  characterized  by  an  excessive  secretion  of  un- 
healthy matter  from  the  cleft  of  the  frog.  While  all  classes  of  horses 
are  liable  to  this  affection,  it  is  more  often  seen  in  the  common  draft 
horse  than  in  any  other  breed,  a  fact  due  to  the  conditions  of  servitude 
and  not  to  the  fault  of  the  breed.  Country  horses  are  much  less  sub- 
ject to  tlie  disease,  except  in  wet,  marshy  districts,  than  are  the  horses 
used  in  cities  and  towns. 

Causes. — The  most  common  cause  of  thrush  is  the  filthy  condition  of 
the  stable  in  which  the  animal  is  kept.  Mares  are  more  liable  to  contract 
the  disease  in  the  hind  feet  when  the- cause  is  due  to  filth,  while  the  geld- 
ing and  stallion  are  more  likely  to  develop  it  in  the  fore  feet.  Hard 
work,  on  rough  and  stony  roads,  may  also  induce  the  disease,  as  may  a 
change  from  dryness  to  excessive  moisture.  The  latter  cause  is  often 
seen  to  operate  in  old  track  horses,  whose  feet  are  constantly  soaked  in 
the  bath-tub  for  the  purpose  of  relieving  soreness.  Muddy  streets  and 
roads,  especially  where  mineral  substances  are  plentiful,  excite  this 
abnormal  condition  of  the  frog.  Contracted  heels,  scratches,  and  navic- 
ular disease  predispose  to  thrush,  while  by  some  a  constitutional  tend- 
ency is  believed  to  exist  among  certain  animals  which  otherwise  j)re- 
sent  a  i)erfect  frog. 

Symptoms. — At  first  there  is  simply  an  increased  moisture  in  the  cleft 
of  the  frog,  accompanied  by  an  offensive  smell.  After  a  time  a  consider- 
able discharge  takes  place— thin,  watery,  and  highly  offensive — chang- 
ing gradually  to  a  thicker  puriform  matter,  which  rapidly"  destroys  the 
horn  of  the  frog.  Only  in  old  and  severe  cases  is  the  patient  lame  and 
the  foot  feverish, — cases  in  which  the  whole  frog  is  involved  in  the  dis- 
eased process. 

Treatment. — Thrushes  are  to  be  treated  by  cleanliness,  the  removal 
of  all  exciting  causes,  and  a  return  of  the  frog  to  its  normal  condition. 
As  a  rule,  the  diseased  and  ragged  portions  of  horn  are  to  be  pared 
awa}',  and  the  foot  poulticed  for  a  day  or  two  with  boiled  turnips,  to 
which  may  be  added  a  few  drops  of  carbolic  acid  or  a  handful  of  pow- 
dered charcoal  to  destroy  the  offensive  smell.  The  cleft  of  the  frog  and 
the  grooves  on  the  edges  are  then  to  be  cleaned  and  well  filled  with  dry 
calomel,  and  the  foot  dressed  with  oakum  and  a  roller  bandage.  If  the 
discharge  is  profuse  the  dressing  should  be  changed  daily,  otherwise  it 
may  be  left  on  for  two  or  three  days  at  a  time.  Where  a  constitutional 
taint  is  supposed  to  exist  with  swelling  of  the  legs,  grease,  etc.,  a  pur- 
gative followed  by  dram  doses  of  sulphate  of  iron,  repeated  daily,  may 
be  prescribed.  In  cases  where  the  growth  of  horn  seems  too  slow,  a 
Spanish  fly  blister  applietl  to  the  heels  is  often  followed  by  good  re- 
sults. Feet  in  which  the  disease  is  readily  induced  may  be  protected 
in  the  stable  with  a  leather  boot.  If  the  thrush  is  but  a  sequel  to  other 
diseases  a  permanent  cure  may  not  be  possible. 


380 


CANKER. 


Canker  of  the  foot  is  a  disease  due  to  the  rapid  reproduction  of  a 
vegetable  parasite.  It  not  only  destroys  the  sole  and  frog,  but  by  set- 
ting up  a  chronic  inflammation  in  the  deeper  tissues,  prevents  the 
growth  of  a  healthy  horn  by  which  the  injury  might  be  repaired. 
Heavy  cart  horses  are  more  often  affected  than  those  of  any  other  class. 

Causes.— The  essential  element  in  the  production  of  cankers  is  of 
coarse  the  presence  of  the  parasite;  consequently  the  disease  may  be 
called  contagious.  But,  as  in  all  other  diseases  due  to  specific  causes, 
the  seeds  of  the  disorder  must  find  a  suitable  soil  in  which  to  grow  be- 
fore they  are  reproduced.  It  may  be  said,  then,  that  the  conditions 
which  favor  the  preparation  of  the  tissues  for  a  reception  of  the  seeds 
of  this  disease  are  simply  predisposing  causes. 

The  condition  most  favorable  to  the  development  of  cankers  is  damp- 
ness—in fact,  dampness  seems  indispensable  to  the  existence  and  growth 
of  the  parasite;  for  the  disease  is  rarely,  if  ever,  seen  in  high,  dry  dis- 
tricts, and  is  much  more  common  in  rainy  than  in  dry  seasons.  Filthy 
stables  and  muddy  roads  have  been  classed  among  the  causes  of  canker  ; 
but  it  is  very  doubtful  if  these  conditions  can  do  more  than  favor  a 
preparation  of  the  foot  for  the  reception  of  the  disease  germ. 

All  injuries  to  the  feet  may,  by  exposing  the  soft  tissues,  render  the 
animal  susceptible  to  infection ;  but  neither  the  injury  nor  the  irritation 
and  inflammation  of  the  tissues  which  follow,  are  suflicient  to  induce  the 
disease. 

For  some  unknown  reason  horses  with  lymphatic  temperaments, 
thick  skins,  flat  feet,  fleshy  frogs,  heavy  hair,  and  particularly  with 
white  feet  and  legs,  are  especially  liable  to  canker. 

Symptoms. — Usually,  canker  is  confined  to  one  foot ;  but  it  may  attack 
two,  three,  or  all  of  the  feet  at  once;  or,  as  is  more  commonly  seen,  the 
disease  attacks  first  one  then  another,  until  all  may  have  been  succes- 
sively affected.  When  the  disease  follows  an  injury  which  has  exposed 
the  soft  tissues  of  the  foot  the  wound  shows  no  tendency  to  heal,  but, 
instead,  there  is  secreted  from  the  inflamed  parts  a  profuse,  thin,  fetid, 
watery  discharge,  which  gradually  undermines  and  destroys  the  sur- 
rounding horn,  until  eventually  a  large  part  of  the  sole  and  frog  is  dis- 
eased. The  living  tissues  are  swollen,  dark-colored,  and  covered  at  cer- 
tain points  with  particles  of  new,  soft,  yellowish,  thready  horn,  which 
are  constantly  undergoing  maceration  in  the  abundant  liquid  secretion 
by  which  they  are  immersed.  As  this  secretion  escapes  to  the  sur- 
rounding parts  it  dries  and  forms  small  cheesy  masses  composed  of  the 
partly  dried  horny  matter,  exceedingly  offensive  to  the  sense  of  smell. 
When  the  disease  originates  independently  of  an  injury,  the  first  evi- 
dences of  the  trouble  are  the  offensive  odor  of  the  foot,  the  liquid  secre- 
tion from  the  cleft  and  sides  of  the  frog,  and  the  rotting  away  of  the 
horn  of  the  frog  and  sole. 


381 

In  the  earlier  stages  of  the  disease  there  is  no  interference  with  locol 
motion,  but  later  the  foot  becomes  sensitive,  particnlarly  if  tiie  auima- 
is  used  on  rough  roads,  and,  finally,  when  the  sole  and  frog  are  largely 
destroyed  the  lameness  is  severe. 

Treat)nent. — Since  canker  does  not  destroy  the  power  of  the  tissues 
to  produce  horn,  but  rather  excites  them  to  an  excessive  production  of 
an  imperfect  horn,  the  indications  for  treatment  are  to  restore  tlie  parts 
to  a  normal  condition  when  healthy  horn  may  again  be  secreted.  In 
my  experience,  limited  though  it  has  been,  the  old  practice  of  stripping 
off  the  entire  sole  and  deep  cauterization,  witli  cither  the  hot  iron  or 
strong  acids,  is  not  attended  with  uniformly  good  results. 

I  am  of  the  opinion  that  recovery  can  generally  be  effected  as  surely 
and  as  speedily  with  measures  which  are  less  heroic  and  much  less 
painful.  True,  the  treatment  of  canker  is  likely  to  exhaust  the  patience, 
and  sometimes  the  resources,  of  the  attendant;  but  after  all  success 
depends  more  on  the  persistent  application  of  simple  remedies  and  great 
cleanliness  than  on  the  special  virtues  of  any  particular  drug. 

First,  then,  clean  the  foot  with  warm  baths,  and  apply  a  poultice 
containing  powdered  charcoal  or  carbolic  acid.  A  handful  of  the  char- 
coal, or  a  tablespoonful  of  the  acid,  mixed  with  the  poultice  serves  to 
destroy  much  of  the  offensive  odor.  The  diseased  portions  of  horn  are 
now  to  be  carefully  removed  with  sharp  instruments,  until  only  healthy 
horn  borders  the  affected  parts.  The  edges  of  the  sound  horn  are  to 
be  pared  thiu,  so  that  the  swollen  soft  tissues  may  not  overlap  their 
borders.  With  sharp  scissors  cut  off  all  the  prominent  points  on  the 
soft  tissues,  shorten  the  walls  of  the  foot,  and  nail  on  a  broad,  plain 
shoe.  The  foot  is  now  ready  for  the  dressings,  and  any  of  the  many 
stimulating  and  drying  remedies  may  be  used.  Whichever  is  selected 
at  the  outset,  it  will  be  necessary  to  change  frequently  from  one  to 
another,  until  finally  all  may  be  tried. 

The  list  from  which  a  selection  ma\'  be  made  comprises  wood  tar, 
gas  tar,  petroleum,  creosote,  phenic  acid,  sulphates  of  iron,  copper  and 
zinc,  chloride  of  zinc,  bichloride  of  mercury,  calomel,  caustic  soda, 
nitrate  of  silver,  chloride  of  lime,  carbolic,  nitric,  and  sulphuric  acids. 

In  practice  I  prefer  to  give  the  newly  shod  foot  a  bath  for  an  hour  or 
two  in  a  solution  of  the  sulphate  of  iron,  made  by  adding  2  ounces  of  the 
powdered  sulphate  to  a  gallon  of  cold  water.  When  the  foot  is  removed 
it  is  dressed  with  oakum  balls,  dipped  in  a  mixture  made  of  liarbadoes 
tar,  1  part ;  oil  of  turpentine,  8  parts,  to  which  are  slowly  added  2  parts 
of  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  mixture  well  stirred  and  cooled.  The  diseased 
parts  being  well  covered  with  the  balls,  a  pad  of  oakum,  sufhciently 
thick  to  cause  considerable  pressure,  is  placed  over  them,  and  all  are 
held  in  place  by  pieces  of  heavy  tin  fitted  to  slip  under  the  shoe.  The 
whole  foot  is  now  encased  in  a  boot  or  folded  gunny  sack,  and  the  patient 
turned  into  a  loose,  dry  box.  The  dressings  are  to  be  changed  daily,  or 
even  twice  a  day,  at  first.     When  they  are  removed  all  pieces  of  new 


382 

horny  matter,  wliich  are  not  firmly  adherent  must  be  rubbed  off  with 
the  finger  or  a  tent  of  oakum.  As  the  secretion  diminishes  dry  jiovrders 
may  prove  of  most  advantage,  such  as  calomel,  sulphates  of  iron, 
copper,  etc.  The  sulphates  should  not  be  used  pure,  but  are  to  be  mixed 
with  powdered  animal  charcoal  in  the  proportion  of  one  of  the  former  to 
eight  or  ten  of  the  latter.  When  the  soft  tissues  are  all  horned  over  the 
dressings  should  be  continued  for  a  time,  weak  solutions  being  used  to 
prevent  a  recurrence  of  the  disease.  If  the  patient  is  run  down  in  con- 
dition, bitter  tonics,  such  as  gentian,  may  be  given  in  2-dram  doses, 
twice  a  day,  and  a  liberal  diet  of  grain  allowed. 

CORNS 

A  corn  is  an  injury  to  the  living  horn  of  the  foot,  involving  at  the 
same  time  the  soft  tissues  beneath,  whereby  the  capillary  blood  vessels 
are  ruptured  and  a  small  amount  of  blood  escapes,  which,  by  permeat- 
ing the  horn  in  the  immediate  neighborhood,  stains  it  a  dark  color.  If 
the  injury  is  continuously  repeated  the  horn  becomes  altered  in  char- 
acter, the  soft  tissues  may  suppurate,  causing  the  disease  to  spread,  or 
a  horny  tumor  may  develop.  Corns  always  appear  in  that  part  of  the 
sole  included  in  the  angle  between  the  bar  and  the  outside  wall  of  the 
hoof.  In  many  cases  the  laminre  of  the  bar,  of  the  wall,  or  of  both,  are 
involved  at  the  same  time. 

Three  kinds  of  corns  are  commonly  recognized — the  dry,  the  moist, 
and  the  suppurative,  a  division  based  solely  on  the  character  of  the 
conditions  which  follow  the  primary  injury. 

The  forefeet  are  almost  exclusively  the  subjects  of  the  disease,  for  two 
reasons:  First,  because  they  support  a  greater  part  of  the  body;  sec- 
ondly, because  the  heel  of  the  fore  foot  during  progression  is  first  placed 
upon  the  ground,  whereby  it  receives  much  more  concussion  than  the 
heel  of  the  hind  foot,  in  which  the  toe  first  strikes  the  ground. 

Causes. — It  may  be  said  that  all  feet  are  exposed  to  corns,  and  that 
even  the  best  feet  may  suffer  from  them  when  the  conditions  necessary 
to  the  production  of  the  peculiar  injury  are  present.  The  heavier 
breeds  of  horses  generally  used  for  heavy  work  on  rough  roads  and 
streets  seem  to  be  most  liable  to  this  trouble.     Mules  rarely  have  corns. 

Among  the  causes  and  conditions  which  predispose  to  corns  may  be 
named  high  heels,  which  change  the  natural  relative  position  of  the  bones 
of  the  foot  and  thereby  increase  the  concussion  to  which  these  parts  are 
subject;  contracted  heels,  which  in  part  destroy  the  elasticity  of  the  foot, 
increase  the  pressure  upon  the  soft  tissues  of  the  heel,  and  render  lacer- 
ations more  easy ;  long  feet,  which,  by  removing  the  frog  and  heels  too 
far  from  the  ground,  deprive  them  of  necessary  moisture,  which  in  turn 
reduces  the  elastic  properties  of  the  horn  and  diminishes  the  transverse 
diameter  of  the  heels ;  weak  feet,  or  those  in  which  the  horn  of  the  wall 
is  too  thin  to  resist  the  tendency  to  spread,  and  as  a  result  the  soft  tis- 
sues are  easily  lacerated.     Wide  feet  with  low  heels  are  always  accom- 


383 

pauied  by  a  flat  solo  whose  posterior  wings  either  rest  upon  the  ground 
or  the  shoe,  and  as  a  consequence  are  easily  braised ;  at  the  same  time 
the  arch  of  the  sole  is  so  broad  and  flat  that  it  can  not  support  the 
weight  of  the  body,  and  in  the  displacement  which  happens  when  the 
foot  is  rested  upon  the  ground  the  soft  tissues  are  liable  to  become 
bruised  or  torn. 

It  is  universally  conceded  that  shoeing  of  the  foot,  either  as  a  direct 
or  predisposing  cause,  is  most  prolific  in  producing  corns.  One  of  the 
most  serious  as  well  as  the  most  common  of  the  errors  in  shoeing  is  to 
be  found  in  the  preparation  of  the  foot  for  the  shoe.  Instead  of  seeking 
to  maintain  the  integrity  of  the  arch  the  first  thing  done  is  to  weaken 
it  by  freely  paring  away  the  sole ;  nor  does  the  mutilation  end  here,  for 
the  frog,  which  is  nature's  main  support  to  the  branches  of  the  sole  and 
the  heels,  is  also  largely  cut  away.  This  not  only  permits  of  an  excessive 
downward  movement  of  the  contents  of  the  horny  box,  but  it  at  the 
same  time  removes  the  one  great  means  by  which  concussion  of  the  foot 
is  destroyed.  As  adjuncts  to  the  foregoing  errors  must  be  added  the 
ftiults  in  the  construction  of  the  shoe  and  in  the  way  it  is  adjusted  to 
the  foot.  An  excess  of  concavity  in  the  shoe,  by  extending  it  too  far 
back  on  the  heels,  high  calks,  thin  heels  which  permit  the  shoe  to 
spring,  short  heels  with  a  calk  set  under  the  foot,  and  a  shoe  too  light 
for  the  animal  wearing  it  or  for  the  work  required  of  him,  are  all  to  be 
avoided  as  causes  of  corns.  A  shoe  so  set  as  to  press  upon  the  sole,  or 
one  that  has  been  on  so  long  that  the  hoof  has  overgrown  it  until  the 
heels  rest  upon  the  sole  and  bars,  becomes  a  direct  cause  of  corns.  In- 
directly the  shoe  becomes  the  cause  of  corns  when  small  stones,  hard 
dry  earth,  or  other  objects  collect  between  the  sole  and  shoe.  Lastly, 
a  rapid  gait  and  excessive  knee  action,  especially  on  hard  roads,  predis- 
pose to  this  disease  of  the  feet. 

Sym2)toms.—OTdman\y  a  corn  induces  sufficient  pain  to  cause  lame- 
ness. It  may  be  intense,  as  seen  in  suppurative  corn,  or  it  may  be  but 
a  slight  soreness,  such  as  that  which  accompanies  dry  corn.  It  is  by  no 
means  unusual  to  see  old  horses  having  chronic  corns  apparently  so 
accustomed  to  the  slight  pain  which  they  suffer  as  not  to  limp  at  ail ; 
but  these  animals  are  generally  very  restless;  they  paw  their  bedding 
behind  them  at  night,  and  in  many  instances  they  refuse  to  lie  down 
for  any  lengthened  rest.  The  lameness  of  this  disease,  however,  can 
hardly  be  said  to  be  cliaracteristic,  for  the  reason  that  it  varies  so 
greatly  in  intensity  -,  but  the  position  of  the  leg  while  the  patient  is  at 
rest  is  generally  the  same  in  all  cases.  The  foot  is  so  advanced  that  it  is 
relieved  of  all  weight  and  the  fetlock  is  flexed  until  all  pressure  by  the 
contents  of  the  hoof  is  removed  from  the  heels.  In  suppurative  corn  the 
lameness  subsides  or  entirely  disappears  as  soon  as  the  abscess  has 
opened.  When  the  injured  tissues  are  much  inflamed,  as  may  happen 
in  severe  and  recent  cases,  the  heel  of  the  affected  side,  or  even  the  whole 
foot,  is  hot  and  tender  to  pressure.     In  dry  corn,  and  in  most  chronic 


384 

cases,  all  evidences  of  local  fever  are  often  wanting.  It  is  in  these  cases 
that  the  patient  goes  well  when  newly  shod,  for  the  smith  cuts  away  the 
sole  over  the  seat  of  injury  until  all  pressure  by  the  shoe  is  removed,  and 
lowers  the  heels  so  that  concussion  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  If  a  corn 
is  suspected  the  foot  should  be  examined  for  increased  sensibility  of 
the  inside  heel.  Tapping  the  heel  of  the  shoe  with  a  hammer  and 
grasping  the  wall  and  bar  between  the  jaws  of  a  pincers,  with  mod- 
erate pressure,  will  cause  more  or  less  flinching  if  the  disease  is  pres- 
ent. For  further  evidence  the  shoo  is  removed  and  the  heel  cut  away 
with  the  drawing  knife.  As  the  horn  is  pared  out  not  only  the  sole 
iu  the  angle  is  found  discolored,  but,  in  many  instances,  this  insensible 
laminffi  of  the  bar  and  wall  adjacent  are  also  stained  with  the  escaped 
blood.  In  moist  and  suppurative  corns  this  discoloration  is  less  marked 
than  in  dry  corn  and  may  even  be  entirely  wanting.  In  these  cases  the 
horn  is  soft,  often  white,  and  stringy  or  mealy,  as  seen  in  pumiced 
solo  resulting  from  founder.  When  the  whole  thickness  of  the  sole  is 
discolored  and  the  horn  dry  and  brittle  it  is  generally  evidence  that 
the  corn  is  an  old  one  and  that  the  exciting  cause  has  existed  contin- 
uously. A  moist  corn  differs  from  the  dry  corn  in  that  the  injury  is 
more  severe,  the  parts  affected  are  more  or  less  inflamed,  and  the  horn 
of  the  sole  iu  the  angle  is  undermined  by  a  citron-colored  fluid,  which 
often  permeates  the  injured  sole  and  lamina?,  causing  the  horn  to  be- 
come somewhat  spongy-. 

A  sufjpurative  corn  differs  from  the  others  in  that  the  inflammation 
accompanying  the  injury  ends  in  suppuration.  The  pus  collects  at  the 
point  of  injury  and  finally  escapes  by  working  a  iiassage  way  between 
the  sensitive  and  insensible  laminae  to  the  top  of  the  hoof,  where  an 
opening  is  made  by  separation  of  the  wall  from  the  coronary  band  at 
or  near  the  heels.  This  is  the  most  serious  form  of  corns,  for  the  reason 
that  it  may  induce  gangrene  of  the  plantar  cushion,  cartilaginous  quit- 
tor,  or  caries  of  the  cofiin  bone. 

Treatment. — Since  a  diversity  of  opinion  exists  as  to  what  measures 
must  be  adopted  for  the  radical  cure  of  corns,  the  author  will  advise 
the  use  of  those  which  have  proven  most  efiticient  in  his  hands. 

As  in  all  other  troubles,  the  cause  must  be  discovered,  if  possible,  and 
removed.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  shoeing  will  be  at  fault. 
While  sudden  changes  in  the  method  of  shoeing  are  not  advisable,  it 
may  be  said  that  all  errors,  either  in  the  preparation  of  the  foot,  in  the 
construction  of  the  shoe,  or  in  its  application,  may  very  properly  be 
corrected  at  any  time.  Circumstances  may,  at  times,  make  it  impera- 
tive that  shoes  shall  be  worn  which  are  not  free  from  objections,  as,  for 
instance,  the  shoe  with  a  high  calk ;  but  iu  such  cases  it  is  considered 
that  the  injuries  liable  to  result  from  the  use  of  calks  are  less  serious 
than  those  which  are  sure  to  happen  for  the  want  of  them. 

For  a  sound  foot,  perfectly  formed,  a  flat  shoe,  with  heels  less  thick 
than  the  toe,  and  which  rests  evenly  on  the  wall  proper,  is  the  best. 


385 

In  flat  feet  it  is  often  necessary  to  concave  the  shoe  as  much  as  possi- 
ble on  the  upper  surface,  so  that  the  sole  may  not  be  pressed  upon.  If 
the  heels  are  very  low  the  heels  of  the  shoe  may  be  made  thicker.  If 
the  foot  is  very  broad  and  the  wall  light  toward  the  heels,  a  bar  shoe, 
resting  upon  the  frog,  will  aid  to  prevent  excessive  tension  upon  the 
soft  tissues  when  the  foot  receives  the  weight  of  the  body.  A  piece  of 
leather  placed  between  the  foot  and  the  shoe  serves  to  largely  destroy 
concussion,  and  its  use  is  absolutely  necessary  on  some  animals  in  that 
they  may  be  kept  at  work. 

Lastly,  among  the  preventive  measures,  may  be  mentioned  those 
which  serve  to  maintain  the  suppleness  of  the  hoof.  The  dead  horn 
upon  the  surface  of  the  sole  not  only  retains  moisture  for  a  long  time, 
but  protects  the  living  horn  beneath  from  the  effects  of  evaporation, 
and  for  this  reason  the  sole  should  be  i3ared  as  little  as  possible.  Stuf- 
fing the  feet  with  flaxseed  meal,  wet  clay,  or  other  like  substances ; 
damp  dirt  floors  or  damp  bedding  of  tan-bark,  greasy  hoof  ointments, 
etc.,  are  all  means  which  may  be  used  to  keep  the  feet  from  becoming 
too  dry  and  hard. 

As  to  the  curative  measures  which  are  to  be  adopted  much  will  de- 
pend upon  the  extent  of  the  injury.  If  the  case  is  one  of  chronic  dry 
corn,  with  but  slight  lameness,  the  foot  should  be  ijoulticed  for  a  day 
or  two  and  the  discolored  horn  pared  out,  care  being  taken  not  to  injure 
the  soft  tissues.  The  heel  on  the  affected  side  is  to  be  lowered  until  all 
pressure  is  removed,  and,  if  the  patient's  labor  is  required,  the  foot  must 
be  shod  with  a  bar  shoe  or  with  one  having  stiff  heels.  Care  must  bo 
taken  to  reset  the  shoe  before  the  foot  has  grown  too  long,  else  the  shoe 
will  no  longer  rest  on  the  wall  but  on  the  sole  and  bar. 

In  moist  corns  we  believe  in  cutting  them  out.  If  there  is  inflamma- 
tion present,  cold  baths  and  poultices  should  bo  useil ;  when  the  horn 
is  well  softened  and  the  fever  allayed,  pare  out  all  of  the  diseased  horn, 
lightly  cauterize  the  soft  tissues  beneath,  and  poultice  the  foot  for  two 
or  three  days.  When  the  granulations  look  red  dress  the  wound  with 
oakum  balls  saturated  in  a  weak  solution  of  tincture  of  aloes  or  spirits 
of  camphor,  and  ai)ply  a  roller  bandage.  Change  the  dressing  every 
two  or  three  days  until  a  firm,  healthy  layer  of  new  horn  covers  the 
wound,  when  the  shoe  may  be  put  on,  as  in  dry  corn,  and  the  patient 
returned  to  work. 

In  suppurative  corns  the  loosened  horn  must  be  removed  so  that  the 
pus  may  freely  escape.  If  the  pus  has  worked  a  passage  to  the  coro- 
nary band,  and  escapes  from  an  opening  between  the  band  and  hoof, 
an  opening  must  be  made  on  the  sole,  and  cold  baths,  made  astringent, 
with  a  little  sulphate  of  iron  or  copper,  are  to  be  used  for  a  day  or  two. 
When  the  discharge  becomes  healthy  the  fistulous  tracts  may  be  in- 
jected daily  with  a  weak  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury,  nitrate  of 
silver,  etc.,  and  the  foot  dressed  as  after  the  operation  for  moist  corns. 
When  complications  arise  the  treatment  must  be  varied  to  meet  the 
11035 25 


386 

indications ;  if  gangrene  of  the  lateral  cartilage  takes  place  it  must  be 
treated  as  directed  under  tlie  head  of  cartilaginous  quittor  ;  if  the  vel- 
vety tissue  is  gangrenous  it  must  be  cut  away,  and  if  the  coffin  bone  is 
necrosed  it  must  be  scra})ed,  and  the  resulting  wounds  are  to  be  treated 
on  general  principles.  After  any  of  the  operations  for  corns  have  been 
performed,  in  which  the  soft  tissues  have  been  laid  bare,  it  is  best  to 
protect  the  foot  b3"  a  sole  of  soft  leather,  set  beneath  the  shoe,  when  the 
animal  is  returned  to  work.  Only  in  rare  instances  are  the  complica- 
tions of  corn  so  serious  as  to  destroy  the  life  or  usefulness  of  the  patient. 
It  is  the  wide,  flat  foot,  with  low  heels  and  a  thin  wall,  which  is  most 
liable  to  resist  all  efforts  toward  effecting  a  complete  cure, 

BRUISE   OF   THE   FROG. 

When  the  frog  is  severely  bruised  the  injury  is  followed  by  suppura- 
tion beneath  the  horn,  and  at  times  by  partial  gangrene  of  the  plantar 
cushion. 

Causes. — A  bruise  of  the  frog  generally  happens  from  the  animal 
stepping  on  a  rough  stone  or  other  hard  object.  It  is  more  apt  to  take 
place  when  the  animal  is  trotting,  running,  or  jumpiug  than  when  he  is 
at  a  slower  pace.  A  stone  wedged  between  the  branches  of  the  shoe 
in  the  cleft  of  the  frog,  or  between  the  sides  of  the  frog  and  the  shoe, 
and  remaining  for  a  time,  produces  the  same  results.  A  cut  through  the 
horny  frog  with  some  sharp  instrument  or  a  punctured  wound  with  a 
blunt  pointed  instrument  may  also  cause  suppuration  and  gangrene  of 
the  plantar  cushion.  Broad,  flat  feet,  with  low  heels  and  a  fleshy  frog, 
are  most  liable  to  these  injuries. 

Symptoms. — Lameness,  severe  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the 
bruise  and  the  consequent  suppuration,  is  always  an  early  symptom. 
When  the  animal  moves  the  toe  only  is  placed  to  the  ground,  or  the 
foot  is  carried  in  the  air  and  the  patient  hobbles  along  on  three  legs. 
When  he  is  at  rest  the  foot  is  set  forward  with  the  toe  resting  on  the 
ground  and  the  leg  flexed  at  the  fetlock  joint.  As  soon  as  the  pus 
finds  its  way  to  the  surface  the  lameness  improves.  If  the  frog  is  ex- 
amined early  the  injured  spot  may  usually  be  found,  and  if  no  opening 
exists  the  collection  of  pus  may  be  detected  working  its  way  toward 
the  heels.  The  horn  is  felt  to  be  loosened  from  the  deeper  tissues,  and 
if  it  is  pared  through,  a  thin,  yellow,  watery  and  offensiv^o  pus  escapes. 
In  other  cases  a  ragged  opening  is  found  in  the  frog,  leading  down  to 
a  mass  of  dead,  sloughing  tissues,  which  are  x)ale  green  in  color  if  gan- 
grene of  the  plantar  cushion  has  set  in.  In  rare  cases  the  colifln  bone 
*may  be  involved  in  the  injury  and  a  small  portion  of  it  become  carious. 

Treatment. — If  the  injury  is  seen  at  once  the  foot  should  be  placed 
in  a  bath  of  cold  water  with  the  object  of  preventing  suppuration.  If 
suppuration  has  already  set  in  the  horn  of  the  frog,  and  of  the  bars 
and  branches  of  the  sole  if  necessary,  is  to  be  pared  thin,  so  that  all 
possible  pressure  may  be  removed  and  the  foot  poulticed.     As  soon  as 


387 

the  pas  has  loosened  the  horn,  all  the  detached  portions  are  to  be  cut 
away.  If  the  pus  is  discharging  from  an  opening  near  the  hair  the 
whole  frog,  or  one-half  of  it  will  generally  be  found  separated  from  the 
plantar  cushion,  and  is  to  be  removed  with  the  knife.  After  a  few 
days'  time  the  gangrenous  portion  of  the  cushion  will  slough  off  under 
the  stimulating  effects  of  the  poultice,  and  under  rare  circumstances 
only  should  the  dead  parts  be  removed  by  surgical  interference.  Where 
the  slough  is  all  detached  the  remaining  wound  is  to  be  treated  with 
simple  stimulating  dressings,  such  as  tincture  of  aloes  or  turpentine, 
oakum  balls,  and  bandages  as  directed  in  punctured  wounds.  The  lame- 
ness having  subsided,  and  a  thin  layer  of  new  horn  having  grown  on 
the  exposed  i^arts,  the  foot  may  be  shod,  the  frog  covered  with  a  thick 
pad  of  oakum,  held  in  place  by  pieces  of  tin  fitted  to  slide  under  the 
shoe,  and  the  animal  returned  to  slow  work.  Where  caries  of  the  cof- 
fin bone,  etc.,  follow  the  injury  the  treatment  recommended  for  these 
complications  in  punctured  wounds  of  the  foot  must  be  resorted  to. 

PUNCTURED   WOUNDS   OF   THE   FOOT. 

Of  all  the  injuries  to  which  the  foot  of  the  horse  is  liable  none  are 
more  common  than  punctured  wounds,  and  none  are  more  serious  than 
these  may  be  when  involving  the  more  important  organs  contained  within 
the  hoof.  A  nail  is  the  most  common  instrument  by  which  the  injury 
is  inflicted,  yet  wounds  may  happen  from  sharp  pieces  of  rock,  glass, 
wire,  knives,  etc. 

A  wound  of  the  foot  is  more  serious  when  made  by  a  blunt-pointed  in- 
strument than  when  the  point  is  sharp,  and  the  nearer  the  injury  is  to 
the  center  of  the  foot  the  more  likely  are  disastrous  results  to  follow. 
Wounds  in  the  heels  and  in  the  posterior  parts  of  the  frog  are  attended 
with  but  little  danger,  unless  they  are  so  deep  as  to  injure  the  lateral 
cartilages,  when  quittor  may  follow.  Punctured  wounds  of  the  anterior 
parts  of  the  sole  are  more  dangerous  for  the  reason  that  the  coffin  bone 
may  be  injured  and  the  suppuration,  even  where  the  wound  is  not  deep, 
tends  to  spread  and  always  gives  rise  to  intense  suffering.  The  most 
serious  of  the  punctured  wounds  are  those  which  happen  to  the  center 
of  the  foot,  and  which  involve,  in  proportion  to  their  depth,  the  plantar 
cushion,  the  plantar  aponeurosis,  the  sesamoid  sheath,  the  navicular 
bone,  or  the  coffin  joint. 

Punctured  wounds  are  more  likely  to  be  deep  in  flat  or  convex  feet 
than  in  well-made  feet,  and,  as  a  rule,  recovery  is  neither  so  rapid  nor 
so  certain.  These  wounds  are  less  serious  in  animals  used  for  heavy 
draught  than  in  those  required  to  do  faster  work  ;  for  the  former  may 
bo  useful,  even  if  complete  recovery  is  not  effected.  Lastly,  punctured 
wounds  of  the  fore  feet  are  more  serious  than  of  the  hind  feet,  for  the 
reason  that  in  the  former  the  instrument  is  apt  to  enter  the  foot  in  a 
nearly  perpendicular  line,  and,  consequently,  is  more  likely  to  injure 


388 

the  deeper  structures  of  the  foot,  while  in  the  hiud  foot  the  iujury  is 
generally  near  the  heels  and  the  wound  oblique  and  less  deep. 

Synqitoms. — A  nail  or  other  sharp  instrument  may  penetrate  the 
frog  and  remain  there  for  several  days  without  causing  lameness ;  in 
fact,  in  many  cases  of  punctured  wound  of  the  frog,  the  first  evidence 
of  the  injury  is  the  finding  of  the  nail  on  cleaning  the  foot  or  the  ap- 
pearance of  an  opening  where  the  skin  and  frog  unite  from  which  more 
or  less  pus  escapes.  Even  when  the  sole  is  perforated,  if  the  injury  is 
not  too  deep,  no  lameness  develops  until  suppuration  is  established. 
In  all  cases  of  foot  lameness,  especially  if  the  cause  is  obscure,  the  foot 
should  be  examined  for  evidences  of  iujury. 

The  lameness  from  punctured  wounds,  accompanied  by  suppuration, 
is  generally  severe,  the  patient  often  refusing  to  use  the  aflected  mem- 
ber at  all.  The  pain  being  lancinating  in  character,  he  stands  with 
the  injured  foot  at  rest  or  constantly  moves  it  back  and  forth.  In 
other  cases  the  patient  lies  down  most  of  the  time  with  the  feet  out- 
stretched ;  the  breathing  is  rapid,  the  pulse  fast,  the  temperature  ele- 
vated, and  the  body  covered  with  patches  of  sweat. 

When  the  plantar  aponeurosis  is  injured  the  pus  escapes  with  diffi- 
culty and  the  wound  shows  no  signs  of  healing ;  the  whole  foot  is  hot 
and  very  painful.  If  the  puncture  involves  the  sesamoid  sheath  the 
synovial  fluid  escapes.  At  first  this  fluid  is  pure,  like  joint-water,  but 
later  on  it  becomes  mixed  with  the  products  of  suppuration  and  loses 
its  clear  amber  color.  In  these  cases  the  suppuration  generally  ex- 
tends np  the  course  of  the  flexor  tendon,  an  abscess  forms  in  the  hollow 
of  the  heel,  and  finally  opens  somewhere  below  the  fetlock  joint.  The 
whole  coronet  is  more  or  less  swollen,  the  discharge  is  jDrofuse  and  often 
mixed  with  blood,  yet  the  suffering  is  greatlj^  relieved  from  the  moment 
the  abscess  opens. 

When  the  wound  reaches  the  navicular  bone  the  lameness  is  intense 
from  the  beginning ;  but  after  all  the  only  certain  way  in  which  to  de- 
termine the  existence  of  this  complication  is  in  the  nse  of  the  probe, 
and  unless  there  is  a  free  escape  of  synovia  the  probe  should  be  used 
with  the  greatest  of  care,  else  the  coflBn  joint  may  be  opened. 

If  the  coffin -joint  has  been  i)enetrated,  either  by  the  offending  in- 
strument or  by  the  process  of  suppuration,  acute  inflammation  of  the 
joint  follows,  accompanied  by  high  fever,  loss  of  apj^etite,  etc.  The 
ankle  and  coronet  are  now  greatly  swollen,  and  in  many  cases  dropsy  of 
the  leg  to  the  knee  or  hock,  or  even  to  the  body,  follows.  If  the  process 
of  suppuration  continues  small  abscesses  apT)^ar  at  intervals  on  different 
parts  of  the  coronet,  the  patient  rapidly  loses  flesh,  and  may  die  from 
the  effects  of  the  intense  suffering  and  blood  poisoning.  In  other  cases 
the  suppuration  soon  disapj)ears  and  recovery  is  effected  by  the  joint 
becoming  stiff  (anchylosis). 

When  the  wound  is  forward,  near  the  toe,  and  deep  enough  to  injure 
the  coffin  bone,  caries  always  results.    The  presence  of  the  dead  pieces 


389 

of  bone  can  be  determined  by  the  use  of  the  probe  5  the  bone  feels  rough 
and  gritt^'.  Furthermore,  there  is  no  disposition  upon  the  part  of  the 
wound  to  heal. 

Besides  the  compilcatious  above  mentioned  others,  equally  as  serious, 
may  be  met  with.  The  tendons  may  soften  and  rupture,  the  hoof  may 
slough  off,  quittors  develop,  or  sidebones  and  ringbones  grow.  Finally 
laminitis  of  the  opposite  foot  may  happen  if  the  imtient  persists  in 
standing  most  of  the  time,  or  lockjaw  may  cause  early  death. 

Treatment. — In  all  cases  of  punctured  wound  of  the  foot  the  horn 
around  the  seat  of  injury  should  be  thinned  down,  a  free  opening  made 
for  the  escape  of  the  products  of  suppuration,  and  the  foot  placed  in  a 
poultice.  If  the  injury  is  not  serious  recovery  takes  place  in  a  few  days' 
time.  Where  the  wound  is  deeper  it  is  better  to  put  the  foot  in  a  cold 
bath  or  under  a  stream  of  cold  water,  as  advised  in  the  treatment  for 
quittor. 

If  the  bone  is  injured  cold  baths,  containing  about  2  ounces  each  of 
sulphate  of  copper  and  sulphate  of  iron,  may  be  used  until  the  dead 
bone  is  well  softened,  when  it  should  be  removed  by  an  operation.  The 
animal  must  be  ca«t  for  this  operation,  the  sole  pared  away  until  the 
diseased  bone  is  exposed,  when  all  the  dead  particles  are  to  be  removed 
with  a  drawing-knife  and  the  wound  dressed  with  a  5  i^er  cent,  solution 
of  carbolic  acid,  oakum  balls,  and  a  roller  bandage. 

Wounds  of  the  bone  which  are  made  by  a  blunt-pointed  instrument, 
like  the  square-pointed  cut  nail,  in  which  a  portion  of  the  surface  is 
driven  into  the  deeper  parts  of  the  bone,  always  progress  slowly,  and 
should  be  operated  upon  as  soon  as  the  conditions  are  favorable.  Even 
wounds  of  the  navicular  bone,  accompanied  b}^  caries,  may  be  operated 
on  and  the  life  of  the  patient  saved  ;  but  the  most  skillful  surgery  is 
required  in  these  cases  and  only  the  experienced  operator  should 
undertake  their  treatment. 

If  there  is  an  escape  of  pure  synovial  fluid  from  a  wound  of  the  sole, 
without  injury  to  the  bone,  a  small  pencil  of  corrosive  sublimate  should 
be  introduced  to  the  bottom  of  the  wound  and  the  foot  dressed  as 
directed  above. 

The  ether  complications  are  to  be  treated  as  directed  under  their 
proper  headings. 

After  healing  of  the  wounds  has  been  effected,  lameness,  with  more 
or  less  swelling  of  the  coronary  region,  may  remain.  In  these  cases  the 
coronet  should  be  blistered,  or  even  fired  with  the  actual  cautery,  and 
the  patient  turned  to  pasture.  If  the  lameness  still  persists,  and  is  not 
due  to  a  stiff  joint,  unnerving  may  be  resorted  to,  and  in  many  cases 
with  very  good  results.  If  the  joint  is  anchylosed  of  course  no  treat- 
ment can  relieve  it,  and  the  patient  must  either  be  put  to  very  slow 
work  or  kept  for  breeding  purposes  only. 

"  Prick  in  shoeing  "  is  an  injury  which  should  be  considered  under 
the  head  of  punctured  wounds  of  the  foot.    The  nails  by  which  the 


390 

shoe  is  fastened  to  the  hoof  may  produce  an  injury  followed  by  iuflam- 
mation  and  suppuration  in  two  days,  either  by  penetrating  the  soft  tis- 
sues directly  or  by  being  driven  so  deep  that  the  inner  layers  of  the 
horu  of  the  wall  are  pressed  against  the  soft  tissues  with  such  force  as 
to  crush  them.  In  either  case  the  animal  generally  goes  lame  soon 
after  shoeing  unless  the  injury  is  at  the  toe,  when  the  first  evidence  of 
the  trouble  may  be  the  discharge  of  pus  at  the  coronet.  When  lame- 
ness follows  close  upon  tbe  setting  of  the  shoes,  without  other  appre- 
ciable canse,  each  nail  should  be  lightly  struck  with  a  hammer  when 
the  one  at  fault  will  be  detected  by  the  flinching  of  the  animal. 

The  treatment  consists  in  drawing  the  nail,  and  if  the  soft  tissues 
have  been  penetrated,  or  if  suppuration  has  commenced  the  horn  must 
be  pared  away  until  the  diseased  parts  are  exposed.  The  foot  is  now 
to  be  poulticed  for  a  day  or  two,  or  until  the  lameness  and  suppuration 
have  ceased.  If  the  discharge  of  pus  from  the  coronet  is  the  first  evi- 
dence of  the  disease  the  offending  nail  must  be  found  and  removed, 
the  parts  pared  out,  and  a  weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid  injected  at  the 
coronet  until  the  fistulous  tract  has  healed. 

CONTRACTED   HEELS. 

Contracted  heels,  or  hoof-bound  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  a  common 
disease,  especially  among  horses  kept  on  hard  floors  in  dry  stables,  and 
in  such  as  are  subject  to  much  saddle  work.  It  consists  in  an  atrophy  or 
shrinking  of  the  tissues  of  the  foot,  whereby  the  lateral  diameter  of  the 
heels  in  particular  is  diminished.  It  affects  the  fore  feet  principally, 
but  is  seen  occasionally  in  the  hind  feet,  where  it  is  of  less  importance 
for  the  reason  that  the  hind  foot  first  strikes  the  ground  with  the  toe,  and, 
consequently,  less  expansion  of  the  heels  is  necessary  than  in  the  fore 
feet  where  the  weight  is  first  received  on  the  heels,  and  any  interference 
with  the  expansibility  of  this  part  of  the  foot  interferes  with  locomotion 
and  ultimately  gives  rise  to  lameness.  Usually  but  one  foot  is  affected 
at  a  time,  but  when  both  are  diseased  the  change  is  greater  in  one  than 
in  the  other.  Occasionally  but  one  heel,  and  that  the  inner  one,  is 
contracted ;  in  these  cases  there  is  less  likely  to  be  lameness  and  per- 
manent impairment  of  the  animal's  usefulness.  According  to  the  opin- 
ion of  some  of  the  French  veterinarians,  hoof- bound  should  be  divided 
into  two  classes — total  contraction^  in  which  the  whole  foot  is  shrunken 
in  size,  and  contraction  of  the  heels,  when  the  trouble  extends  only  from 
the  quarters  backward.     (Plate  xxxiv,  Figs  4  and  7.) 

Causes. — Animals  raised  in  wet  or  marshy  districts,  when  taken  to 
towns  and  kept  on  dry  floors,  are  liable  to  have  contracted  heels,  not 
alone  because  the  horn  becomes  dry  but  because  fever  of  the  feet  and 
■wasting  away  of  the  soft  tissues  result  from  the  change.  Another  com- 
mon cause  of  contracted  heels  is  to  be  found  in  faulty  shoeing,  such  as 
rasping  the  wall,  cutting  away  the  frog,  heels,  and  bars  ;  high  calks  and 
the  use  of  nails  too  near  the  heels.    Contracted  heels  may  happen  also 


391 

as  one  of  the  results  of  other  diseases  of  the  foot ;  for  instance,  it  often 
accompanies  thrush,  side  bones,  ring  bones,  canker,  navicular  disease, 
corns,  sprains  of  the  flexor  tendons,  of  the  sesamoid  and  suspensory  lig- 
aments, and  from  excessive  knuckling  of  the  fetlock  joints. 

Synipto7ns. — In  contraction  of  the  heels  the  foot  has  lost  its  circular 
shape,  and  the  walls  from  the  quarters  backward  approach  to  a  straight 
line.  The  ground  surface  of  the  foot  is  now  smaller  than  the  coronary 
circumference  ;  the  frog  is  pinched  between  the  inclosing  heels,  is  much 
shrunken,  and  at  times  is  affected  with  thrush.  The  sole  is  more  con- 
cave than  natural,  the  heels  are  higher,  and  the  bars  are  long  and  nearly 
perpendicular.  The  whole  hoof  is  dry,  and  so  hard  that  it  can  scarcely 
be  cut ;  the  parts  toward  the  heels  are  scaly  and  often  ridged  like  the 
horns  of  a  ram,  while  fissures,  more  or  less  deep,  may  be  seen  at  the 
quarters  and  heels  following  the  direction  of  the  horn  fibers.  (Plate 
XXXIII,  Fig.  10.)  When  the  disease  is  well  advanced  lameness  is  pres- 
ent; in  the  earlier  stages  there  is  only  an  uneasiness  evinced  by  fre- 
quent shifting  of  the  affected  foot  or  feet.  Stumbling  is  common,  espe- 
cially on  hard  or  rough  roads.  In  most  cases  the  animal  comes  out  of 
the  stable  stiff  and  inclined  to  walk  on  the  toe,  but  after  exercise  he 
may  go  free  again.  He  wears  his  shoes  off  at  the  toe  in  a  short  time, 
no  matter  whether  he  works  or  remains  in  the  stable.  If  the  shoe  is 
removed  and  the  foot  pared,  in  old  cases  a  dry,  mealy  horn  will  be  found 
where  the  sole  and  wall  unite,  extending  upward  in  a  narrow  line  toward 
the  quarters. 

Treatment. — First  of  all,  the  preventive  measures  must  be  considered. 
The  feet  must  be  kept  moist  and  the  horn  be  prevented  from  drying  out 
by  the  use  of  moist  sawdust  or  other  damp  bedding;  by  occasional 
poultices  of  boiled  turnips,  linseed  meal,  etc.,  and  the  use  of  greasy 
hoof  ointments  to  both  the  sole  and  walls  of  the  feet.  The  wall  of  the 
foot  should  be  spared  from  the  abuse  of  the  rasp ;  the  frog,  heels,  and 
bars  are  not  to  be  mutilated  with  the  knife,  nor  should  calks  be  used 
on  the  shoe  except  when  absolutely  necessary.  The  shoes  should  be 
reset  at  least  once  a  month,  to  prevent  the  feet  from  becoming  too  long, 
and  daily  exercise  must  be  insisted  on. 

As  to  curative  measures  a  diversity  of  opinion  exists.  A  number  of 
kinds  of  special  shoes  have  been  invented,  having  ior  an  object  the 
spreading  of  the  heels,  and  perhaps  any  of  these,  if  properly  used, 
would  eventually  effect  the  desired  result.  But  a  serious  objection  to 
most  of  these  shoes  is  that  they  are  expensive  and  often  diSicnlt  of 
make  and  application.  The  method  of  treatment  which  I  have  adopted 
in  these  cases  is  not  only  attended  with  good  results,  but  is  inexpen- 
sive, if  the  loss  of  the  patient's  services  for  a  time  is  not  considered 
a  part  of  the  question.  It  consists,  first,  in  the  use  of  poultices  or 
baths  of  cold  water  for  a  few  days  until  the  horn  is  thoroughly  soft- 
ened. The  foot  is  now  prepared  for  the  shoe  in  the  usual  way,  ex- 
cept that  the  heels  are  lowered  a  little,  the  frog  remaining  untouched. 
A  shoe  called  a  "  tip  "  is  made  by  cutting  off  both  branches  at  the  cen- 


392 

ter  of  the  foot  aud  drawing  the  ends  down  to  an  edge.  The  tapering 
of  the  branches  should  begin  at  the  toe,  and  the  shoe  should  be  of 
the  usual  width,  with  both  the  upper  and  lower  surfaces  flat.  This 
tip  is  to  be  fastened  on  with  six  or  eight  small  nails,  all  set  well  for- 
ward, two  being  in  the  toe.  With  a  common  foot  rasp  begin  at  the 
heels,  close  to  the  coronet,  and  cut  away  the  horn  of  the  wall  until  only 
a  thin  layer  covers  the  soft  tissues  beneath.  Cut  forward  until  the 
new  surface  meets  the  same  2^  or  3  inches  from  the  heel.  The  same 
sloping  shape  is  to  be  observed  in  cutting  downward  toward  the  bot- 
tom of  the  foot,  at  which  point  the  wall  is  to  retain  its  normal  thickness. 
The  foot  is  now  blistered  all  around  the  coronet  with  Spanish  fly  oint- 
ment, and  when  this  is  well  set  the  patient  is  to  be  turned  to  pasture 
in  a  damp  field  or  meadow.  The  blister  should  be  repeated  in  three  or 
four  weeks,  aud,  as  a  rule,  the  patient  can  be  returned  to  work  in  two 
or  three  mouths'  time.  The  object  of  the  tip  is  to  throw  the  weight  on 
the  frog  and  heels,  which  are  readily  si)read  after  tlie  horn  has  been  cut 
away  on  the  sides  of  the  wall.  The  internal  structures  of  the  foot  at 
the  heels,  being  relieved  of  excessive  pressure,  regain  their  normal  con- 
dition if  the  disease  is  not  of  too  long  standing.  The  blister  not  only 
tends  to  relieve  any  inflammation  which  may  be  present,  but  it  also 
stimulates  a  rapid  growth  of  healthy  horn,  which,  in  most  cases,  ulti- 
mately forms  a  wide  aud  normal  heel.  In  old  chronic  cases,  with  a 
shrunken  frog  and  increased  concavity  of  the  sole,  accompanied  by  ex- 
cessive wasting  of  all  the  internal  tissues  of  the  foot,  of  course  satis- 
factory results  can  not  be  expected  and  are  rarely  secured.  Still  much 
relief,  if  not  an  entire  cure,  may  be  affected  by  these  measures. 

When  thrush  is  present  as  a  complication  its  cure  must  be  sought  by 
such  measures  as  are  directed  in  a  consideration  of  this  disease  under 
its  proper  heading.  If  sidebones,  ringbones,  navicular  disease,  con- 
tracted tendons,  or  other  diseases  have  been  the  cause  of  contracted 
heels,  of  course  treatment  of  the  result  will  be  useless  until  the  cause 
is  removed. 

SAND- (BRACKS. 

A  sand-crack  is  a  solution  of  continuity  or  fissure  in  the  horn  of  the 
wall  of  the  foot.  These  fissures  are  quite  narrow,  and  as  a  general  rule 
they  follow  the  direction  of  the  horny  fibers.  They  may  happen  on  any 
part  of  the  wall,  but  ordinarily  they  are  only  seen  directly  in  front, 
when  they  are  called  toe-cracks  ;  and  on  the  lateral  parts  of  the  wall, 
when  they  are  known  as  qtwrter-cracJcs.     (Plate  xxxiii.) 

Toe-cracks  are  most  common  in  the  hind  feet,  while  quarter- cracks 
nearly  always  affect  the  fore  feet.  The  inside  quarter  is  more  liable  to 
the  injury  than  the  outside  one,  for  the  reason  that  this  quarter  is  not 
only  the  thinner,  but  during  locomotion  receives  a  greater  part  of  the 
weight  of  the  body.     A  sand-crack  may  be  sui»erficial,  involving  only 


393 

the  outer  parts  of  the  wall,  or  it  may  be  deep,  involving  the  whole 
thickness  of  the  wall  aud  the  soft  tissues  beneath. 

The  toecrack  is  most  likely  to  be  complete — that  is  extending  from 
the  coronary  band  to  the  sole — while  the  quarter- crack  is  nearly  al- 
ways incomplete,  at  least  when  of  comparatively  recent  origin.  Sand- 
cracks  are  most  serious  when  they  involve  the  coronary  band  in  the 
injury.  They  may  be  complicated  at  any  time  by  hemorrhage,  inflam- 
mation of  the  laminse,  suppuration,  gangrene  of  the  lateral  cartilage 
and  of  the  extensor  tendon,  caries  of  the  coffin  bone,  or  the  growth  of 
a  horny  tumor  known  as  a  keraphyllocele. 

Causes. — Relative  dryness  of  the  horn  is  the  principal  predisposing 
cause  of  sand-cracks.  Excessive  dr^mess  is  perhaps  not  a  more  prolific 
cause  of  cracks  in  the  horn  than  alternate  changes  from  damp  to  dry. 
It  is  even  claimed  that  these  injuries  are  more  common  in  animals 
working  on  wet  roads  than  in  those  working  on  roads  that  are  rough 
and  dry;  at  least  these  injuries  are  not  common  in  mountainous  coun- 
tries. Animals  used  to  running  at  pasture  when  trausferj^-ed  to  stables 
with,  hard,  dry  floors  are  more  liable,  especially  to  quarter-cracks,  than 
those  accustomed  to  stables.  Small  feet,  with  thick,  hard  hoofs,  and 
feet  which  are  excessively  large,  are  more  susceptible  to  sand-cracks 
than  those  of  better  proportion.  A  predisposition  to  quarter  crack  ex- 
ists in  contracted  feet,  and  in  those  where  the  toe  turns  out  or  the  inside 
quarter  turns  under. 

Heavy  shoes,  large  nails,  and  nails  set  too  far  back  toward  the  heels, 
together  with  such  diseases  as  canker,  quittor,  grease,  and  suppurative 
corns  must  be  included  as  occasional  ijredisposing  causes  of  sand-cracks. 

Fast  work  on  hard  roads,  jumping,  and  blows  on  the  coronet,  together 
with  calk  wounds  of  the  feet,  are  accidental  causes  of  quarter-cracks  in 
particular.  Toe-cracks  are  more  likely  to  be  caused  by  heavy  pulling 
on  slippery  roads  and  pavements  or  on  steep  hills. 

Symptoms. — The  fissure  in  the  horn  is  ofttimes  the  only  evidence  of 
the  disease ;  and  even  this  may  be  accidentally  or  purposely  hidden 
from  casual  view  by  mud,  ointments,  tar,  wax,  putty,  gutta  purcha,  or 
by  the  long  hairs  of  the  coronet. 

Sand-cracks  sometimes  commence  on  the  internal  face  of  the  wall, 
involving  its  whole  thickness,  excepting  a  thin  layer  on  the  outer  sur- 
face. In  these  cases  the  existence  of  the  injury  may  be  suspected  from 
a  slight  depression,  which  begins  near  the  coronary  band  and  follows 
the  direction  of  the  horny  fibers,  but  the  trouble  can  only  be  positively 
diagnosed  by  paring  away  the  outside  layers  of  horn  until  the  fissure 
is  exposed.  In  toe-cracks  the  walls  of  the  fissure  are  in  close  apposi- 
tion when  the  foot  receives  the  weight  of  the  body,  but  when  the  foot 
is  raised  from  the  ground  the  fissure  opens.  In  quarter  crack  the  op- 
Ijosite  is  true,  and  the  fissure  closes  when  the  weight  is  removed  from 
the  foot.  As  a  rule  sand-cracks  begin  at  the  coronary  band,  and  aa 
they  become  older  they  not  only  extend  downward,  but  they  also  grow 


394 

deeper.  In  old  cases,  particularly  in  toe-crack,  the  born  on  the  borders 
of  the  fissure  loses  its  vitality  and  scales  off,  sometimes  through  the 
greater  part  of  its  thickness,  leaving  behind  a  rough  and  irregular 
channel  extending  from  the  coronet  to  the  end  of  the  toe. 

In  many  cases  of  quarter-crack,  and  in  some  cases  of  toe-crack  as 
well,  if  the  edges  remain  close  together,  with  but  little  motion,  the  fis- 
sure is  dry,  but  in  other  cases  a  thin,  offensive  discharge  issues  from 
the  crack  and  the  ulcerated  soft  tissues,  or  a  fungus-like  growth,  pro- 
trude from  the  narrow  opening. 

When  the  cracks  are  deep  and  the  motion  of  their  edges  considerable, 
so  that  the  soft  tissues  are  bruised  and  pinched  with  every  movement, 
a  constant  inflammation  of  the  parts  is  maintained  and  the  lameness  is 
severe. 

Ordinarily,  the  lameness  of  sand  crack  is  slight  when  the  patient 
walks  ;  but  it  is  greatly  aggravated  when  he  is  made  to  trot,  and  the 
harder  the  road  the  worse  he  limps.  Furthermore,  the  lameness  is 
greater  going  down  hill  than  up,  for  the  reason  that  these  conditions 
are  favorable  to  an  increased  motion  in  the  edges  of  the  fissure.  Lastly, 
more  or  less  hemorrhage  accompanies  the  inception  of  a  sand  crack  when 
the  whole  thickness  of  the  wall  is  involved.  Subsequent  hemorrhages 
may  also  take  place  from  fast  work,  jumping,  or  a  misstep. 

Treatment. — In  so  far  as  preventive  measures  are  concerned  but  little 
can  be  done.  The  suppleness  of  the  horn  is,  of  course,  to  be  maintained 
by  the  use  of  ointments,  damp  floor,  bedding,  etc.  The  shoe  is  to  be 
proportioned  to  the  weight  and  work  of  the  animal;  the  nails  holding 
it  in  place  are  to  be  of  proper  size  and  not  driven  too  near  the  heels; 
sufficient  calks  and  toe-pieces  must  be  added  to  the  shoes  of  horses 
working  on  slippery  roads,  and  the  evils  of  jumping,  fast  driving,  etc., 
are  to  be  avoided. 

When  a  fissure  has  made  its  appearance,  means  are  to  be  adopted 
which  will  prevent  it  from  growing  longer  or  deeper ;  and  this  can  only 
be  done  by  arresting  all  motion  in  the  edges.  The  best  and  simplest 
artificial  appliance  for  holding  the  borders  of  a  toe  crack  together  is 
the  Yachette  clasp.  These  clasps,  and  the  instruments  necessary  for 
their  application,  can  be  had  of  any  of  the  more  prominent  makers  of 
veterinary  instruments.  These  instruments  comprise  a  cautery  iron 
with  which  two  notches  are  burned  in  the  wall,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
crack,  and  forceps  with  which  the  clasps  are  closed  into  place  in  the 
bottom  of  the  notches  and  the  edges  of  the  fissure  brought  close  together. 
The  clasps  being  made  of  stiff  steel  wire  are  strong  enough  to  prevent 
all  motion  in  the  borders  of  the  crack.  Before  these  clasps  are  applied 
the  fissure  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed  and  dried,  and,  if  the  injury 
is  of  recent  origin,  the  crack  may  be  filled  with  a  putty  made  of  2  parts 
ofgutta  percha  and  1  part  of  gum  ammoniac.  The  number  of  clasps 
to  be  used  is  to  be  determined  by  the  length  of  the  crack,  the  amount 
of  motion  to  be  arrested,  etc.     Generally  the  clasps  are  from  one-half 


395 

to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  apart.  The  dasps  answer  equally  as  well 
in  quarter  crack  if  the  wall  is  sufficiently  thick  and  not  too  dry  and 
brittle  to  withstand  the  strain. 

In  the  absence  of  these  instruments  and  clasps  a  hole  may  be  drilled 
through  the  horn  across  the  fissure,  and  the  crack  closed  with  a  thin 
nail  made  of  tough  iron,  neatly  clinched  at  both  ends.  A  plate  of  steel 
or  brass  is  sometimes  fitted  to  the  parts  and  fastened  on  with  short 
screws ;  while  this  appliance  may  prevent  much  gaping  of  the  fissure 
it  does  not  entirely  arrest  motion  of  the  edges  for  the  simple  reason  that 
the  plate  and  screw  can  not  be  rendered  immobile. 

If,  for  any  reason,  the  above  measures  fail  or  can  not  be  used  recourse 
must  be  had  to  an  operation.  The  horn  is  softened  by  the  use  of  warm 
baths  and  poultices,  the  patient  cast  and  the  walls  of  the  fissure  are  en- 
tirely removed  with  the  knife.  The  horn  removed  is  in  the  shape  of 
the  letter  V  with  the  base  at  the  coronet.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to 
injure  the  coronary  band  and  the  laminae.  The  wound  is  to  be  treated 
with  mild  stimulant  dressings,  such  as  a  weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid, 
tincture  of  aloes,  etc.,  oakum  balls  and  a  roller  bandage.  After  a  few 
days  the  wound  will  become  covered  with  a  new,  white  horn,  and  the 
oakum  and  bandages  only  will  be  needed.  As  the  new  quarter  grows 
out  the  lameness  disappears,  and  the  patient  may  be  shod  with  a  bar 
shoe  and  returned  to  work. 

In  all  cases  of  sand  crack  the  growth  of  horn  should  be  stimulated  by 
cauterizing  the  coronary  band,  or  by  the  use  of  blisters.  In  simple 
quarter  crack  recovery  will  often  take  place  if  the  coronet  is  blistered, 
the  foot  shod  with  a  "  tip,"  and  the  patient  turned  to  pasture. 

The  shoe,  in  toe  crack,  should  have  a  clip  on  each  side  of  the  fissure 
and  should  be  thicker  at  the  toe  than  at  the  heels.  The  foot  should  be 
lowered  at  the  heels  by  paring,  and  spared  at  the  toe,  except  directly 
under  the  fissure  where  it  is  to  be  pared  away  until  it  sets  free  from 
the  shoe. 

When  any  of  the  complications  referred  to  above  arise,  special  meas- 
ures must  of  course  be  resorted  to.  For  the  proper  treatment  of  gan- 
grene of  the  lateral  cartilage  and  extensor  tendon  and  caries  of  the 
coffin  bone,  reference  may  be  had  to  the  articles  on  quittors.  If  the 
horny  tumor  known  as  keraphyllocele  should  develop  it  is  to  be  re- 
moved by  the  use  of  the  knife.  Since  this  tumor  develops  on  the  in- 
side of  the  horny  box  and  may  involve  other  important  organs  of  the 
foot  in  disease,  its  removal  should  only  be  undertaken  by  a  skillful 
surgeon. 

NAVICULAR  DISEASE. 

Navicular  disease,  often  called  "navicular  arthritis  "  by  the  English, 
is  an  inflamation  of  the  sesamoid  sheath,  induced  by  repeated  bruising 
or  laceration,  and  complicated  in  many  cases  by  inflammation  and  caries 
of  the  navicular  bone.    In  some  instances  the  disease  undoubtedly  be- 


396 

gins  in  the  bone,  and  tlie  sesamoid  sheath  becomes  involved  subse- 
quently by  an  extension  of  the  iniiammatory  process.  (Plate  xxxii, 
Fig.  5.) 

The  thoronghbred  horse  is  more  commonly  affected  with  the  disease 
than  any  other,  yet  no  class  or  breed  of  horses  is  entirely  exempt.  The 
mule,  however,  seems  rarely,  if  ever,  to  suffer  from  it.  For  reasons 
which  will  appear  when  considering  the  causes  of  the  disease  the  hind 
feet  are  not  liable  to  be  affected.  As  a  general  rule  but  one  fore  foot 
suffers  from  the  disease,  but  if  both  should  be  attacked  the  trouble  has 
become  chronic  in  the  first  before  the  second  shows  signs  of  the  disease. 

Causes. — To  comiirehendfull^' how  navicular  disease  maybe  caused  by 
conditions  and  usages  common  to  nearly  all  animals,  it  is  necessary  to 
recall  the  peculiar  anatomy  of  the  parts  involved  in  the  process  and  the 
functions  which  they  perform  in  locomotion.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  the  fore  legs  largely  support  the  weight  of  the  body  when  the  ani- 
mal is  at  rest,  and  that  the  faster  he  moves  the  greater  is  the  shock 
which  the  fore  feet  must  sustain  as  the  body  is  thrown  forward  upon 
them  by  the  propelling  force  of  the  hind  legs.  This  shock  could  not  be 
withstood  by  the  tissues  of  the  fore  feet  and  legs  were  it  not  that  it  is 
largely  dissipated  by  the  elastic  muscles  which  bind  the  shoulder  to  the 
body,  the  ease  with  which  the  arm  closes  on  the  shoulder  blade,  and 
the  spring  of  the  fetlock  joint.  But  even  these  means  are  not  sufficient 
within  themselves  to  protect  the  foot  from  injury,  and  so  nature  has  fur- 
ther supplemented  them  by  placing  the  coffin  joint  on  the  hind  part  of 
the  coffin  bone  instead  of  directly  on  top  of  it,  whereby  a  large  part  of 
the  shock  of  locomotion  is  dispersed  before  it  can  reach  the  vertical 
column,  represented  in  the  cannon,  knee,  and  arm  bones.  A  still  fur- 
ther provision  is  made  by  placing  a  soft,  elastic  pad — the  frog  and 
plantar  cushion — at  the  heels  to  receive  the  sesamoid  exp;rnsiou  of  the 
flexor  tendon  as  it  is  forced  downward  by  the  pressure  of  the  coronet 
bone  against  the  navicular.  Extraordinary  as  these  means  may  ap- 
pear for  the  destruction  of  shock,  and  ample  as  they  are  when  the  ani- 
mal is  at  a  slow  pace  or  unweighted  by  rider  or  load,  they  fiiil  to  com- 
pletely relieve  the  parts  from  concussion  and  excessive  pressure  when- 
ever the  opposite  conditions  are  present.  The  result,  then,  is  that 
the  coronet  bone  forces  the  navicular  hard  against  the  flexor  tendon, 
which,  in  turn,  i:>resses  firmly  against  the  navicular  as  the  force  of  the 
contracting  muscles  lifts  the  tendon  into  place.  It  is  self  evident,  then, 
that  tlie  more  rapid  the  pace  and  the  greater  the  load,  the  greater  must 
these  contending  forces  be,  and  the  greater  the  liability  to  injury.  For 
the  same  reason  horses  with  excessive  knee  action  are  more  likely 
to  suffer  from  this  disease  than  others,  concussion  of  the  foot  and  intense 
pressure  on  the  tendon  being  common  attendants  upon  their  usage.  Be- 
sides these  exciting  causes  must  be  considered  those  which  predispose  to 
the  disease.  Most  prominent  among  these  is  heredity.  It  may  be  claimed, 
however,  that  an  inherited  predisposition  to  navicular  disease  consists 
not  so  much  in  a  special  susceptibility  of  the  tissues  which  are  involved 


397 

in  the  process  as  iu  a  vice  of  conformation  wbicb,  as  is  well  Iruown,  ia 
liliely  to  be  transmitted  from  parent  to  offspring.  The  faults  of  con- 
formation most  likely  to  be  followed  by  the  development  of  navicular 
disease  are  an  insufficient  plantar  cushion,  a  small  frog,  high  heels,  ex- 
cessive knee  actiou,  and  contracted  heels.  Finally,  the  environments 
of  domestication  and  nse,  such  as  dry  stables,  heavy  palling,  bad  shoe- 
ing, punctured  wounds,  etc.,  all  have  their  influence  in  developing  this 
disease. 

8i/mptonis. — In  the  early  stages  of  navicular  disease  the  symptomg 
are  generally  very  obscure.  When  the  disease  begins  in  inflammation 
of  the  navicular  bone  the  animal  points  the  affected  foot  while  at  test,  a 
time  before  any  lameness  is  seen.  While  at  work  he  apparently  travels 
as  well  as  ever,  but  when  placed  in  the  stable  one  foot  is  set  out  in  front 
of  the  other,  resting  on  the  toe,  with  fetlock  and  knee  flexed.  After  a 
time,  if  the  case  is  closely  watched,  the  animal  takes  a  few  lame  steps 
while  at  work,  but  the  lameness  disappears  as  suddenly  as  it  came  and 
the  driver  doubts  if  the  animal  was  really  lame  at  all.  Later  on  the 
patient  has  a  lame  spell  which  may  last  during  a  greater  part  of  the 
day,  but  the  next  morning  it  is  gone ;  he  leaves  the  stable  all  right,  but 
goes  lame  again  during  the  day.  In  time  he  has  a  severe  attack  of 
lameness,  which  may  last  for  a  week  or  more,  wlien  a  remission  takes 
place  and  it  may  be  weeks  or  months  before  another  attack  supervenes. 
Finally,  he  becomes  constantly  lame,  and  the  more  he  is  used  the  greater 
the  lameness. 

In  the  lameness  from  navicular  disease  the  affected  leg  always  takes 
a  short  step,  and  the  toe  of  the  foot  first  strikes  the  ground,  so  that 
the  shoe  is  most  worn  at  this  point.  If  the  patient  is  made  to  move 
backwards  the  foot  is  set  down  with  exceeding  great  care,  and  the 
weight  rests  upon  the  affected  leg  but  a  moment.  When  exercised  he 
often  stumbles,  and  if  the  road  is  rough  he  may  fall  on  his  knees.  If 
he  is  lame  iu  both  feet  the  gait  is  stilty,  the  shoulders  seem  stiff,  and 
if  the  patient  is  made  to  work  he  sweats  profusely  from  the  intense 
pain.  Early  in  the  development  of  the  disease  a  careful  examination 
will  reveal  some  increased  heat  in  the  heels  and  frog,  particularly  after 
work  ;  as  the  disease  progresses  this  becomes  more  marked  until  the 
whole  foot  is  hot  to  the  touch.  At  the  same  time  there  is  an  increased 
sensibility  of  the  foot,  for  the  jjatient  flinches  from  th€  percussion  of  a 
hammer  lightly  applied  to  the  frog  and  heels,  or  from  the  pressure  of 
the  smith's  pincers.  The  frog  is  generally  shrunken,  often  of  a  pale 
reddish  color,  and  at  times  it  is  affected  with  thrush.  If  the  heels  are 
pared  away  so  that  all  the  weight  is  received  on  the  frog,  or  if  the  same 
result  is  attained  by  the  application  of  a  bar  shoe,  the  animal  is  exces- 
sively lame.  The  muscles  of  the  leg  and  shoulder  shrink  away,  and 
often  tremble  as  the  animal  stands  at  rest.  After  months  of  lameness 
the  foot  is  found  to  be  shrunken  in  its  diameter  and  apparently  length- 
ened ;  the  horn  is  dry  and  brittle  and  has  lost  its  natural  gloss,  while 


398 

circular  ritlges,  developed  most  toward  the  heels,  cover  the  upper  part 
of  the  hoof.  When  both  feet  are  affected  the  animal  points  first  one 
foot  then  the  other,  and  stands  with  the  hind  feet  well  forward  beneath 
the  body  so  as  to  relieve  the  forefeet  as  much  as  possible  from  bearing 
weight.  In  old  cases  the  wasting  of  the  muscles  and  the  knuckling  at 
the  fetlock  become  so  great  that  the  leg  can  not  be  straightened,  and 
locomotion  can  scarcely  be  i)erformed.  The  disease  generally  makes  a 
steady  progress  without  inclining  to  recovery — the  remission  of  symp- 
toms in  the  earlier  stages  should  not  be  interpreted  as  evidence  that 
the  process  has  terminated.  The  complications  usually  seen  are  ring- 
bones, sidebones,  thrush,  contracted  heels,  quarter  cracks,  and  frac- 
tures of  the  navicular,  coronet,  and  i^astern  bones. 

Treatment. — But  few  cases  of  navicular  disease  recover.  In  the 
early  stages  the  wall  of  the  heels  should  be  rasped  away  as  directed  in 
the  treatment  for  contracted  heels,  until  the  horn  is  quite  thin;  the 
coronet  should  be  well  blistered  with  Spanish-fly  ointment,  and  the 
patient  turned  to  grass  in  a  damj)  field  or  meadow.  After  three  or  four 
weeks'  time  the  blister  should  be  repeated.  This  treatment  is  to  be 
continued  for  two  or  three  months.  Plane  shoes  are  to  be  i)ut  on  when 
the  patient  is  returned  to  work.  In  chronic  cases  the  animal  should 
be  put  to  slow,  easy  work.  To  relieve  the  pain,  neurotomy  may  be 
performed — an  operation  in  which  the  sense  of  feeling  is  destroyed  in 
the  foot  by  cutting  out  pieces  of  the  nerve  at  the  fetlock.  This  opera- 
tion in  nowise  cures  the  disease,  and  since  it  may  be  attended  with 
serious  results  can  only  be  advised  in  certain  favorable  cases,  to  be  de- 
termined by  the  veterinarian. 

SIDEBONES. 

A  sidebone  consists  in  a  transformation  of  the  lateral  cartilages  found 
on  the  wings  of  the  coflin  bone  into  bony  matter  by  the  deposition 
of  lime  salts.  The  disease  is  a  common  one,  especially  in  heavy  horses 
used  for  draft,  in  cavalry  horses,  cow-ponies,  and  other  saddle  horses, 
and  in  runners  and  trotters. 

Sidebones  are  peculiar  to  the  fore  feet,  yet  they  occasionally  develop 
in  the  hind  feet  where  they  are  of  little  importance,  since  they  cause 
no  lameness.  In  many  instances  sidebones  are  of  slow  growth,  and 
being  unaccompanied  by  acute  inflammation,  they  cause  no  lameness 
until  such  time  as,  by  reason  of  their  size,  they  interfere  with  the  action 
of  the  joint.     (Plate  xxxii.  Fig.  4.) 

Causes. — Sidebones  often  grow  in  heavy  horses  without  any  apparent 
injury,  and  their  development  has  been  attributed  to  theoverexpansion 
of  the  cartilages  caused  by  the  great  weight  of  the  animal.  Blows,  and 
other  injuries  to  the  cartilages,  may  set  up  an  inflammatory  process 
which  ends  in  the  formation  of  these  bony  growths.  High-heeled  shoes, 
high  calks,  and  long  feet  are  always  classed  among  the  conditions  which 
may  excite  the  growth  of  sidebones.      They   are  often  seen  in  connec- 


399 

tiOQ  witli  contracted  beels,  ringbones,  navicular  diseases,  punctured 
wounds  of  the  foot,  quarter  crack,  and  occasionally  as  a  sequel  to 
founder. 

Symptoms.— In  the  earlier  stages  of  the  disease,  if  inflammation  is 
present,  the  only  evidence  of  the  trouble  to  be  detected  is  a  little  fever 
over  the  seat  of  the  affected  cartilage  and  a  slight  lameness.  In  the 
lameness  of  sidebones  the  toe  of  the  foot  first  strikes  the  ground  and 
the  step  is  shorter  than  natural.  The  subject  comes  out  of  the  stable 
stiff  and  sore,  but  the  gait  is  more  free  after  exercise. 

Since  the  deposit  of  the  bony  matter  often  begins  in  that  part  of  the 
cartilage  where  it  is  attached  to  the  cofan  bone,  the  diseased  process  may 
exist  for  some  time  before  the  bony  growth  can  be  seen  or  felt.  Later 
on,  however,  the  cartilage  can  be  felt  to  have  lost  its  soft  elastic  char- 
acter, and  by  standing  in  front  of  the  animal  a  prominence  of  the  coron- 
ary region  at  the  quarters  can  be  seen.  Occasionally  these  bones  be- 
come so  large  as  to  bulge  the  hoof  outward,  and  by  pressing  on  the  joint 
they  so  interfere  with  locomotion  that  the  animal  becomes  entirely 

useless. 

Treatment— So  soon  as  the  disease  can  be  diagnosed  active  treat- 
ment should  be  adopted.  Cold  water  bandages  are  to  be  used  for  a  few 
days  to  relieve  the  fever  and  soreness. 

The  improvement  consequent  on  the  use  of  these  simple  measures 
often  leads  to  the  belief  that  the  disease  has  recovered ;  but  with  a  return 
to  work  the  lameness,  fever,  etc.,  reappears.  For  this  reason  the  use  of 
blisters,  or  better  still  the  firing  iron,  should  follow  on  the  discontinu- 
ance of  the  cold  bandages. 

But  in  many  instances  no  treatment  will  arrest  the  growth  of  these 
bony  tumors,  and  as  a  palliative  measure  neurotomy  must  be  resorted 
to.  Generally  this  operation  will  so  relieve  the  pain  of  locomotion 
that  the  patient  may  bo  used  for  slow  work;  but  in  animals  used  for 
faster  driving  or  for  saddle  purposes  the  operation  is  practically  useless. 
Some  years  ago  1  unnerved  a  number  of  cavalry  horses  at  Fort  Leaven- 
worth that  were  suffering  from  sidebones,  and  the  records  show  that  in 
less  than  seven  mouths'  time  all  were  more  lame  than  ever.  Since  a 
predisposition  to  develop  sidebones  may  be  inherited,  animals  suffer- 
ing from  this  disease  should  not  be  used  for  breeding  purposes  unless 
the  trouble  is  known  to  have  originated  from  an  accident. 

RINGBONE. 

A  ringbone  is  the  growth  of  a  bony  tumor  on  the  ankle.  This  tumor 
is  in  fact  not  the  disease,  but  simply  the  result  effected  by  an  inflam- 
matory action  set  up  in  the  periosteum  and  bone  tissue  proper  of  the 
large  and  small  pastern  bones.     (Plate  xxxn,  Fig.  1.) 

Causes. — Injuries,  such  as  blows,  sprains,  overwork  in  young  unde- 
veloped animals,  fast  work  on  h^ird  roads,  jumping,  etc.,  are  among  the 
principal  exciting  causes  of  riugboues.     Horses  most  disposed  to  this 


400 

disease  are  those  with  short  upright  pasterns,  for  the  reason  that  the 
shock  of  locomotion  is  but  imperfectly  dissipated  in  the  fore  legs  of 
these  animals.  Improper  shoeing,  such  as  the  use  of  high  calks,  a  too 
great  shortening  of  the  toe  and  correspondingly  high  heels,  j)redispose 
to  this  disease  by  increasing  the  concussion  to  the  feet. 

ISymptoms. — The  first  symptom  of  an  actively  developed  ringbone  is 
the  appearance  of  a  lameness  more  or  less  acute.  If  the  bony  tumor 
forms  on  the  side  or  upper  parts  of  the  large  pastern  its  growth  is  gen- 
erally unattended  with  acute  inflammatory  action,  and,  consequently, 
produces  no  lameness  or  evident  fever.  These  are  called  false  ring- 
bones. But  when  the  tumors  form  on  the  whole  circumference  of  the 
ankle,  or  simj)ly  in  front  under  the  extensor  tendon,  or  behind  under  the 
flexor  tendons  j  or  if  they  involve  the  joints  between  the  two  pastern 
bones,  or  between  the  small  jjastern  and  the  coflin  bone,  the  lameness  is 
always  severe.  These  constitute  the  true  ringbone.  Besides  the  lame- 
ness the  ankle  of  the  afl'ected  limb  presents  more  or  less  heat,  and  in 
many  instances  a  rather  firm,  though  limited,  swelling  of  the  deeper 
tissues  over  the  seat  of  the  inflammatory  process.  The  lameness  of 
ringbone  is  characteristic  in  that  the  heel  is  first  placed  on  the  ground 
when  the  disease  is  in  a  fore  leg,  and  the  ankle  is  kept  as  rigid  as  pos- 
sible. In  the  hind  leg,  however,  the  toe  strikes  the  ground  first  when 
the  ringbone  is  high  on  the  ankle,  just  as  in  health;  but  the  aukle  is 
maintained  in  a  rigid  position.  If  the  bony  growth  is  under  the  front 
tendon  of  the  hind  leg,  or  if  it  involves  the  coflin  joint,  the  heel  is 
brought  to  the  ground  first.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  disease  it  is  not 
always  easy  to  diagnose  ringbone ;  but  when  the  deposits  have  reached 
some  size  they  can  be  felt  and  seen  as  well. 

The  importance  of  a  ringbone  of  course  depends  on  its  seat,  and  often 
on  its  size.  If  it  interferes  with  the  joints,  or  with  the  tendons,  it  may 
cause  an  incurable  lameness  even  though  small.  If  it  is  on  the  sides 
of  the  large  pastern,  the  lameness  generally  disappears  as  soon  as  the 
tumor  has  reached  its  growth  and  the  inflammation  subsides.  Even 
where  the  pastern  joint  is  involved,  if  complete  anchylosis  results,  the 
patient  may  recover  from  the  lameness  with  simj^ly  an  imperfect  action 
ot  the  foot  remaining,  due  to  thestiff  joint. 

Treatment. — Before  the  bony  growth  has  commenced,  the  inflammatory 
process  may  be  cut  short  by  the  use  of  cold  baths  and  wet  bandages, 
followed  by  one  or  more  blisters.  If  the  bony  deposits  have  begun, 
the  firing  iron  should  always  be  used.  Even  where  the  tumors  are 
large  and  the  pastern  joint  involved,  firing  often  hastens  the  process  of 
anchylosis,  and  should  always  be  tried. 

Where  the  lower  joint  is  involved,  or  where  the  tumor  interferes  with 
the  action  of  the  tendons,  of  course  recovery  is  not  to  be  expected.  In 
many  of  these  latter  cases,  however,  the  animal  may  be  made  servicea- 
ble by  proper  shoeing.  If  the  patient  walks  with  the  toe  on  the  ground 
the  foot  should  be  shod  with  a  high-heeled  shoe  and  a  short  toe.     On 


401 

the  other  hand,  if  he  walks  on  the  heel  a  thick-toed  and  thin  heeled 
shoe  must  be  woru. 

Since  ringbone  is  considered  to  be  one  of  the  hereditary  diseases  no 
animal  suffering  from  this  trouble  should  ever  be  used  for  breeding 
purposes. 

LAMINITIS. 

By  what  term  this  disease  was  first  known  to  man  is  a  question 
unanswerable.  During  many  years  in  the  recent  past,  and  before  an. 
approximate  knowledge  of  its  lesions  was  had,  it  was  usually  desig- 
nated as  "  founder." 

In  country  districts  and  amongst  the  great  majority  of  the  laity  thia 
name  is  yet  almost  exclusively  used  ;  and  undoubtedly  it  was  first  so 
employed  because  it  best  expressed  the  physical  inability  or  disinclina- 
tion upon  the  part  of  the  patient  to  proceed  in  his  gait,  resembling 
thereby  a  ship  similarly  disabled.  That  it  could  have  been  adopted 
upon  any  other  ground  hardly  seems  possible,  for  the  etymology  of  the 
term  does  not  indicate  that  it  was  so  used  because  it  contained  even  the 
most  remote  intimation  either  as  to  the  seat  of  the  disease,  its  nature 
or  its  cause. 

Of  the  nature  of  laminitis  but  little  is  to  be  said,  it  being  a  simple 
inflammation  of  the  sensitive  laminse  of  the  feet,  characterized  by  the 
general  phenomena  attending  inflammation  of  the  skin  and  mucous 
membranes,  producing  no  constitutional  disturbances  except  those  de- 
pendent upon  the  local  disease,  and  having  a  strong  tendency,  in  severe 
cases,  to  destructive  disorganization  of  the  tissues  affected. 

Causes. — The  causes  of  laminitis  are  as  wide  and  variable  as  in  any 
of  the  local  inflammations,  and  may  be  divided  into  two  classes — the 
predisposing  and  exciting. 

Predisposing  causes. — From  personal  observations  I  do  not  know  that 
any  porticular  construction  of  foot  or  any  special  breed  of  horses  are 
thereby  predisposed  to  this  disease,  neither  can  I  find  anything  to 
warrant  the  assumption  that  it  is  in  any  way  hereditary;  so  that  while 
we  may  easily  cultivate  a  predisposition  of  the  disease  upon  the  part 
of  the  tissues  subject  to  become  affected,  the  disease  itself  does  not 
originate  without  an  exciting  cause.  Like  most  other  tissues,  a  pre- 
disposition to  inflammation  may  be  induced  in  the  sensitive  laminit  by 
any  cause  which  lessens  their  power  of  withstanding  the  work  im|)osed 
on  them.  It  exists  to  an  extent  in  those  animals  unaccustomed  to 
work,  particularly  if  they  are  plethoric,  and  in  all  those  that  have  been 
previous  subjects  of  the  disease,  for  the  same  rule  holds  good  here  that 
we  find  in  so  many  diseases — i.  e.,  that  one  attack  impairs  the  functional 
activity  of  the  affected  tissues  and  thus  renders  them  more  easy  of  a 
subsequent  inflammation. 

Unusual  excitement  by  determining  an  excessive  blood  supply,  bad 
shoeing,  careless  paring  of  the  feet  by  removing  the  sole  support,  as 

11035 26 


402 

well  as  high  calkings  without  corresponding  toe  pieces,  must  be  included 
under  this  head. 

Exciting  causes. — The  exciting  causes  of  laminitis  are  many  and  varied, 
the  most  common  being  concussion,  overexertion,  exhaustion,  rapid 
changes  of  temperature,  ingestion  of  various  foods,  purgatives,  and  the 
oft-mentioned  metastasis. 

(1)  Concussion  acts  as  a  producer  of  this  disease  by  the  local  overstim- 
ulation which  it  occasions,  the  excessive  excitement  being  followed  by 
an  almost  complete  exhaustion  of  the  functional  activity  of  the  laminated 
tissues,  the  exhaustion  by  congestion,  and  eventually  by  inflammation. 
But  congestion  here,  as  in  all  other  tissues,  is  not  necessarily  followed 
by  inflammation;  for  although  the  principal  symptoms  belonging  to 
true  laminitis  are  present,  the  congestion  maybe  relieved  before  the  proc- 
esses of  inflammation  are  fully  established.  This  is  the  condition  that 
obtains  in  the  many  so-called  cases  of  laminitis,  which  recover  in  from 
twenty  four  tofort3^-eight  hours'  time.  These  are  the  cases  which  should 
be  called  congestion  of  the  laminae. 

Laminitis  from  concussion  is  common  in  track  horses  trotting  races 
when  not  in  condition,  especially  if  they  are  carrying  the  obnoxious 
toe  weights,  and  in  green  horses  put  to  work  on  city  pavements  to 
which  they  are  unaccustomed.  Concussion  from  long  drives  on  dirt 
roads  is  at  times  productive  of  the  same  results,  notably  when  the 
weather  is  extremely  warm,  or  at  least  when  the  relative  change  of 
temperature  is  great.  But  undoubtedly  the  exhaustion  so  apt  to  be 
produced  under  these  circumstances  must  be  considered  as  exerting 
almost  as  great  an  influence  as  an  exciting  cause  as  does  the  long-con- 
tinued concussion.  This  same  combination  of  causes  must  also  be  ad- 
mitted as  determining  the  disease  when  seen  at  times  in  hunters,  for 
the  imposed  weight  of  the  rider  increases  the  demands  made  upon  the 
function  of  these  tissues,  and  their  i^owers  of  resisting  congestion  and 
its  consequences  are  the  sooner  exhausted. 

(2)  Overexertion,  as  heavy  pulling  or  rapid  work,  even  where  there 
is  no  chance  for  Immoderate  concussion,  occasionally  results  in  this 
disease,  although  in  the  majority  of  instances  exhaustion  is  a  conjunc- 
tive cause,  for  overexertion  can  not  be  long  continued  without  induc- 
ing exhaustion. 

(3)  Exhaustion,  in  whatever  manner  produced,  is  nearly  as  prolific  a 
source  of  laminitis  as  is  concussion,  for  when  the  physical  strength  has 
been  greatly  impaired,  even  though  but  temporarily,  some  part  of  the 
economy  is  rendered  more  vulnerable  to  disease  than  others,  and  it  is 
not  strange  that  in  many  instances  it  should  be  those  parts  still  called 
upon  to  perform  their  function  of  maintaining  the  weight  of  the  body 
after  their  activity  has  been  exhausted.  It  is  to  this  cause  we  must 
ascribe  those  many  cases  which  we  see  following  a  hard  day's  work, 
where  at  no  time  has  there  been  overexertion  or  immoderate  concus- 
sion. 


403 

In  the  same  manner  a  strong  tendency  to  laminitis  is  induced  in 
horses  on  sea  voyages,  the  exhaustion  of  the  laminae  resulting  from  the 
continual  constrained  position  which  the  animal  is  compelled  to  main- 
tain on  account  of  the  rocking  motion  of  the  vessel. 

The  same  cause  exists  where  one  foot  has  been  blistered,  or  where 
one  limb  is  incapacitated  from  any  other  reason  ;  for  the  opposite  mem- 
ber being  called  on  to  do  double  duty,  soon  becomes  exhausted,  and  con- 
gestion, followed  by  inflammation,  results  as  a  matter  of  course.  Where 
one  foot  only  becomes  laminitic,  it  is  customary  to  find  the  other  or 
corresponding  member  participating  at  a  later  date,  not  always  because 
of  sympathy,  but  because  the  transfer  of  all  the  functional  performance 
to  the  one  foot  proves  within  itself  a  sufficient  exciting  cause. 

(4)  Rapid  changes  of  temperature  act  as  an  exciting  cause  of  lami- 
nitis in  precisely  the  same  way  as  they  act  to  produce  disease  in  other 
tissues,  the  result  of  these  variations  of  temperature  showing  itself 
upon  those  parts  rendered  particularly  susceptible  to  pathological 
changes  from  some  impairment  of  their  natural  disease-re§isting  powers. 

This  change  of  temperature  may  be  iuduced  by  drinking  large  quan- 
tities of  cold  water  while  in  an  overheated  condition.  Here  the  internal 
heat  is  rapidly  reduced,  the  neighboring  tissues  and  blood-vessels  con- 
strained, and  the  blood  supply  to  these  organs  greatly  diminished, 
while  the  quantity  sent  to  the  surface  is  correspondingly  increased. 
True,  in  many  of  the  cases  which  result  from  this  cause  there  has  not 
been  sufficient  labor  performed  to  impair  the  powers  of  the  laminae,  and 
I  am  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  laminitis  is  the  more  readily  induced 
than  congestion  or  inflammation  of  the  skin  or  other  surface  organs 
because  of  the  impossibility  upon  the  part  of  the  laminae  to  relieve 
themselves  of  the  threatened  congestion  by  the  general  safety-valve  of 
perspiration.  A  cold  wind  or  relatively  cold  air  allowed  to  play  upon  the 
body  when  heated  and  wet  with  sweat  has  virtually  the  same  result,  for 
it  arrests  evaporation  and  rapidly  cools  the  external  surface,  thereby  de- 
termining an  excess  of  blood  to  such  organs  and  tissues  as  are  protected 
from  this  outside  influence.  In  many  instances  this  happens  to  be  some 
of  the  internal  organs,  as  the  lungs,  where  the  previous  work  has  been 
rapid  and  their  functional  activity  impaired ;  but  in  numerous  other 
instances  the  determination  is  toward  the  feet,  and  that  it  is  so  depends 
upon  two  very  palpable  facts;  first,  that  these  tissues  have  been  greatly 
excited  and  are  already  receiving  as  much  blood  as  they  can  accommo- 
date consistently  with  health  ;  secondly,  even  though  these  tissues 
are  classed  with  those  of  the  surface,  their  protection  from  atmospheric 
influences  by  means  of  the  thick  box  of  horn  incasing  them  renders 
them  in  this  respect  equivalent  to  internal  organs. 

Airain,  a  still  more  limited  local  action  of  cold  excites  this  disease, 
as  seen  from  driving  through  water  or  washing  the  feet  or  legs  whUe 
the  animal  is  warm  or  just  in  from  work.  Here  a  very  marked  reaction 
takes  place  in  the  surface  tissues  of  the  limbs,  and  passive  congestion 


404 

of  the  foot  results  from  an  interference  with  the  return  flow  of  blood, 
which  is  being  sent  to  these  organs  in  excess.  These  are  more  apt  to  be 
simple  cases  of  congestion,  soon  to  recover,  yet  they  may  become  true 
cases  of  laminitis.  Youatt  says :  "  The  danger  is  not  confined  to  the 
change  from  heat  to  cold  ;  a  sudden  transition  from  cold  to  heat  is  as 
injurious,  and  therefore  it  is  that  so  many  horses  after  having  been 
ridden  far  in  frost  and  snow  and  placed  immediately  in  a  hot  stable  and 
littered  up  to  the  knees  are  attacked  by  this  complaint."  I  have  never 
seen  the  disease  occur  under  exactly  similar  circumstances,  but  am  in- 
clined to  believe  that  in  these  cases  the  disease  was  attributed  to  the  wrong 
cause — the  excitement,  exhaustion,  and  concussion  of  the  long  ride  being 
apparently  entirely  overlooked.  Furthermore,  if  we  consider  the  phys- 
ical conditions  which  must  necessarily  be  present  under  the  circum- 
stances, it  seems  inconsistent  with  our  knowledge  of  the  effects  of  heat 
and  cold  to  believe  that  the  very  moderate  temperature  of  stables  and 
the  heat-producing  properties  of  bedding  "  up  to  the  knees"  could  be  pro- 
ductive of  laminitis.  Rather  should  we  say  that  such  favorable  cir- 
cumstances would  be  conducive  to  opposite  results. 

(5)  Why  it  is  that  certain  kinds  of  grain  will  cause  laminitis  does 
not  seem  to  be  clearly  understood.  Certainly  the\'  possess  no  specific 
action  upon  the  laminae,  for  all  animals  are  not  alike  affected,  neither 
do  they  always  produce  these  results  in  the  same  animal.  In  the  case 
of  some  of  these  ailments,  where  their  ingestion  causes  a  strong  ten- 
dency to  indigestion,  the  consequent  irritation  of  the  alimentary  canal 
may  be  so  great  as  to  warrant  the  belief  that  the  laminte  are  affected 
through  sympathy.  In  other  instances  there  is  no  apparent  interfer- 
ence with  digestion,  nor  evidence  of  any  irritation  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes, yet  the  disease  is  in  some  manner  dependent  upon  the  food  in 
question  for  its  inception.  Barley,  wheat,  and  sometimes  corn  are  the 
grains  most  prolific  in  the  production  of  this  disease.  With  some  horses 
there  appears  to  be  a  particular  susceptibility  to  this  influence  of  corn.  In 
such  instances  the  feeding  of  this  grain  for  a  few  days  will  be  followed 
by  inflammation  of  the  feet,  lasting  from  a  few  days  to  two  weeks  time- 
In  these  animals,  to  all  appearances  healthy,  the  corn  neither  induces 
colic,  indigestion,  nor  purging,  and  apparently  no  irritation  whatever 
of  the  alimentary  canal. 

(G)  Fortunately  purgative  medicines  but  rarely  become  the  exciting 
cause  of  inflammation  of  the  laminaB.  That  it  is  then  the  result  of  a 
sympathetic  action  upon  the  part  of  the  tissues  affected  is  no  doubt 
more  than  hypothetical,  for  when  there  is  no  derangement  of  the  ali- 
mentary canal  existing  a  dose  of  cathartic  medicine  will  at  times  bring 
on  severe  laminitis,  and  that,  too,  before  purgation  commences. 

(7)  Most  if  not  all  the  older  authorities  were  agreed  that  metastatic 
laminitis  is  a  reality.  That  such  a  condition  ever  does  exist  outside 
the  magination  certainly  awaits  the  proving.  That  laminitis  may  and 
ofttimes  does  exist  as  a  concurrent  disease  with  numerous  others  is  un- 


405 

questionably  true,  but  to  believe  an  inflammation  can  be  almost  rao« 
meutarily  transferred  from  one  organ  to  another,  no  matter  how  remote, 
is  to  destroy  all  belief  in  our  knowledge  of  the  pathology  of  this  com- 
plicated process.  We  do  not  pretend  to  deny  that  the  induction  of 
laminitis,  during  the  course  of  some  other  disease,  may  serve  to  arrest 
the  further  invasion  of  healthy  tissue  by  the  primary  process,  or  that 
it  may  exert  a  remedial  influence  upon  the  first  disease,  but  it  can  not 
and  does  not  aconce  remove  that  inflammation  and  obliterate  its  lesions, 
for  the  products  of  any  inflammation,  be  it  never  so  simple,  require  a 
certain  time  for  their  removal,  and  it  is  impossible  that,  for  instance, 
the  products  of  inflamed  lung  tissue  can  be  immediately  removed  and 
the  iuflammation  in  whole  transferred  to  the  laminae.  Metastatic  lam- 
initis, then,  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  concurrent  laminitis,  and  as 
such  presents  little  in  anyway  peculiar  outside  the  imperfectly  under- 
stood exciting  cause,  and  the  practitioner  who  allows  the  acute  symp- 
toms of  the  laminitis  to  mislead  him,  simply  because  their  severity  has 
overshadowed  those  of  the  primary  disease,  may  lose  his  case  through 
unguarded  subsequent  treatment.  This  form  of  laminitis  is  by  no  means 
commonly  met  with,  but  when  seen  will  usually  be  found  in  conjunc- 
tion with  pneumonia,  according  to  Youatt  with  inflammation  of  the 
bowels  and  eyes,  and  according  to  Law  and  Williams  sometimes  witli 
bronchitis. 

Symptoms. — Laminitis  is  characterized  by  a  congregation  of  symp- 
toms so  well  marked  as  scarcely  to  be  misinterpreted  by  the  most  casual 
observer.  They  are  nearly  const-ant  in  their  manifestations,  modified 
by  the  number  of  feet  affected,  the  cause  which  has  induced  the  disease, 
the  previous  condition  of  the  patient,  and  the  various  other  influences 
which  operate  in  all  diseases  to  some  extent.  They  may  be  divided  into 
general  symptoms,  which  are  concomitants  of  all  cases  of  the  disease, 
subject  to  variations  in  degree  only  and  special  symptoms,  or  those 
which  serve  to  determine  the  feet  affected  and  the  complications  which 
may  arise. 

General  symptoms. — Usually  the  first  symptoms  that  would  indicate 
any  definite  obstruction  to  functional  performance  is  the  interference 
with  locomotion  produced  by  congestion  of  the  sensitive  membrane. 
Occasionally  the  other  symptoms  are  presented  first.  With  the  devel- 
opment of  the  lameness  the  pulse  will  be  found  accelerated,  full,  hard, 
and  striking  the  finger  strongly ;  the  temperature  soon  rises  several 
degrees  above  the  normal,  reaching  sometimes  100°  Fahr.,  although  it 
generally  ranges  between  102.p  and  105°  Fahr.  The  respirations  are 
rapid  and  panting  in  character,  the  nostrils  being  widely  dilated,  and 
the  mucous  membranes  highly  injected.  The  facial  expression  is  anx- 
ious and  indicative  of  the  most  acute  suffering,  while  the  body  is  more 
or  less  bedewed  with  sweat.  At  first  there  may  be  tendency  to  diar- 
rheaj  or  it  may  appear  later,  particularly  as  the  result  of  the  medicines 
used.    The  uriue  is  high  colored,  scant  in  quantity,  and  of  increased 


406 

specific  gravity,  owing  to  the  water  from  the  system  being  eliminated 
by  the  skin  instead  of  the  kidneys.  The  appetite  is  impaired  and  some- 
times entirely  lost,  while  the  thirst  is  greatly  increased.  The  affected 
feet  are  hot  and  dry  to  the  touch.  They  are  relieved  as  much  as  possi- 
ble from  bearing  weight.  Rapping  them  with  a  hammer  or  compelling 
the  animal  to  stand  upon  one  aff'ected  member  causes  intense  pain, 
while  the  artery  at  the  fetlock  throbs  beneath  the  finger. 

Special  symptoms. — Liability  to  affection  varies  in  the  different  feet 
according  to  the  exciting  cause.  Any  one  or  more  of  the  feet  may  be- 
come the  subject  of  this  disease,  although  it  appears  more  often  in  the 
fore  feet  than  in  the  hind  ones,  a  fact  owing  to  the  difference  of  func- 
tion, i.  e.,  that  the  fore  feet  are  the  basis  of  the  columns  of  support,  re- 
ceiving nearly  all  the  body  weight  during  progression  and  consequently 
most  of  the  concussion,  while  the  hind  feet  at  such  times  becomes  sim- 
ply the  fulcra  of  the  levers  of  progression,  and  are  almost  exempt  from 
concussion. 

One  foot. — Injuries  and  excessive  functional  performance  are  the 
causes  of  the  disease  in  only  one  foot;  here  the  general  symptoms  as  a 
rule  are  not  severe,  there  often  being  no  loss  of  appetite  and  no  unusual 
thirst,  while  the  pulse,  temperature  and  respiration  remain  about  nor- 
mal. In  these  instances  the  weight  of  the  body  is  early  thrown  upon 
the  opposite  foot  and  the  affected  one  is  extended,  repeatedly  raised 
from  the  fioor  and  then  carefully  replaced.  When  made  to  move  for- 
ward the  lame  foot  is  either  carried  in  the  air  while  progression  is  ac- 
complished by  hopi)ing  with  the  healthy  one,  or  else  the  heel  of  the  first 
is  placed  upon  the  ground  and  receives  the  little  weight  thrown  upon 
it  while  the  sound  limb  is  quickly  advanced.  Progression  in  a  straight 
line  is  much  more  easily  accomplished  than  in  turning  toward  the  lame 
side. 

Both  fore  feet. — When  both  fore  feet  are  affected  the  symptoms  are 
well  marked.  The  lameness  is  excessive  and  the  animal  almost  im- 
movable. When  standing  the  head  hangs  low  down,  or  rests  upon  the 
manger  as  a  means  of  support  and  to  relieve  the  feet ;  the  fore  feet  are 
well  extended  so  that  the  weight  is  thrown  upon  the  heels,  where  the 
tissues  are  least  sensitive,  least  inflamed,  and  most  capable  of  relief 
from  free  effusion.  The  hind  feet  are  brought  forward  beneath  the 
body  to  receive  as  much  weight  as  possible,  thereby  relieving  the  dis- 
eased ones.  If  progression  is  attempted,  which  rarely  happens  volun- 
tarily during  the  first  three  or  four  days,  it  is  accomplished  with  very 
great  pain  and  lameness  at  the  starting,  which  usually  subsides  to  an  ex- 
tent after  a  few  minutes' exercise.  Duriug  this  exercise,  if  the  animal 
happens  to  step  upon  a  small  stone  or  other  hard  substance,  he  stumbles 
painfully  on  the  other  foot  and  is  excessively  lame  in  the  offended 
member  for  a  number  of  steps,  owing  to  the  acute  pain  which  pressure 
upon  the  sole  causes  in  the  tissues  beneath.  The  manner  of  thQ  pro- 
gression is  pathognomonic  of  the  complaint.     Sometimes  the  affected 


407 

feet  are  simultaneously  raised  from  the  ground  (the  hind  ones  sustain- 
ing the  weight),  then  advanced  a  short  distance  and  carefully  replaced, 
while  at  almost  the  same  moment  the  hind  ones  are  quickly  shuffled 
forward  near  to  the  center  of  gravitation. 

In  other  instances  one  foot  at  a  time  is  advanced  and  placed  with  the 
heel  upon  the  grouud  in  the  same  careful  manner,  all  causes  of  concus- 
sion being  carefully  avoided.  In  attempting  to  back-  the  animal  he  is 
found  to  be  almost  stationary,  simply  swaying  the  body  back  on  the 
haunches  and  elevating  the  toes  of  the  diseased  feet  as  they  rest  upon 
their  heels.  In  attempting  to  turn  either  to  the  right  or  left  he  allows 
his  head  to  be  drawn  to  the  one  side  to  its  full  extent  before  moviug, 
then  makes  his  hind  feet  the  axis  around  which  ther  forward  ones  de- 
scribe a  shuffling  circle. 

In  a  majority  of  cases  of  laminitis  in  the  fore  feet  the  animal  persists 
in  standing  until  he  is  nearly  recovered.  In  other  cases  he  as  persist- 
ently lies,  standing  only  when  necessity  seems  to  compel  it,  and  then 
for  as  short  a  time  as  possible.  If  the  recumbent  position  is  once  as- 
sumed the  relief  experienced  from  a  removal  of  the  weight  of  the  body 
off  the  inflamed  tissues  tempts  the  patient  to  seek  it  again,  and  so  we 
often  find  him  down  a  greater  part  of  the  time.  But  this  is  not  true  of 
all  cases,  for  sometimes  he  will  make  the  experiment,  then  cautiously 
guard  against  a  repetition.  Even  in  those  cases  of  enforced  recumbency, 
he  ofttimes  takes  advantage  of  the  first  opportunity  and  gets  upon  his 
feet,  doggedly  remaining  there  until  again  laid  upon  his  side  by  his 
attendants.  How  to  explain  this  diversity  of  action  I  do  not  know,  for 
theoretically  the  recumbent  position  is  the  only  appropriate  one,  except 
when  complications  exist,  and  the  one  which  should  give  the  most  com- 
fort, yet  it  is  rejected  by  very  many  patients  and  no  doubt  for  some 
good  reason.  It  has  been  suggested  as  an  explanation  tliat  when  the 
animal  gets  upon  his  feet  after  lying  for  a  time  the  suffering  is  so  greatly 
augmented  that  the  memory  of  this  experience  deters  him  from  an 
attempted  repetition.  If  this  were  true,  the  horse  with  the  first  attack 
of  this  disease  must  necessarily  make  the  experiment  before  knowing 
the  after  effects  of  lying  down,  yet  many  remain  standing  without  even 
an  attempt  at  gaining  this  experimental  knowledge. 

The  most  favored  position  of  the  animal  when  down  is  on  the  broad- 
side, with  the  feet  and  legs  extending.  While  in  this  position  the  gen- 
eral symptoms  greatly  subside;  the  respirations  and  pulse  become 
almost  normal ;  the  temperature  falls  and  the  perspiration  dries.  It  is 
mostly  with  difficulty  that  he  is  made  to  rise,  and  when  he  attempts  it 
gets  up  rapidly  and  "  all  in  a  heap,"  as  it  were,  shifting  quickly  from 
one  to  the  other  foot  until  they  become  accustomed  again  to  the  weight 
thrown  upon  them.  Occasionally  a  patient  will  get  up  like  a  cow,  rising 
upon  the  hind  feet  first.  Although  enforced  exercise  relieves  to  some 
extent  the  soreness,  it  is  but  temporary,  for  after  a  few  minutes'  rest  it 
returns  again  with  all  its  former  severity. 


408 

Both  hi7id feet. —When  only  both  hind  feet  are  affected,  they  are,  while 
standing,  maintained  in  the  same  position  as  when  only  the  fore  ones 
arc  the  subjects  of  the  disease,  bat  with  an  entirely  different  object  in 
view.  Instead  of  being  here  to  receive  weight,  they  are  so  advanced  in 
that  the  heels  may  receive  whatever  weight  is,  from  necessity,  imposed 
on  them,  the  fore  feet  being  at  the  same  time  placed  well  back  beneath 
the  body,  where  they  become  the  main  supports,  the  animal  standing, 
as  Williams  describes  it,  "  all  of  a  heap." 

Progression  is  even  more  difficult  now  than  when  the  disease  is  con- 
fined to  the  anterior  extremities.  The  fore  feet  are  dubiously  advanced- 
a  short  distance  and  the  hind  ones  are  then  brought  forward  with  a 
kind  of  a  kangaroo  hop,  which  results  in  an  apparent  loss  of  equilibrium 
which  the  animal  is  a  few  moments  in  regaining.  The  general  symp- 
toms, or  in  other  words  the  degree  of  suffering,  seem  more  severe  in  these 
cases  than  where  the  disease  affects  the  fore  feet  alone.  Tlie  standing 
position  is  not  often  maintained,  the  patient  seeking  relief  in  recum- 
bency. This  fact  is  easily  understood  when  we  consider  how  cramped 
and  unnatural  is  the  position  he  assumes  while  standing,  and  if  it  were 
maintained  for  any  considerable  length  of  time  would  no  doubt  excite 
the  disease  in  the  fore  feet,  as  explained  by  D'Arbovul. 

All  four  feet. — Laminitis  of  all  four  feet  is  but  uncommonly  met  with. 
The  author  has  seen  but  three  such  cases.  In  all  these  the  position  as- 
sumed was  nearly  normal,  all  the  feet  being  slightly  advanced,  and  first 
one  then  another  momentarily  raised  from  the  ground  and  carefully  re- 
placed, this  action  being  kept  up  almost  continually  during  the  time 
the  animal  remained  standing.  The  suffering  in  these  cases  is  most 
acute,  the  appetite  is  lost,  and  although  the  patient  lies  most  of  the 
time  the  temperature  remains  too  high  ;  the  pulse  and  respirations  are 
greatly  accelerated,  the  body  covered  with  sweat,  and  bed  sores  are 
unpleasant  accompaniments. 

Course. — The  course  which  laminitis  takes  varies  greatly  in  different 
cases,  being  influenced  more  or  less  by  the  exciting  cause,  the  animal's 
previous  condition,  the  acuteness  of  the  attack,  and  the  subsequent 
treatment.  The  first  symi)toms  rarely  exhibit  themselves  while  the  an- 
imal is  at  his  work,  although  we  will  occasionally  see  the  gait  im])aired 
by  stumbliug,  the  body  covered  with  a  profuse  sweat,  and  the  respira- 
tion become  blowing  in  character  as  i)remouitious  of  the  oncoming  dis- 
ease, but  as  a  rule  nothing  is  noted  amiss  with  the  animal  until  he  has 
stood  for  some  time  after  coming  in  from  work,  when,  in  attempting  to 
move  him,  he  is  found  very  stiff.  Like  all  congestions  the  early  symp- 
toms usually  develop  rapidly,  yet  this  is  not  always  the  case,  for  in 
some  instances  there  ai)pearK  to  be  no  well  defined  period  of  congestion, 
the  disease  seemingly  commencing  at  a  point  and  gradually  spreading 
until  a  large  territory  is  involved  in  tlie  morbid  process. 

Simple  congestion. — Those  cases  of  simple  congestion  of  the  laminae, 
which  we  erroneously  call  laminitis,  are  rai^idly  developed,  the  symp- 


409 

toms  being  but  moderately  severe  and  from  one  to  three  days  required 
fox  recovery.  There  are  uo  structural  changes  here  and  but  a  moder- 
ate exudate,  which  is  rapidly  reabsorbed,  leaving  the  parts  pecisely  iu 
the  came  condition  as  they  were  previous  to  the  attack.  If  the  congest- 
ion has  beeu  excessive  a  rupture  of  some  of  the  capillaries  will  be  found, 
a  conditiou  more  apt  to  obtain  where  the  auimal  is  made  to  continue 
work  after  a  development  of  symptoms  has  begun. 

True,  the  majority  of  these  last-described  cases  prove  to  be  the  lami- 
nitis  in  fact,  yet  at  times  the  congestion  will  pass  away  and  theextrar- 
asated  blood  be  absorbed  without  inflammation  superveuing  to  an  ex- 
tent sufficient  to  warrant  us  calling  it  laminitis.  The  seat  of  greatest 
congestion  will  always  be  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  toe,  because 
of  the  increased  vascularity  of  that  part,  and  although  at  times  it  is  lim- 
ited to  the  j)odophyllous  tissue  alone,  any  or  all  parts  of  the  keratogea- 
ous  membrane  may  be  aflected  by  the  congestion  and  followed  Gnally 
by  inflammation. 

Acute. — In  the  acute  form  of  laminitis  the  symptoms  may  all  develop 
rapidly,  or  it  may  commence  by  the  appearance  of  a  little  soreness  of 
the  feet  during  progression,  which  in  twenty-four  or  forty-eight  hours' 
time  has  passed  into  a  well  marked  case.  This  peculiarity  of  develop- 
ijeut  is  due  to  one  of  two  causes.  Either  the  congestion  is  general,  but 
takes  place  slowly,  or  else  it  begins  in  one  or  more  points  and  gradually 
spreads  throughout  the  laminse.  These  acute  cases  generally  run  their 
course  in  from  a  few  days  to  two  weeks  or  more  time.  Usually  a  cul- 
mination of  the  symptoms  is  reached  if  the  patient  is  properly  treated 
in  from  three  to  five  days  ;  then  evidences  of  recovery  are  discernable 
in  favorable  cases.  The  lameness  improves,  the  other  symptoms  grad- 
ually subside,  and  eventually  health  is  regained.  It  is  in  these  acute 
cases  that  a  strong  tendency  to  disorganization  of  a  destructive  char- 
acter exists,  and  hence  it  is  we  see  so  many  recover  imperfectly  with 
marked  structural  changes  permanently  remaining. 

Subacute. — Subacute  laminitis  is  most  often  seen  as  a  termination 
of  the  acute  form,  although  at  times  it  exists  independent  of  or  pre- 
cedes an  acute  attack.  It  is  characterized  by  the  mildness  of  its  symp- 
tems,  slow  course,  and  moderate  tissue  changes.  It  may  be  present 
for  a  long  time  before  any  pathologhical  lesions  result  other  than  those 
found  in  the  acute  form,  and  when  these  changes  do  take  place  they 
should  rather  be  viewed  as  complications. 

Chronic. — Chronic  laminitis  is  a  term  used  by  many  to  designate  any 
of  the  sequelae  of  the  acute  and  subacute  forms  of  this  disease.  Pure 
chronic  inflammation  of  the  lamince  is  not  very  commonly  met  with,  but 
is  most  frequent  in  horses  that  have  long  done  fast  track  work.  They 
have  "  fever  in  the  feet "  at  all  times  and  are  continually  sore,  both  con- 
ditions being  aggravated  by  work.  Like  chronic  inflammation  of  other 
parts  there  is  a  strong  tendency  here  to  the  development  of  new  con- 
nective tissues,  which,  by  its  pressure  upon  the  blood  vessels,  interferes 


410 

» 

with  nutrition.  Wasting  of  the  coffin  bone  and  inflammation  of  its  cov. 
ering  with  caries  is  not  unusual.  The  continued  fever  and  impaired 
function  of  secretion  result  in  the  production  of  horn  deficient  in  elas- 
ticity, somewhat  spongy  in  character,  and  inclined  to  crumble.  In 
others  of  these  cases  of  "soreness"  in  horses  used  to  hard  work,  there 
is  evident  weakness  of  the  coats  of  the  vessels  brought  on  by  repeated 
functional  exhaustion.  Here  slight  work  acts  as  an  exciting  cause  of 
congestion,  which  results  in  serious  effusion  and  temporary  symptoms 
similar  to  those  of  chronic  laminitis. 

CompUcations. — Complications  concurrent  with  or  supervening  upon 
laminitis  are  frequent  and  varied,  and  are  often  dependent  upon  causes 
not  fully  understood. 

Excessive  purgation  is  one  of  the  simplest  of  these,  and  not  usually 
attended  with  dangerous  consequences.  It  rarely  occurs  unless  induced 
by  the  exhibition  of  a  purgative,  and  the  excessive  action  of  the  medicine 
is  probably  to  be  explained  upon  the  theory  that  the  mucous  membrane 
sympathizes  with  the  diseased  laminae,  is  irritable,  and  readily  becomes 
overexcited.  The  discbarges  are  thin  and  watery,  sometimes  offen- 
sively odorous,  and  occasionally  i^ersist  in  spite  of  treatment.  It  may 
prove  disastrous  to  the  welfare  of  the  patient  by  the  rapid  exhaustion 
which  it  causes,  preventing  resolution  of  the  laminitis,  and  may  even 
cause  death. 

SejJficcemia  and  pymnia. — Septicsemia  or  Pysemia  are  unusual  com- 
plications and  are  seen  only  in  the  most  severe  cases,  where  bed-sores 
are  present  or  suppuration  of  the  laminfe  results.  They  die,  as  a  rule, 
within  three  days  after  showing  signs  of  the  comi)lication. 

Pneumonia— the  so-called  metastatic — needs  no  special  consideration, 
for  in  its  lesions  and  symptoms  it  does  not  differ  from  ordinary  pneu- 
monia, although  it  may  be  overlooked  entirely  by  the  practitioner.  Ex- 
aminations of  the  chest  in  laminitis  should  be  made  every  day,  so  as  to 
detect  the  disease  at  its  onset  and  render  proper  aid. 

Sidehones. — A  rapid  development  of  sidebones  is  one  of  the  compli- 
cations, or  perhaps  better,  a  sequel  of  laminitis  not  often  met  with  in 
practice.  Here  the  inflammatory  process  extends  to  the  lateral  carti- 
lages, with  a  strong  tendency  to  calcification.  The  deposition  of  the  lime 
salts  is  sometimes  most  rapid,  so  that  the  "  bones"  are  developed  in  a 
few  weeks'  time ;  in  other  instances  they  are  deposited  slowly  and  their 
growth  is  not  noted  until  long  after  the  subsidence  of  the  laminitis, 
so  that  the  exciting  cause  is  not  suspected.  This  change  in  the  carti- 
lages may  commence  as  early  as  the  first  week  of  the  laminitis,  and 
although  the  trouble  in  the  laminae  is  removed  in  the  course  of  a  fort- 
night the  symptoms  do  not  entirely  subside,  the  animal  still  retaining 
the  shuffling  gait,  while  the  sidebones  continue  to  grow  and  the  patient 
usually  remains  quite  lame.  This  alteration  of  the  cartilages  generally 
prevents  the  patient  recovering  his  natural  gait,  because  of  the  perma- 
nent impairment  of  function  induced,  and  the  practitioner  receives  un- 


411 

just  censure  for  a  condition  of  affairs  he  could  neither  foresee  nor  pre- 
vent. 

The  larainitic  process  also  occasionally  extends  to  the  covering  of  the 
coronet  bone,  or  at  least  concurrent  with  and  subsequent  to  lamiuitis 
the  development  of  "  low  ringbone  "  is  seen,  and  it  is  apparently  de- 
pendent upon  the  disease  of  the  lamina)  for  its  exciting  cause.  The 
impairment  of  function  and  consequent  symptoms  are  much  less  marked 
here  than  in  sidebones.  The  coronet  remains  hot  and  sensitive  and 
somewhat  thickened  after  the  laminitis  subsides,  and  a  little  lameness 
is  present.  This  lameness  persists  and  the  deposits  of  new  bone  may 
readily  be  detected. 

Suppuration  of  the  sensitive  membrane  is  a  somewhat  common  com- 
plication, and  even  when  present  in  its  most  limited  form  is  always  a 
serious  matter;  but  when  it  becomes  extensive,  and  especially  where 
the  suppurative  process  extends  to  the  periosteum,  the  results  are  apt 
to  be  fatal.  When  suppuration  occurs  the  exudation  does  not  appear 
•to  be  excessive,  but  is  rich  in  leucocytes  and  seems  to  have  caused  a 
detachment  of  the  sensitive  tissues  from  the  horn  prior  to  the  forma- 
tion of  pus  in  some  instances,  while  in  others  the  tissues  are  still  at- 
tached to  the  horn  and  the  suppuration  takes  place  in  the  deeper  tis- 
sues. 

Limited  suppuration  may  take  place  in  any  part  of  the  sensitive  tis- 
sues of  the  foot  during  laminitis,  and  may  ultimately  be  reabsorbed 
instead  of  being  discharged  upon  the  surface,  but  generally  the  process 
begins  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  toe  and  spreads  backward  and  up- 
ward towards  the  coronet,  where  it  is  seen  separating  the  horn  from 
the  coronary  band  at  the  quarters.  At  the  same  time  it  is  spreading 
over  the  sole  and  eventually  the  entire  hoof  is  loosened  and  finally 
sloughs  away,  leaving  the  tissues  beneath  entirely  unprotected. 

In  other  instances,  and  these  are  generally  the  cases  not  considered 
unusually  severe,  the  suppuration  begins  at  the  coronary  band.  The 
suppuration  extends  but  a  short  distance  in  the  tissue,  yet  serves  to 
destroy  the  patient  by  separating  the  hoof  from  the  coronary  baud  upon 
which  it  depends  for  support  and  growth.  lu  this  form  of  the  suppura- 
tive process  it  is  usually  seen  beginning  in  front,  for  it  is  this  part  of 
the  coronary  band  that  is  always  most  actively  affected  with  inflamma- 
tion, and  consequently  it  is  here  that  impairments  first  occur.  Suppura- 
tion of  the  sensitive  sole  is  more  common  than  of  the  sensitive  laminae 
and  coronary  baud.  It  is  present  in  the  majority  of  cases  where  there 
is  a  dropping  of  the  coffin  bone,  and  in  other  instances  where  the  effu- 
sion at  this  point  is  so  great  as  to  arrest  the  production  of  horn  and  un- 
cover the  sensitive  tissues.  Except  when  the  result  of  injury  it  begins 
at  the  toe  and  spreads  backward,  and  if  not  relieved  by  opening  the  sole 
escapes  at  the  heel.  Suppuration  of  the  sole  is  much  less  serious  than 
where  present  in  other  parts  of  the  foot. 
If  the  acute  constitutioual  symptoms  developed  from  this  sloughing 


412 

of  the  foot  do  not  result  in  death,  a  new  hoof  of  very  imperfect  horn 
may  be  developed  after  a  time,  but  unless  the  animal  is  to  be  kept  for 
breeding  purposes  alone  the  foot  will  ever  be  useless  for  work  and  death 
should  relieve  the  suffering.  When  only  the  sole  sloughs  recovery 
takes  i)lace  with  proper  treatment. 

Peditis. — This  is  the  term  which  Williams  applies  to  that  serious 
complication  of  laminitis  where  not  only  the  laminiB  but  the  periosteum 
and  the  coffin  bone  are  also  the  subjects  of  the  inflammatory  process. 
Neither  is  this  all,  for  in  some  of  these  cases  of  peditis  acute  inflamma- 
tion of  the  "  coffin  joint"  is  present,  and  occasionally  suppuration  of 
the  joint.  A  mild  form  of  periostitis,  in  which  the  exudation  is  in  the 
outer  or  looser  layer  of  the  periosteum  only,  is  a  more  common  condi- 
tion than  is  recognized  by  practitioners  generally,  and  the  intimate 
contiguity  of  structures  is  the  predisposing  cause,  the  disease  either 
spreading  from  the  original  seat,  or  the  complication  occurs  as  one  of 
the  primary  results  of  the  exciting  cause.  In  the  severer  cases  where 
the  exudate  separates  the  periosteum  from  the  bone,  suppuration,  gau: 
grene,  and  superficial  caries  are  common  results;  where  infiltration  of 
the  bone  tissues  is  rapid  the  blood  supply  is  cut  off  by  the  pressure 
upon  the  vessels  and  death  of  the  coffin  bone  ensues.  Grave  consti- 
tutional symptoms  mark  these  changes  and  soon  prove  fatal. 

In  the  mild  cases  of  periostitis  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  determine 
its  presence  positively,  for  there  are  no  special  symptoms  by  which  it 
may  be  distinguished  from  pure  laminitis.  In  the  majority  of  the  acute 
cases,  though,  which  show  no  signs  of  improvement  by  the  fifth  to  sev- 
enth day,  it  is  safe  to  suspect  periostitis  is  present,  particularly  if  the 
coronets  are  very  hot,  the  pulse  remaining  full  and  hard,  and  the  lame- 
ness acute.  In  the  fortunately  rare  cases  where  the  bone  is  affected 
with  inflammation  and  suppuration,  the  agony  of  the  patient  is  intense; 
be  occupies  the  recumbent  position  almost  continually,  never  st;inding 
for  more  than  a  few  minutes  at  a  time,  suffers  from  the  most  careful 
handling  of  the  affected  feet;  maintains  a  rapid  pulse  and  respiration, 
high  temperature,  loss  of  appetite,  and  great  thirst.  It  is  in  these  cases 
the  patient  continually  grows  worse,  and  the  appearance  of  suppuration 
at  the  top  of  the  hoof  in  about  two  weeks  after  the  inception  of  the 
disease  proves  the  inefficiency  of  any  treatment  that  may  have  been 
adopted  and  the  hopelessness  of  the  case.  These  patients  die  usually 
between  the  tenth  and  twentieth  days,  either  from  exhaustion  or  pyaemio 
infections. 

Gangrene  occurs  in  the  periosteum  as  the  result  of  excessive  detach 
ment  from  the  bone,  combined  with  compression  from  an  overprofuse 
exudate.  Other  parts  of  the  sensitive  tissues  are  subject  to  the  same 
fate  occasionally,  from  this  last-named  cause,  and  at  times  large  terri- 
tories will  be  found  dead. 

Pumiced  sole  is  that  condition  in  which  the  horny  sole  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  toe  readily  crumbles  away  and  leaves  the  sensitive  tis- 


413 

sues  more  or  less  exposed.  It  is  not  confiued  to  beiug  a  complication 
of  laraiiiitis,  but  may  be  seen  whenever  the  necessary  conditions  for 
inducing  it  are  present.  "Williams  has  described  the  horny-tissue  un- 
der these  circumstances  as  being  ''weak,  cheesy,  or  spongy,  like  mac- 
erated horn,  or  even  grumous,"  and  this  certainly  conveys  a  good  idea 
of  its  appearance  and  general  characteristics.  This  crumbling  horn 
when  critically  examined  shows  almost  an  entire  absence  of  the  cohe- 
sive matter  which  unites  the  healthy  fibers,  while  the  fibers  themselves 
are  irregular  and  granular  iu  appearance.  Pumiced  sole  depends  upon 
an  impairment  of  the  horn-secreting  powers  of  the  sensitive  sole,  or 
upon  a  separation  occurring  between  the  horny  and  soft  tissues  which 
maintain  its  vitality.  Tbe  normal  sole  physiologically  maintains  a 
proper  thinness  by  crumbling  off  in  scales  as  it  passes  beyond  the  life- 
maintaining  influence  of  the  i^roducing  tissues,  and  anything  which 
prevents,  suspends,  or  destroys  this  influence  causes  the  crumbling  proc- 
ess to  become  excessive. 

Punctured  wounds  of  the  feet,  whe  re  accompanied  by  any  consider- 
able destruction  of  the  soft  or  horn-secreting  tissues,  present  the  same 
peculiarities  in  this  respect  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  in- 
jury. Bruises  of  the  sole  are  occasionally  followed  by  this  change  in 
the  horn  where  the  exudation  has  been  excessive  and  has  separated  it 
from  the  living  tissues.  True,  in  these  cases  we  rarely  see  the  soft  tis- 
sues laid  bare,  for  the  reason  that  new  horn  is  constantly  secreted  and 
replaces  that  undergoing  the  process  of  disintegration. 

Laminitis  presents  three  different  conditions  under  which  pumiced 
sole  may  appear:  First,  where  free  exudation  separates  the  horn  from 
the  other  tissues,  or  where  the  process  of  inflammation  arrests  the  pro- 
duction of  horn  by  impairing  or  destroying  the  horn-secreting  mem- 
brane: secondly,  where  depression  of  the  coffin  bone  causes  pressure 
upon  and  arrests  the  formation  of  horn ;  and,  thirdly,  where  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  sole  compresses  the  soft  tissues  against  the  pedal  bone  and 
induces  the  same  condition.  Pumiced  sole,  as  it  results  from  simple 
exudation  and  separation  of  tissues,  is  of  no  importance,  for  the  reason 
given  above  iu  connection  with  bruises ;  but  where  suppuration  occurs 
in  restricted  portions  of  the  foot  in  conjunction  with  laminitis  it  always 
lays  bare  the  tissues  beneath  and  impairs  the  animal's  value  tempora- 
rily. In  these  cases  recovery  takes  place  after  a  tew  weeks'  time  by  the 
tissues  horning  over,  as  iu  injuries  which  have  been  attended  with  the 
same  process.  Depression  of  the  coffin  bone  is  not  a  sufficient  cause 
within  itself  to  cause  pumiced  sole,  for  if  the  relative  change  in  the 
bone  takes  place  slowly,  or  if  the  horn  is  thin,  the  sole  becomes  con- 
vex from  the  gradual  pressure  and  the  soft  tissues  adapt  themselves  to 
the  change  without  having  their  function  materially  impaired.  But 
when  the  dropping  is  sudden  and  the  soft  tissues  entirely  destroyed, 
the  horn  rapidly  crumbles  away  and  the  toe  of  the  bone  comes  through. 
In  many  of  these  cases  the  soft  tissues  remain  uncovered  for  months, 
and  when  they  eventually  become  covered  it  is  with  a  thin,  slightly  ad- 


414 

herent  horn  that  bears  but  little  or  no  wear.  The  sole  being  now  con- 
vex the  diseased  tissues  are  compelled  to  bear  unusual  weight  by  com- 
ing in  contact  with  the  ground,  and  hence  it  is  these  animals  are  gen- 
erally incurable  cripples.  In  the  majority  of  cases  where  the  sole  is 
raised  to  meet  the  pedal  bone  and  pumiced  sole  occurs,  it  is  due  not  to 
pressure  of  the  bone  from  within  (for  the  tissues  are  capable  of  adapt- 
ing themselves  to  the  gradual  change),  but  to  impaired  vitality  of  the 
sensitive  tissues  from  the  inflammation  and  the  constant  concussion  and 
pressure. applied  from  without  during  i^rogression.  Added  to  this  is  to 
be  considered  the  paring  away  of  the  horn  by  the  smith  when  apj)lying 
the  shoe,  thereby  keeping  the  sole  at  this  point  too  thin. 

Turning  up  of  the  toe. — In  many  cases  of  laminitis  which  have  be- 
come chronic  it  is  found  that  the  toe  of  the  foot  turns  up,  and  that  the 
heels  are  longer  than  natural,  while  the  whole  hoof  next  to  the  coro- 
nary band  is  circled  with  ridges  like  the  horn  of  a  ram.  Even  in  other 
cases  where  recovery  has  taken  i^lace,  and  in  other  diseases  than  lam- 
initis, these  may  be  found  in  the  wall  of  the  foot,  but  in  these  cases  the 
ridges  are  equally  distant  from  each  other  all  around  the  foot,  while  in 
turning  up  of  the  toe  the  ridges  are  wide  apart  at  the  heels  and  close 
together  in  front,  as  seen  in  the  figure  (Plate  xxxi.  Fig.  4).  These 
ridges  are  produced  by  periods  of  interfeience  with  the  growth  of  horn 
alternating  with  periods  during  which  a  normal  or  nearly  normal 
growth  takes  place.  When  the  toe  turns  up  it  does  so  because  the  cor- 
onary band  in  front  produces  horn  very  slowly,  while  at  the  heels  it 
grows  much  faster. 

Animals  affected  with  pumiced  foot  and  turning  up  of  the  toe  during 
progression  always  place  the  abnormally  long  heel  first  upon  the  ground, 
not  because  the  heel  is  too  long,  nor  as  in  acute  or  subacute  laminitis 
to  relieve  the  pain,  but  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  animal  carries  the 
leg  forward  with  the  column  of  bones  in  the  normal  position,  and  at- 
tempting to  keep  them  so  the  heel  first  comes  in  contact  with  the 
ground,  and  he  then  knuckles  over  at  the  fetlock  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  foot  deformity  present  as  he  brings  the  toe  to  the  surface. 

The  pain  and  impai  rment  of  function  in  these  cases  always  result 
in  marked  atrophy  of  the  mus  cles  of  the  forearm  and  shoulder,  and  to 
some  extent  of  the  pectorals,  while  the  position  of  the  fore  feet  ad- 
vances the  scapula  joints  so  far  forward  as  to  cause  a  somewhat  sunken 
appearance  of  the  chest  in  front,  which  the  laity  recognize  as  a  peculiar 
form  of  the  disease  popularly  designated  as  "chest  founder." 

Regarding  the  presence  of  inflammation  during  this  process,  there  is 
no  doubt  a  chronic  form  exists  a  long  time  after  these  lesions  commence, 
yet  it  may  in  time  subside  and  leave  the  feet  free  from  fever  while  the 
other  changes  still  go  on. 

The  lesions  of  turning  up  of  the  toe  are  permanent,  and  are  withal  the 
most  interesting  pathologically  of  all  the  complications  of  laminitis. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  laminitis  is  probably  more  varied  than 
in  other  disease,  and  yet  in  spite  of  it  a  large  number  of  cases  recover 


415 

for  even  the  poorest  iiractitioner.  Siuce  there  are  two  objects  to  be  at 
taiued  iu  treatment — prevention  and  remedy — the  matter  will  be  con- 
sidered under  the  head  of  prevention  and  curative  measures. 

Prevention. — To  guard  against  and  prevent  disease,  or  to  render  an 
unpreventable attack  less  serious  than  it  otherwise  would  be,  is  the  high- 
est practice  of  the  healing  art.  In  a  disease  so  prone  to  result  from 
the  simplest  causes  as  seen  in  lamiuitis,  and  especially  when  the  sound- 
est judgment  may  not  be  able  to  determine  the  extent  of  the  disease- 
resisting  powers  of  the  tissues  which  are  liable  to  be  affected,  or  of  what 
shall  in  every  instance  constitute  an  over-excitement,  it  is  not  strange 
that  horse  owners  find  themselves  in  trouble  from  unintentional  trans- 
gression. If  the  disease  was  dependent  upon  specific  causes,  or  if  the 
stability  of  the  tissues  were  of  a  fixed  or  more  nearly  determinate  quality, 
some  measures  might  be  instituted  that  would  prove  generally  prevent- 
ive. But  when  we  recall  the  fact  that  predisposing  causes  are  so  preva- 
lent and  often  can  not  be  remedied,  that  what  is  but  gentle  work  in  one 
instance  may  incite  disease  in  another,  that  what  is  food  to-day  may 
to-morrow  iirove  disastrous  to  health,  and  that  necessarj- medical  inter- 
ference, no  matter  how  judicious,  may  cauvse  a  more  serious  complaint 
than  that  which  was  being  treated,  the  obstacles  to  contend  with  become 
plain.  Notwithstanding  these  difficulties  there  are  some  general  rules 
to  be  observed  that  will  in  part  serve  to  prevent  the  development  of  an 
unusual  number  of  cases.  In  the  first  place  all  the  predisposing  causes 
named  must  be  removed  where  possible,  and  when  this  is  impossible 
unusual  care  must  be  taken  not  to  bring  into  operation  an  exciting 
cause.  Fat  animals  should,  under  no  circumstances,  have  hard  work, 
and  if  the  weather  is  warm  or  the  variation  of  temperature  great  they 
should  have  but  slow,  gentle  labor  until  they  become  inured  to  it,  the 
tissues  hardened  and  their  excitability  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Gre<^n 
horses  should  always  have  moderate  work  for  the  same  reason,  and  par- 
ticularly when  changed  from  the  farm  and  dirt  roads  to  city  pavements. 
The  increased  concussion,  changed  hygienic  conditions  and  artificial 
living,  readily  become  active  causes  of  the  disease  under  these  circum- 
stances. Army  horses  just  out  of  winter  quarters,  track  horses  with 
insufficient  prei^aration,  and  farmers'  horses  put  to  work  in  the  spring, 
are  among  the  most  susceptible  classes,  and  must  be  protected  by  work 
that  is  easy  and  gradual.  If  long  marches  or  drives  are  imperative, 
then  the  incumbrances  must  be  light  as  possible  and  the  journey  inter- 
spersed with  frequent  rests,  for  this  allows  the  laminae  to  regain  their 
impaired  functional  activity  and  thereby  to  withstand  much  more  work 
without  danger.  And,  furthermore,  it  permits  an  early  detection  of  an 
oncoming  attack;  in  any  case  prevents  working  after  the  disease  be- 
gins and  renders  subsequent  medication  much  more  effective  by  cutting 
the  process  short  at  the  stage  of  congestion. 

All  animals  when  resting  immediately  after  work  should  be  protected 
from  cold  air  or  draughts.  If  placed  in  a  stable  that  is  warm  and  with- 
out draught  no  covering  is  necessary  j  under  opposite  conditions  blankets 


416 

should  be  used  until  the  excitemeut  and  exbaustion  of  tlie  labor  per- 
formed have  entirely  passed  away.  It  is  still  better  that  all  animals 
coming  in  warm  from  work  be  "  cooled  out "  by  slow  walking  until  the 
perspiration  has  dried  and  the  circulation  and  respiration  returned  to 
the  normal.  Animals  stopped  on  the  road  even  for  a  few  moments 
time  should  always  be  protected  from  rapid  change  of  temperature  by 
appropriate  clothing.  If  it  can  be  avoided  horses  that  are  working 
should  never  be  driven  or  ridden  through  a  stream  or  pool  of  water. 
Where  necessary  they  should  be  cooled  off  before  passing  through,  and 
then  kept  exercising  until  completely  dried.  The  same  rule  is  to  be  ob- 
served with  regard  to  washing  the  legs  in  cold  water  when  the  animal 
is  just  in  from  work,  for,  although  it  is  practiced  extensively  and  usually 
with  impunity,  occasionally  it  proves  the  cause  of  a  most  acute  attack 
of  this  disease.  Regarding  shoeing  as  a  predisposing  cause,  unusual 
changes  in  the  manner  of  applying  the  shoe  should  not  be  hastily  made. 

If  a  plane  shoe  has  been  worn,  high  heels  or  toes  must  not  be  sub- 
stituted at  once,  but  the  change,  if  necessary,  should  gradually  be 
made,  so  that  the  different  tissues  may  adapt  themselves  to  the  change 
of  functional  performance  they  are  called  upon  to  bear.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  such  changes  are  imiierative,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  then  the 
work  must  be  so  reduced  in  quantity  and  quality  that  it  can  not  prove  ex- 
citant of  the  disease.  Laminitis  from  the  effects  of  purgative  medicines 
is  a  condition  which  can  scarcely  be  guarded  against  unless  we  discard 
entirely  this  useful  class  of  medicines.  I  can  not  determine  from  the 
few  cases  in  which  I  have  seen  this  unhappy  result  of  a  purgative  that 
there  are  any  conditions  of  the  system  jiresent  that  would  warn  us  of 
danger  in  this  direction.  The  disease  does  not  seem  to  have  any  de- 
pendence for  inception  in  such  cases  upon  the  size  of  the  purgative, 
the  length  of  time  before  purgation  begins,  or  the  activity  and  severity 
with  which  the  remedy  acts.  Moderate  doses  of  medicines  kno^,u  to 
have  unusual  irritating  effects  on  the  alimentary  canal  should  be  used 
only  when  necessity  demands  it. 

Experience  alone  will  determine  what  animals  are  liable  to  suffer 
from  this  disease  through  the  influence  of  the  different  foods.  When  an 
attack  can  with  any  certainty  be  ascribed  to  any  particular  food  it 
should  ever  be  withheld  unless  in  the  smallest  quantities.  Horses  that 
have  never  been  fed  upon  Indian  corn  should  receive  but  a  little  at  a 
time  at  first,  and  always  mixed  with  bran,  oats,  or  other  food,  until  it 
has  been  determined  that  no  danger  exists.  Corn  is  much  more  liable 
to  cause  laminitis  in  warm  than  in  cold  weather,  and  for  this  reason  it 
should  always  be  fed  with  care  during  spring  and  summer  months. 

When  an  animal  is  excessively  lame  in  one  foot  the  other  or  opposite 
member  should  have  the  shoe  early  removed  and  cold  water  frequently 
applied.  At  the  same  time  the  slings  should  be  used  if  the  subject  re- 
mains standing.  Horses  should  under  no  circumstances  be  overworked 5 
to  guard  against  this,  i)revious  work,  nature  of  roads,  state  of  weather, 
and  various  other  influences  must  be  carefully  noted.     Watering  while 


417 

warm  is  a  pernicious  habit,  and  unless  tbe  animal  is  accustomed  to  it 
is  apt  to  result  in  some  disorder,  ofttiraes  in  laminitis. 

Curative  measures. — In  cases  of  simple  passive  congestion  of  tbelam- 
insB,  tbe  bod^'  sbould  be  warmly  clotbed  and  warm  drinks  given  to 
draw  tbe  blood  in  increased  quantity  to  tbese  parts  so  as  to  direct  it 
from  tbe  feet ;  at  tbe  same  tin  o  tbe  feet  sbould  be  placed  in  warm  water 
so  as  to  increase  tbe  return  flow  of  blood.  In  tbe  course  of  balf  an  bour 
tbe  feet  may  be  cbanged  to  cold  water,  wbicb  serves  as  a  tonic  to  all  tbe 
tissues,  and  kept  tbere  until  recovery  is  completed.  If  tbe  constitutional 
symptoms  demand  it,  diuretics  sbould  be  given.  Half-ounce  doses  of 
saltpeter,  three  times  a  day  in  the  water,  answers  tbe  purpose.  In  cases 
of  active  congestion  tbe  warm  foot  baths  sbould  be  omitted  and  cold  ones 
substituted  from  tbe  commencement.  Subacute  laminitis  demands  tbe 
same  treatment  with  laxatives  if  there  is  constipation,  and  tbeaddition  of 
low-heeled  shoes.  The  diuretics  may  need  to  be  continued  for  some  lime 
and  their  frequency  increased.  Regarding  acute  Laminitis,  what  baa 
been  called  tbe  "American  treatment "  is  so  simple  and  withal  so  efficient 
that  it  is  to  be  remarked  other  countries  have  never  adopted  it.  Since 
the  disease  is  a  local  one,  unquestionably  tbe  remedies  used  should  be 
applied  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  tbe  affected  parts,  or  if  drugs 
are  administered  internally,  they  sbould  have  some  specific  localized 
action.  And  such  are  tbe  claims  made  for  tbe  above-named  method  of 
treatment.  It  consists  solely  in  the  exhibition  of  large  doses  of  nitrate  of 
potash  and  the  continued  application  to  the  feet  and  ankles  of  cold  water. 

Three  to  4  ounces  of  saltpeter  in  a  pint  of  water,  repeated  every  six 
hours,  is  th»  proper  dose,  and  tbe  laminitis  frequently  subsides  inside  of 
a  week's  time.  These  large  doses  ma^'  be  continued  for  a  week  without 
.danger ;  never  under  any  circumstances  have  I  seen  the  kidneys  irri- 
tated to  excess  or  other  unfavorable  effects  produced. 

Tbe  feet  should  either  be  kept  in  a  tub  of  water  at  a  temperature  of 
450  to  SO^'Fabr.  (it  may  be  lowered  if  desired),  or  if  the  animal  is  lying 
down  swabs  sbould  be  used  and  wet  every  balf  hour  with  the  cold 
water.  The  water  not  only  keeps  tbe  horn  soft  and  moist,  but  acts 
directly  upon  the  inflamed  tissues  by  reducing  their  temi^erature,  thereby 
increasing  their  vitality  and  disease-resisting  qualities,  and  at  the  same 
time  by  toning  up  the  coats  of  the  blood  vessels  diminishes  tbe  supply 
of  blood  and  limits  the  exudation.  Furthermore,  cold  has  also  an  anes- 
thetic eflect  uj)on  tbe  diseased  tissues  and  relieves  tbe  jiain. 

Aconite  may  be  given  in  conjunction  with  niter  where  the  heart  is 
greatly  excited  and  beating  strongly.  Ten -drop  doses  repeated  every 
two  hours  for  twenty-four  hours  is  sutticient.  The  practice  of  giving 
cathartics  is  dangerous,  for  it  may  excite  superpurgation.  Usually  the 
niter  has  sufficient  effect  upon  the  constipation  to  relieve  it,  yet  if  it  should 
prove  obstinate  laxatives  may  be  carefully  given.  Bleeding,  both  gen- 
eral and  local,  sbould  be  guarded  against.  The  shoes  should  always  be 
early  removed  and  tbe  soles  left  unpared. 
11035 27 


418 

Paring  of  the  soles  presents  two  objections.  First,  while  it  may 
temporarily  relieve  the  pain  by  relieving  pressure,  it  at  the  same  time 
allows  of  greater  exudation,  which  may  more  than  counterbalance  the 
good  effects.  Secondly,  it  makes  the  feet  tender  and  subject  to  bruises 
when  the  animal  again  goes  to  work.  The  shoes  should  be  replaced  when 
convalescence  sets  in  and  the  animal  is  ready  to  take  exercise.  Exer- 
cise should  never  be  enforced  until  the  inflammation  has  subsided,  for 
although  it  temporarily  relieves  the  paiu  and  soreness,  it  serves  to  main- 
tain continued  irritation,  increases  the  exudation,  and  prolongs  the 
recovery. 

If,  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  or  sixth  day,  prominent  symptoms  of  re- 
covery are  not  apparent,  apply  a  stiff  blister  of  cantharides  around  the 
coronet  and  omit  the  niter  for  about  forty-eight  hours.  As  soon  as  the 
blister  has  drawn  well  the  feet  may  again  receive  wet  swabs.  If  one 
blister  does  not  suffice  to  remove  the  soreness,  as  is  the  case  some- 
times, especially  where  i^eriostftis  is  present,  it  may  be  repeated,  or  the 
actual  cautery  applied.  The  same  treatment  should  be  adopted  where 
side  bones  form  or  inflammation  of  the  coronet  bone  ensues.  When  the 
sole  breaks  through  and  exposes  the  coffin  bone  and  soft  tissues,  the 
feet  must  be  carefully  shod  with  thin  heels  and  thick  toes  where  there 
is  any  tendency  to  walking  on  th<s  heels,  and  the  sole  well  protected 
with  appropriate  dressing  and  pressure  over  the  exposed  parts.  When 
there  is  turning  up  of  the  toe,  blistering  of  the  coronet  m  front,  care- 
fully avoiding  the  quarters  and  heels,  sometimes  stimulates  the  growth 
of  horn,  but  as  a  rule  judicious  shoeing  is  the  only  treatment  that  will 
keep  the  animal  in  a  condition  to  do  light,  slow  work. 

Where  suppuration  of  the  lamince  is  profuse  it  is  better  to  destroy 
your  patient  at  once  and  relieve  his  suffering,  but  if  the  suppuration  is 
limited  to  a  small  extent  of  tissue,  especially  of  the  sole,  treatment  as 
in  acute  cases  may  induce  recovery  and  should  always  be  tried.  If 
from  bed-sores  or  other  causes  septicemia  or  pyaemia  is  'feared,  the 
bisulphite  of  soda  in  half-ounce  doses  may  be  given  in  conjunction 
with  tonics  and  other  treatment  indicated  in  these  diseases.  Regard- 
ing enforced  recumbency  I  doubt  the  propriety  of  iuMsting  on  it  in 
the  majority  of  cases,  for  I  think  as  a  rule  the  animal  assumes  what- 
ever position  gives  comfort.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  recumbency 
diminishes  the  amount  of  blood  sent  to  the  feet,  and  that  the  suffering 
is  greatly  relieved  while  in  this  position,  so  that  the  experiment  of 
forcing  the  patient  to  lie  down  may  be  tried,  yet  should  not  be  renewed 
if  it  thereafter  i^ersists  in  standing. 

Where  the  animal  stands,  or  where  constant  lying  indicates  it,  to  pre- 
vent extensive  sores  the  patient  should  be  placed  in  slings,  and  the 
weight  supported  in  this  manner  to  the  relief  of  the  feet.  When  all 
four  feet  are  affected  it  may  be  impossible  to  use  slings,  for  the  reason 
that  the  patient  refuses  to  support  any  of  his  weight  on  his  feet  and  sim- 
ply hangs  in  them.  Lastly,  convalescent  cases  must  not  be  returned 
to  work  too  early,  else  permanent  recovery  may  never  be  effected. 


M 


'i 


PLATE   XXXII. 


Ring  Bon£ , 

after  D  add. 


Splints. 


Large 
('(inn  on 


Fore  arm 


Kn^e. 

Splint  bone. 
Cannon,  bone 


SiLspensoryX [ U 

li(/ame/Lt 


\FLe.\:or 
■  perforans. 


I  Fl^A-or 
perforaius. 


Fetlock, 


Foot. 


Anatomy  of  the  foot, 

after  Haiibner. 


JJunt.s-  ot  t7ie  foot, 
cifter  ChaveaiL 


Haines  del. 


Side  Bones, 
after  Stonelieiige . 


yaviculnrDisea^e, 

after  Stonetienge. 


RINGBONE  AND  NA^\^rCI."LxVR  DISEASE. 


PLATE    XXXUI. 


Top  of  wall. 


N» 

C^ 

'^ 

■^ 

■^ 

v; 

=i- 

^v 

*^ 

't 

>^ 

NJ 

,C                                  ^ 

^ 

( 

^ 

Clamp. 


iTon  for  burni7ig  holes 


The  rloTnp  artrl  nail  remedies  applieA. 
8     ^^^S 


Toe  crack.  Wall  removed  txj  s7low. 
absorptLorv  of  cofftrv  borte. 


10    /i^. 


/ 


/ 


-'   ',---^ 


-•/^■'"'S".;';. 


-^  ^/ 


Actual  fhx^kn^ss 
of  walls  of  7 tor  f 


,  /i^-i  ' 


Quarter- crack  with  cross  cut, 


Treated,  by  clamping  with,  ruu'ls. 


(^CLckecl  walls 


Haines  del. 


One  effect  of  quurcer    Crack. 
QUAB-TEFl-CR^CK  AND  FIEMEDTE  S. 


Pi.A'ii-;   .\x\[\' 


1  li  nii(/  .'!.  Soii/ii/  fnol  of  (wfi  ivy/,'-  oh/ . 


-  X 


a,  Xail  pTopfi-ly  (/ri\rn 
h.  Xiiit  iiii/iraperly  (//nen 


C/iii  I /■<! r/i'(/  /hoi. 


X- 


Somitl  /onl  I,/'  luit   \ior  (lid,. 


4a 


t  ,1     .^'iif/o/i   //r/'oss  //'//.    'Jo/  X 


Si'cl7r>7i  ar/'oss  fig.  h  II I 's. 


--X 


Soii/k/  hill  /7o/  /iio/. 


/■>ii(//\-  iri/i/  III  I  In/  /ool 


X 


Hiunes.ilei 


soi'xn  Axn  cox'I'm  .\('i"i-;i)  i-"ki^t. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  SKIN. 


By  JAMES  LAW,  F.  R.   C.  S.  V.  S., 
Professor  of  Veterinary  Science,  eic  ,  Cornell  University. 


As  we  find  thein  described  in  systematic  works,  the  diseases  of  the 
skin  are  very  numerous  and  complex,  which  may  be  largely  accounted 
for  by  the  fact  that  tlje  cutaneous  covering  is  exposed  to  view  at  all 
points,  so  that  shades  of  difference  in  inflammatory  and  other  diseased 
processes  are  easily  seen  and  distinguished  from  each  other.  In  the 
horse  the  hairy  covering  serves  to  some  extent  to  mask  the  symptoms, 
and  hence  the  nonprofessional  man  is  tempted  to  apply  the  term 
"  mange  "  to  all  alike,  and  it  is  only  a  step  further  to  apply  the  same 
treatment  to  all  these  widely  different  disorders.  Yet  even  in  the  hairy 
quadruped  the  distinction  can  be  made  in  a  way  which  can  not  be  done 
in  disorders  of  that  counterpart  and  prolorgation  of  the  skin — the 
mucous  membrane,  which  lines  the  air  passages,  the  digestive  organs, 
the  urinary,  and  generative  apparatus.  Diseased  processes,  therefore, 
which  in  these  organs  it  might  be  difficult  or  impossible  to  distinguish 
from  each  other,  can  usually  be  separated  and  recognized  when  appear- 
ing in  the  skin. 

Nor  is  this  differentiation  unimportant.  The  cutaneous  covering  pre- 
sents such  an  extensive  surface  for  the  secretion  of  cuticular  scales, 
hairs,  horn,  sebaceous  matter,  sweat,  and  other  excretory  matters,  that 
any  extensive  disorder  in  its  functions  may  lead  to  serious  internal 
disease  and  death.  Again,  the  intimate  nervous  sympathy  of  different 
points  of  the  skin  with  particular  internal  organs  renders  certain 
skin  disorders  causative  of  internal  disease  and  certain  internal  dis- 
eases causative  of  affections  of  the  skin.  The  mere  painting  of  the  skin 
with  an  imi)ermeable  coating  of  glue  is  speedily  fatal ;  a  cold  draught 
striking  on  the  chest  causes  inflammation  of  the  lungs  or  pleura  ;  a  skin 
eruption  speedily  follows  certain  disorders  of  the  stomach,  the  liver,  the 
kidneys,  or  even  the  lungs  ;  siuiirle  burns  of  the  skin  cause  inflamma- 
tions of  internal  organs,  and  inflammations  of  such  organs  cause  in  their 
turn  eruptions  on  the  skin.  The  relations — nervous,  secretory,  and 
absorptive — between  the  skin  and  internal  organs  are  most  extensive 
and  varied,  and  therefore  a  visible  disorder  in  the  skin  may  point  at 

419 


420 

ODce  and  specifically  to  a  particular  fault  in  diet,  to  an  injudicious  use 
of  cold  water  when  the  system  is  heated,  to  a  fault  in  drainage,  venti- 
lation or  lighting  of  the  stables,  to  indigestion,  to  liver  disease,  to 
urinary  disorder,  etc. 

STRUCTURE   OF   THE   SKIN. 

The  skin  consists  primarily  of  two  parts:  (1),  the  superficial  nonvas- 
cular (without  blood  vessels)  layer,  the  cuticle  or  epidermis;  and  (2),  the 
deep  vascular  (with  blood  vessels)  layer,  the  corium,  dermis  or  true  skin. 

The  cuticle  is  made  up  of  cells  placed  side  by  side  and  more  or  less 
modified  in  shape  by  their  mutual  compression  and  by  surface  evapora- 
tion and  drying.  The  superficial  stratum  consists  of  the  cells  dried  in 
the  form  of  scales,  which  fall  ofl"  continually  and  form  dandruff.  The 
deep  stratum  (the  mucous  layer)  is  formed  of  somewhat  rounded  cells 
with  large  central  nuclei,  and  in  colored  skin  containing  numerous  pig- 
ment granules.  These  cells  have  prolongations. or  branches  by  which 
they  communicate  with  each  other  and  with  the  superficial  layer  of 
cells  in  the  true  skin  beneath.  Through  these  they  receive  nutrient 
liquidsfortheirgrowth  and  increase,  and  through  these  liquids  absorbed 
by  the  skin,  may  be  passed  on  into  the  vessels  of  the  true  skin  beneath. 
The  living  matter  in  the  cells  exercises  an  equally  selective  power  oa 
what  they  shall  take  up  for  their  own  nourishment  and  on  what  they 
shall  admit  into  the  circulation  from  without.  Thus,  certain  agents 
like  iodine  and  belladonna  are  readily  admitted,  whereas  others,  like 
arsenic,  are  excluded  by  the  sound  unbroken  epidermis.  Between  the 
deep  and  superficial  layers  of  the  epidermis  there  is  a  thin  translucent 
layer  (septum  lucidum),  consisting  of  a  double  stratum  of  cells,  and 
forming  a  medium  of  transition  from  the  deep  spheroidal  to  the  super- 
ficial scaly  cuticle. 

The  true  sl-in  or  dermis  has  a  framework  of  interlacing  bundles  of 
■white  and  yellow  fibers,  large  and  coarse  in  the  deeper  layers,  and  fine 
in  the  superficial  where  they  approach  the  cuticle.  Between  the  fibrous 
bundles  are  left  interspaces  which,  like  the  bundles,  become  finer  as 
they  approach  the  surface,  and  inclose  cells,  vessels,  nerves,  glands, 
gland  ducts,  hairs,  and  in  the  deeper  layers  fat. 

The  superficial  layer  of  the  dermis  is  formed  into  a  series  of  minute 
conical  elevations  or  pajnlla,  projecting  into  the  deep  portion  of  the 
cuticle,  from  which  they  are  separated  by  a  very  fine  transparent  mem- 
brane. This  papillary  layer  is  very  richly  supplied  with  capillary  blood 
vessels  and  nerves,  and  is  at  once  the  seat  of  acute  sensation  and  the 
point  from  which  the  nutrient  liqurd  is  supplied  to  the  cells  of  the 
cuticle  above.  It  is  also  at  this  point  that  the  active  changes  of  in- 
flammation are  especially  concentrated;  it  is  the  immediately  super- 
posed cell  layers  (mucous),  that  become  morbidly  increased  in  the  early 
stages  of  inflammation  ;  it  is  on  the  surface  of  the  papillary  layer  that 
the  liquid  is  thrown  out  which  raises  the  cuticle  in  the  form  of  a  blister, 
and  it  is  at  this  point  mainly  that  pus  forms  in  the  ordinary  pustule. 


421 

The  fibrous  bundles  of  the  true  skin  contain  plain  muscular  fibers, 
which  are  not  controlled  by  the  will,  but  contract  under  the  influence 
of  cold  and  under  certain  nervous  influences,  as  in  some  skin  diseases 
and  in  the  chill  of  a  fever,  and  lead  to  contraction,  tightening,  or  cor- 
rugation of  the  skin,  contributing  to  produce  the  "  hidebound  "  of  the 
horseman.  Other  minute  muscular  filaments  are  extended  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  dermis  to  the  hair  follicle  on  the  side  to  which  the  hair  is  in- 
clined, and  under  the  same  stimulating  influences  produce  that  erection 
of  the  hair  which  is  familiarly  known  as  "  staring  coat."  Besides  these, 
the  horse's  skin  is  furnished  with  an  expansion  of  red  voluntary  mus- 
cle, firml.y  attached  to  the  fibrous  bundles,  and  by  which  the  animal 
can  not  only  dislodge  insects  and  other  irritants,  but  even  shake  oft"  the 
harness.  This  fleshy  envelope  covers  the  sides  of  the  trunk  and  the 
lower  portions  of  the  neck  and  head,  the  parts  unprotected  by  the  mane 
and  tail,  and  serves  to  throw  the  skin  of  these  i)arts  into  i)ackers  or 
ridges  in  certain  irritating  skin  diseases. 

The  hairs  are  cuticular  products  growing  from  an  enlarged  papilla 
lodged  in  the  depth  of  a  follicle  or  sack,  hollowed  out  in  the  skin  and 
extending  to  its  deepest  layers.  The  hair  follicle  is  lined  by  cells  of 
epidermis,  which  at  the  bottom  are  reflected  on  the  ijapilla  and  become 
the  root  of  the  hair.  The  hair  itself  is  formed  of  the  same  kind  of  cells 
firmly  adherent  to  each  other  by  a  tough  intercellular  substance,  and 
ovrrlappiug  each  other  like  slates  on  a  roof  in  a  direction  towards  the 
free  end. 

The  sebaceous  glands  are  branching  tubes  ending  in  follicles  or  sacks 
and  opening  into  the  hair  follicles,  lined  by  a  very  vascular  fibrous  net- 
work representing  the  dermis,  and  an  internal  layer  of  cells  represent- 
ing the  mucous  layer  of  the  cuticle.  Their  oily  secretion  gives  gloss  to 
the  hair  and  prevents  its  becoming  dry  and  brittle,  and  keeps  the  skin 
soft  and  supple,  protecting  it  at  once  against  uudue  exhalation  of  water 
and  undue  absorption  when  immersed  in  that  medium.  Beside  those 
connected  with  the  hair  follicles  there  are  numerous  isolated  sebaceous 
glands,  opening  directly  on  the  surface  of  the  skin,  i)roducing  a  some- 
what thicker  and  more  odorous  secretion.  These  are  found  in  large 
numbers  in  the  folds  of  the  skin,  where  chafing  would  be  likely  if  the 
surface  were  dry,  as  on  the  sheath,  scrotum,  mammary  glands  and  inner 
side  of  the  thigh,  around  the  anus  and  vulva,  in  the  hollow  of  the  heel, 
beneath  the  fine  horn  of  the  frog,  on  the  inner  side  of  the  elbow,  on  the 
lips,  nostrils,  and  eyelids.  When  closed  by  dried  secretion  or  other- 
wise these  glands  may  become  distended  so  as  to  form  various  sized 
swellings  on  the  skin,  and  when  inflamed  they  may  throw  out  offensive 
liquid  discharges  as  in  "  grease,"  or  ijroduce  red  tender  fungus  growths 
("grapes"). 

The  stveat  glands  of  the  horse,  like  those  of  man,  are  composed  of 
simple  tubes,  which  extend  down  through  the  cuticle  and  dermis  in  a 
spiral  manner,  and  are  coiled  into  balls  in  the  deeper  layer  of  the  true 


422 

skin.  Tn  addition  to  their  importance  in  throwing  offensive  wa.:;te  pro- 
ducts out  of  the  system,  these  glands  tend  to  cool  the  skin  and  the  en- 
tire economy  of  the  animal  through  the  evaporation  of  their  watery 
secretion.  Their  activity  is  therefore  a  matter  of  no  small  moment,  as 
beside  regulating  the  animal  heat  and  excreting  impurities,  it  influ- 
ences largely  the  internal  organs  through  the  intimate  sympathy  main- 
tained between  them  and  the  skin. 

Diseases  of  the  skin  may  be  conveniently  divided,  according  to  their 
most  marked  features,  into  : 

(1)  Those  in  which  congestion  and  inflammation  are  the  most  marked 
features,  varying  according  to  the  grade  or  form  into  (a),  congestion  with 
simple  redness,  dryness  and  heat,  but  no  eruption  [erythema);  [h),  in- 
flammation with  red  pointed  elevations  but  no  blisters  {papules);  (c),  in- 
flammation  with  fine  conical  elevations,  each  surmounted  by  a  minute 
blister  [vesicle)  ;  [d),  inflammation  with  a  similar  eruption  but  with 
larger  blisters,  like  half  a  ji^a  and  upwards  (bullse) ;  [e),  inflammation 
with  a  similar  eruption  but  with  a  small  sack  of  white  creamy  pus  on 
the  summit  of  each  elevation  [pustitles) ;  (/),  the  formation  of  pustules 
implicating  the  superficial  layer  of  the  true  skin,  a  small  portion  of 
which  dies  and  is  thrown  off  as  a  slough  or  "  core"  [boils)  ;  [g),  the  for- 
mation of  round,  nodular,  transient  swellings  in  the  true  skin  [tubercles) 
and  [h),  the  excessive  production  of  scales  or  dandruff  (sea??/  or  squamous 
afl^ections. 

(2)  Diseases  in  which  there  is  only  deranged  sensations,  of  itching, 
heat,  tenderness,  etc.  [Neurosis). 

(3)  Diseased  growths,  as  warts,  callosities,  horny  growths,  cancer,  etc. 

(4)  Diseases  due  to  parasites,  animal  and  vegetable. 

(5)  Diseases  connected  with  a  specific  jjoison — horsepox,  erysipelas, 
anthrax,  farcy  or  cutaneous  glanders,  etc. 

(6)  Physical  injuries  like  wounds,  burns,  scalds,  etc. 

CONGESTION — RED    EFFLORESCENCE — ERYTHEMA. 

This  is  a  congested  or  slightly  inflamed  condition  of  the  skin,  unat- 
tended by  any  eruption.  The  part  is  slightly  swollen,  hot,  tender  or 
itchy,  and  dry,  and  if  the  skin  is  white  there  is  redness.  The  redness 
is  effaced  by  pressure,  but  reappears  instantly  when  the  pressure  is  re- 
moved. Unless  in  transient  cases  the  hairs  are  liable  to  be  shed.  It 
maybe  looked  on  as  the  first  stage  of  inflammation,  and  therefore  when 
it  becomes  aggravated  it  may  merge  in  part  or  in  whole  into  a  papular, 
vesicular,  or  pustular  eruption. 

Erythema  may  arise  from  a  variety  of  causes,  and  is  often  named  in 
accordance  with  its  most  prominent  cause.  Thus  the  chilling  ot  \y.vA\\\\ 
freezing  of  a  part  will  give  rise  to  a  severe  reaction  and  congestion. 
Where  snowy  or  icy  streets  have  been  salted  this  may  extend  to  severe 
inflammation  with  vesicles,  pustules,  or  even  sloughs  of  circumscribed 
portions  of  the  skin  of  the  pastern  (chill-blain,  frost-bite).     Heat  and 


423 

burning  has  a  similar  effect,  and  this  often  comes  from  exposure  to  the 
direct  rays  of  the  suo.  The  skin  that  does  not  perspire  is  the  most 
subject,  and  hence  the  ichiteface  or  white  limb  of  a  horse  becoming  dried 
by  the  intensity  of  the  sun's  rays  often  snfifers  to  the  exclusion  of  the  rest 
of  the  body  ( white  face  and  foot  disease).  The  febrile  state  of  the  general 
system  is  also  a  i)otent  cause,  hence  the  white-skinned  horse  is  rendered 
the  more  liable  if  kept  on  a  heating  ration  of  buclcivheat,  or  even  of 
wheat  or  maize.  Contact  of  the  skin  with  oil  of  turpentine  or  other  essen- 
tial oils, vfith  irritant  liqidds,  vegetable  or  mineral,  with  rancid  fats,  with 
the  acrid  secretions  of  certain  animals  like  the  irritated  toad,  with  pus, 
sweat,  tears,  urine  ov  liquid  fceces,  will  produce  congestion  or  even  inllam- 
mation.  Chafing  is  a  common  cause,  and  is  especially  liable  to  affect 
the  fat  horse  between  the  thighs,  by  the  side  of  the  sheath  or  scrotum, 
on  the  inner  side  of  the  elbow,  or  where  the  harness  chafes  on  the  poll, 
shoulder,  back,  breastbone,  and  under  the  tail.  The  accumulation  of 
sweat  and  dust  between  the  folds  of  the  skin,  and  on  the  surface  of 
the  harness,  and  the  specially  acrid  character  of  the  sweat  in  cer- 
tain horses  contribute  to  chafing  or  "intertrigo."  The  heels  often  be- 
come congested,  owing  to  the  irritation  caused  by  the  short  bristly  hairs 
in  clipped  heels.  Again,  congestion  may  occur  from  friction  by  halter, 
harness,  or  other  foreign  body  under  the  pastern,  or  inside  the  thigh  or 
arm,  or  by  reason  of  blows  from  another  foot  (cutting,  interfering,  over- 
reach). Finally,  erythema  is  especially  liable  to  occur  in  spring  when 
the  coat  is  being  shed,  and  the  hair  follicles  and  general  surface  are 
exposed  and  irritable  in  connection  with  the  dropping  of  the  hairs. 

If  due  only  to  a  local  irritant  congestion  will  usually  disajjpear  when 
such  cause  has  been  removed,  but  when  the  feeding  or  system  is  at  fault 
these  conditions  must  ba  first  corrected.  While  the  coat  is  being  shed 
the  susceptibility  will  continue,  and  the  aim  should  be  to  prevent  the 
disease  developing  and  advancing  so  as  to  weaken  the  skin,  render  the 
susceptibility  permanent,  and  lay  the  foundation  of  persistent  or  fre-" 
quently  recurring  skin  disease.  Hence  at  such  times  the  diet  should 
be  uonstimulatingj  any  excess  of  grain  and  above  all  of  buckwheat, 
Indian  corn,  or  wheat  being  avoided.  A  large  grain  ration  should  not  be 
given  at  once  on  return  from  hard  work,  when  the  general  system  and 
stomach  are  unable  to  cope  with  it;  the  animal  should  not  be  given 
more  than  a  swallow  or  two  of  cold  water  when  perspiring  and  fatigued; 
nor  should  he  be  allowed  a  full  sujiply  of  water  just  after  his  grain  ra- 
tion ;  he  should  not  be  overheated  nor  exhausted  by  work,  nor  should 
dried  sweat  and  dust  be  allowed  to  accumulate  on  the  skin  nor  on  the 
harness  pressing  on  it.  The  exposure  of  the  affected  heels  to  damp,  mud, 
and  snow,  and  above  all  to  melting  snow,  should  be  guarded  against ; 
light,  smooth,  well-fitting  harness  must  be  secured,  and  where  the  sad- 
dle or  collar  irritates  an  incision  should  be  made  above  and  one  below 
the  part  that  chafes,  and  the  jiadding  between  having  been  removed, 
the  lining  should  be  beaten  so  us  to  make  a  hollow.    A  zinc  shield  in 


424 

the  upper  angle  of  the  collar  will  often  prevent  chafing  in  front  of  the 
withers. 

Wash  the  chafed  skin  and  apply  salt  water  (one-half  ounce  to  the 
quart),  extract  of  witch-hazel,  a  weak  solution  of  oak  bark  or  camphor- 
ated spirit.  If  the  surface  is  raw  use  bland  powders,  as  oxide  of  zinc, 
Ijcopodiuiu,  starch,  or  smear  the  surface  with  vaseline,  or  with  1  ounce 
vaseline  intimately  mixed  with  one-half  dram  each  of  sugar  of  lead 
and  opium.  In  cases  of  chafing  rest  must  be  strictly  enjoined.  Where 
there  is  constitutional  disorder  or  acrid  sweat  1  ounce  cream  of  tartar 
or  a  teaspoouful  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  may  be  given  twice  daily. 

CONGESTION,  WITH    SMALL    PIMPLES — PAPULES. 

In  this  affection  there  is  the  general  blush,  heat,  etc.,  of  erythema,  to- 
getlier  with  a  crop  of  elevations  from  the  size  of  a  poppy-seed  to  a 
coffee-bean,  visible  when  the  hair  is  reversed  or  to  be  felt  with  the  finger 
where  the  hair  is  scanty.  "  In  white  skins  they  vary  from  the  palest  to 
the  darkest  red.  All  do  not  retain  the  papular  type,  but  some  go  on 
to  form  blisters  (eczema,  bullae),  or  pustules,  or  dry  up  into  scales,  or 
break  out  into  open  sores,  or  extend  into  larger  swellings  (tubercles). 
The  majority,  however,  remaining  as  pimples,  characterize  the  disease. 
When  very  itchy  the  rubbing  breaks  them  open,  and  the  resulting  sores 
and  scales  hide  the  true  nature  of  the  eruption. 

The  general  and  local  causes  may  be  the  same  as  for  erythema,  and  in 
the  same  subject  one  portion  of  the  skin  maj"  havesimple  congestion  and 
another  adjacent  papules.  As  the  inflammatiory  action  is  more  pro- 
nounced, so  the  irritation  and  itching  are  usually  greater,  the  animal 
rubbing  and  biting  himself  severely.  This  itching  is  especially  severe 
in  the  forms  which  attack  the  roots  of  the  mane  and  tail,  and  there  the 
disease  is  often  so  persistent  and  troublesome  that  the  horse  is  rendered 
virtually  useless. 

The  bites  of  insects  often  produce  a  papular  eruption,  but  in  many 
such  cases  the  swelling  extends  wider  into  a  button  like  elevation,  one- 
half  to  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  effects  of 
the  poison  ivy  and  poison  sumac. 

In  papular  eruption  first  remove  the  cause,  then  apply  the  same  gen- 
eral remedies  as  for  simple  congestion.  In  the  more  inveterate  cases 
use  a  lotion  of  one-half  ounce  sulphide  of  potassium  in  2  quarts  water, 
to  which  a  little  Castile  soap  has  Veen  added.  Or  use  a  wash  with  one- 
half  ounce  oil  of  tar,  2  ounces  Castile  soajj,  and  20  ounces  water. 

INFLAMMATION   WITH   BLISTERS— ECZEMA. 

In  this  the  skin  is  congested,  thickened,  warm  (white  skins  are  red- 
dened), and  shows  a  thick  crop  of  little  blisters  formed  by  effusions  of 
a  straw-colored  fluid  between  the  true  skin  and  the  cuticle.  The  blis- 
ters may  be  of  any  size  from  a  millet  seed  to  a  pea,  and  often  crack 


425 

open  and  allow  the  escape  of  the  fluid  which  concretes  as  a  sli8htl7 
yellowish  scao  or  crust  around  the  roots  of  the  hairs.  This  exudatiop 
and  incrustation  are  especially  common  where  the  hairs  are  long,  thick^ 
and  numerous,  as  in  the  region  of  the  pastern  of  heavy  draught  horses. 
Eczema  may  appear  on  any  part  of  the  body,  but  in  horses  it  is  espec- 
ially common  on  tlie  heels  and  the  lower  parts  of  the  limbs,  and  less 
frequently  on  the  neck,  shoulder,  and  abdomen.  The  limbs  appear  to 
be  especially  liable  because  of  their  dependent  position,  all  blood  hav- 
ing to  return  from  them  against  the  action  of  gravity,  and  congestions 
and  swellings  being  common,  because  of  the  abundance  of  blood  ves- 
sels in  this  part  of  the  skin,  and  because  of  the  frequent  contact  with 
the  irritant  dung  and  urine  and  their  ammouiacal  emanations.  The  legs 
further  suffer  from  contact  with  wet  and  mud  when  at  work,  from  snow 
and  ice,  from  draughts  of  cold  air  on  the  wet  limbs,  from  washing  with 
caustic  soaps,  or  from  the  relaxing  effects  of  a  too  deep  and  abundant 
litter.  Among  other  causes  may  be  named  indigestions  and  the  pres- 
ence of  irritant  matters  in  the  blood  and  sweat,  the  result  of  patent- 
medicated  foods  and  condition  powders  (aromatics,  stimulants),  green 
food,  new  hay,  new  oats,  buckwheat,  wheat,  maize,  diseased  potatoes, 
smut  or  ergot  in  grains,  decomposing  green  food,  brewer's  grains,  or 
kitchen  garbage.  The  excitement  in  the  skin,  caused  b^'  shedding  the 
coat,  lack  of  grooming,  hot  weather,  hot  boiled  or  steamed  food,  conduces 
to  the  eruption.     Lastly,  any  sudden  change  of  food  may  induce  it. 

The  blisters  may  in  part  go  on  to  suppuration  so  that:  vesicles  and 
pustules  often  appear  on  the  same  patch,  and  when  raw  from  rubbing 
the  true  nature  of  the  eruption  may  be  completely  masked.  lu  high-fed 
horses,  kept  in  close  stables  with  little  work,  eczema  of  the  limbs  may 
last  for  months  and  years.  It  is  a  very  troublesome  affection  in  draught 
stallions. 

Treatment. — This  disease  is  so  often  the  result  of  indigestion  that  a 
laxative  of  1  pound  Glauber's  salts  in  3  or  4  quarts  water,  or  1^  pints 
olive  oil  is  often  demanded  to  clear  away  irritants  from  the  alimentary 
canal.  Following  this,  in  recent  and  acute  cases,  give  2  drams  of  acet- 
ate or  bicarbonate  of  potash  twice  a  day  in  the  drinking  water.  If  the 
bowels  still  become  costive  give  daily  1  ounce  sulphate  of  soda  and  20 
grains  powdered  nux  vomica.  In  debilitated  horses  combine  the  uux 
vomica  with  one-half  ounce  powdered  gentian  root.  As  a  wash  for  the 
skin  use  1  dram  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  1  dram  carbolic  acid  in  a 
quart  of  water,  after  having  cleansed  the  surface  with  tepid  water. 
Employ  the  same  precautions  as  regards  feeding,  stabling,  and  care  of 
harness  as  in  simple  congestion  of  the  skin. 

In  the  more  inveterate  forms  of  eczema  more  active  treatment  is  re- 
quired. Soal»  the  scabs  in  fresh  sweet  oil,  and  in  a  few  hours  remove 
these  with  tepid  water  and  castile  soap;  then  apply  an  ointment  of  sul- 
phur or  iodide  of  sulphur  day  by  day.  If  this  seems  to  be  losing  its 
effect  altera  week,  change  for  mercurial  ointment  or  a  solution  of  sul- 


426 

phide  of  potassium,  or  of  byposulpliite  of  soda,  3  drams  to  the  quart  of 
water.  In  these  cases  the  auirnal  may  take  a  course  of  sulphur  (1 
ounce  dail3'),  bisulphite  of  soda  (J  ouuce  daily),  or  of  arsenic  (5  grains 
daily)  mixed  with  1  dram  bicarbonate  of  soda 

INFLAMMATION   WITH   PUSTULES. 

In  this  affection  the  individual  elevations  on  the  inflamed  skin  show  in 
the  center  a  small  sack  of  white,  creamy  pus,  in  place  of  the  clear  liquid 
of  a  blister.  Tbey  vary  in  size  from  a  millet  seed  to  a  hazel  unt.  The 
pustules  of  glanders  (farcy  buds)  are  to  be  distinguished  by  the  watery 
coutents  and  the  cord-like  swelling,  extending  from  the  pustules  along 
the  line  of  the  veins,  and  those  of  boils  by  the  inflammation  and 
sloughing  out  of  a  core  of  the  true  skin.  The  hair  on  the  pustule  stands 
erect,  and  is  often  shed  with  the  scab  which  results.  When  itching  is 
severe  the  parts  become  excoriated  by  rubbing,  and,  as  in  the  other 
forms  of  skin  disease,  the  character  of  the  eruption  may  become  indis- 
tinct. Old  horses  suffer  mainly  at  the  root  of  the  mane  and  tail,  and 
about  the  heels,  and  suckling  foals  around  the  mouth,  on  the  face,  inside 
the  thighs,  and  under  the  tail. 

Pustules  like  eczema  are  especially  liable  to  result  from  unwholesome 
food  and  indigestion,  from  a  sudden  change  of  food,  above  all  from  dry 
to  green  food.  In  foals  it  may  result  from  overheating  of  the  mare  and 
allowing  the  first  milk  after  she  returns,  or  by  milk  rendered  unwhole- 
some by  faulty  feeding  of  the  dam.  If  a  foal  is  brought  up  by  hand 
the  souring  and  other  decompositions  in  the  milk  derange  the  digestion 
and  cause  such  eruption.  Vetches  and  other  plants  affected  with 
honeydew  and  buckwheat  have  been  the  cause  of  these  eruptions  on 
white  portions  of  the  skin.  Disorders  of  the  kidneys  or  liver  are  com- 
mon causes  of  this  affection. 

Treatment. — Apply  soothing  ointments,  such  as  benzoated  oxide  of 
zinc,  or  vaseline  with  1  dram  oxide  of  zinc  in  each  ounce.  Or  a  wash 
of  1  dram  sugar  of  lead  or  2  drams  hyposulphite  of  soda  in  a  quart  of 
water  may  be  freely  applied.  If  the  skin  is  already  abraded  and 
scabby,  smear  thickly  with  vaseline  for  some  hours,  then  wash  with 
soapsuds  and  apply  the  above  dressings.  When  the  excoriations  are 
indolent  they  may  be  painted  with  a  solution  of  lunar  caustic,  2  grains 
to  1  ounce  of  distilled  water.  Internally  counteract  costiveness  and 
remove  intestinal  irritants  by  the  same  means  as  in  eczema,  and  follow 
this  with  one-half  ounce  doses  daily  of  hyposulphite  of  soda,  and  one- 
half  ouuce  doses  of  gentian.  Inveterate  cases  may  often  be  benefited 
by  a  course  of  sulphur,  bisulphite  of  soda,  or  arsenic.  In  all  the  great- 
est care  must  be  taken  with  regard  to  food,  feeding,  watering,  cleanli- 
ness, and  work.  In  wet  and  cold  seasons  predisposed  animals  should, 
as  far  as  possible,  be  protected  from  wet,  mud,  snow,  and  melted  suow, 
above  all  from  that  which  has  been  melted  by  salt. 


427 

BOILS — FURUNCLES. 

These  may  appear  on  any  part  of  the  skin,  but  are  especially  com- 
mon on  the  lower  parts  of  the  limbs,  and  on  the  shoulders  and  back 
■where  the  skin  is  irritated  by  accumulated  secretion  and  chafing  with 
the  harness.  In  other  cases  the  cause  is  constitutional,  or  attended  by 
unwholesome  diet  and  overwork  with  loss  of  general  health  and  con- 
dition. They  also  follow  on  weakening  diseases,  notably  strangles,  in 
which  irritants  are  retained  in  the  system  from  overproduction  of  effete 
matters  during  fever,  and  imperfect  elimination.  There  is  also  the 
presence  of  a  pyogenic  bacterium,  by  which  the  disease  may  be  main- 
tained and  propagated. 

While  boils  are  pus  producing,  they  differ  from  simple  pustule  in 
affecting  the  deepest  layers  of  the  true  skin,  and  even  the  superficial 
layers  of  the  connective  tissues  beneath,  and  in  the  death  and  slough- 
ing out  of  the  central  part  of  the  inflamed  mass  (core).  The  depth  of 
the  hard,  indurated,  painful  swelling,  and  the  formation  of  this  central 
mass  or  core,  which  is  bathed  in  pus  and  slowly  separated  from  sur- 
rounding parts,  serve  to  distinguish  the  boil  alike  from  the  pustule, 
from  the  farcy  bud,  and  from  a  superficial  abscess. 

To  treat  very  painful  boils  a  free  incision  with  a  lancet  in  two  direc- 
tions, followed  by  a  dressing  with  one-half  an  ounce  carbolic  acid  in  a 
pint  of  water,  bound  on  with  cotton  wool  or  lint,  may  cut  them  short. 
The  more  common  course  is  to  apply  a  warm  poultice  of  linseed  meal 
or  .wheat  bran,  and  renew  daily  until  the  center  of  the  boil  softens, 
when  it  should  be  lanced  and  the  core  pressed  out. 

If  the  boil  is  smeared  with  a  blistering  ointment  of  Spanish  flies  and 
a  poultice  put  over  it,  the  formation  of  matter  and  separation  of  the 
core  is  often  hastened,  A  mixture  of  sugar  and  soap  laid  on  the  boil 
is  equally  good.  Cleanliness  of  the  skin  and  the  avoidance  of  all 
causes  of  irritation  are  important  items,  and  a  teaspoonful  of  bicar- 
bonate of  soda  once  or  twice  a  day  will  sometimes  assist  in  warding  off 
a  new  crop. 

NETTLERASH — SURFEIT — URTICARIA. 

This  is  an  eruption  in  the  form  of  cutaneous  nodules,  in  size  from  a 
hazel  nut  to  a  hickory  nut,  transient,  with  little  disposition  to  the  forma- 
tion of  either  blister  or  pustule,  and  usually  connected  witn  shevldiugof 
the  coat,  sudden  changes  of  weather,  and  unwholesomeness  or  sudden 
change  in  the  food.  It  is  most  frequent  in  the  spring  and  in  young  and 
vigorous  animals  (good  feeders).  The  swelling  embraces  the  entire 
thickness  of  the  skin  and  terminates  by  an  abrupt  margin  in  place  of 
shading  off  into  surrounding  parts.  When  the  individual  swellings  run 
together  there  are  formed  extensive  patches  of  thickened  integument. 
These  may  appear  on  any  part  of  the  body,  and  may  be  general ;  the 
eyelids  may   be  closed,    the  lips   rendered   immovable,   or  the  nos- 


428 

trils  so  thickened  that  breathing  becomes  difficult  and  snuffling.  It 
may  be  attended  by  constii)ation  or  diarrhea,  or  by  colicky  paius. 
The  eruption  is  sudden,  the  whole  skin  being  sometimes  covered  in  a 
few  hours,  and  it  may  disappear  with  equal  rapidity  or  persist  for  six 
or  eight  days. 

Treatment. — This  consists  in  clearing  out  the  bowels  by  5  drams  Bar- 
badoes  aloes,  or  1  pound  Glauber's  salts,  and  follow  the  operation  of 
these  by  daily  doses  of  one-half  ounce  powdered  gentian  and  1  ounce 
Glauber's  salts.  A  weak  solution  of  alum  may  be  applied  to  the  swel- 
lings. 

SCALY   SKIN    DISEASE — PITYRIASIS. 

This  affection  is  characterized  by  an  excessive  production  and  de- 
tacbmeut  of  dry  scales  from  the  surface  of  the  skin  (dandruff).  It  is 
usually  dependent  on  some  fault  in  digestion,  and  an  imperfect  secre- 
tion from  the  sebaceous  glands,  and  is  most  common  in  old  horses  with 
spare  habit  of  body.  Williams  attributes  it  to  food  rich  in  saccharine 
matter  (carrots,  turnips),  and  the  excretion  by  the  skin  of  oxalic  acid. 
He  has  found  it  in  horses  irregularly  worked  and  well  fed,  and  ad- 
vises the  administration  of  pitch  for  a  length  of  time,  and  the  avoidance 
of  .saccharine  food.  Otherwise  the  horse  may  take  a  laxative  followed 
by  dram  doses  of  carbonate  of  potash,  and  the  affected  parts  may  be 
bathed  with  soft  tepid  water  and  smeared  with  an  ointment  made  with 
vaseline  and  suliihur.  In  obstinate  cases  sulphur  may  be  given  daily 
in  the  food. 

NERVOUS  IRRITATION   OF   THE   SKIN— PRURITUS. 

This  is  seen  in  horses  fed  to  excess  on  grain  and  hay,  kept  in  close 
stables,  and  worked  irregularly.  Though  most  common  in  summer  it 
is  often  severe  in  hot,  close  stables  in  winter.  Pimples,  vesicles,  and 
abrfisions  may  result,  but  as  the  itching  is  quite  as  severe  on  other 
parts  of. the  skin,  these  may  be  the  lesult  of  scratching  merely.  It  is 
especially  common  and  inveterate  about  the  roots  of  the  mane  and 
tail'. 

Treatment  consistsin  a  purgative  (Glauber's salts,  I  pound),  restricted, 
laxative  diet,  and  a  wash  of  water  slightly  soured  with  oil  of  vitriol  and 
rendered  sweet  by  carbolic  acid.  If  obstinate,  give  daily  1  ounce  of 
sulphur  and  20  grains  nux  vomica.  If  the  acid  lotion  fails,  2  drams 
carbonate  of  potash  and  2  grains  of  cyanide  of  potassium  in  a  quart  of 
water  will  sometimes  benefit.  If  due  to  pin  worms  in  the  rectum,  the 
itching  of  the  tail  may  be  remedied  by  an  occasional  injection  of  a  quart 
of  water  in  which  chips  of  quassia  wood  have  been  steeped  for  twelve 
hours. 


429 

HERPES. 

This  name  has  been  applied  to  a  disease  in  which  there  is  an  eruption 
of  minute  vesicles  in  circular  groups  or  clusters,  with  little  tendency 
to  burst  but  rather  to  dry  up  into  tine  scabs.  If  the  vesicles  break 
they  exude  a  slight,  gummy  discharge  which  concretes  into  a  small, 
hard  scab.  It  is  apparently  noncontagious  and  nT)t  appreciably  con- 
nected with  any  disorder  of  internal  organs.  It  sometimes  accompanies 
or  follows  specific  fevers,  and  is  on  the  whole  most  frequent  at  the 
seasons  of  changing  the  €oat — spring  and  autumn.  It  is  seen  on  the 
lips  and  pastern,  but  may  appear  on  any  part  of  the  body.  The  dura- 
tion of  the  eruption  is  two  weeks  or  even  more,  the  tendency  being  to 
spontaneous  recovery.  The  affected  part  is  very  irritable,  causing  a 
sensitiveness  and  a  disposition  to  rub,  out  of  i)roportiou  to  the  extent  of 
the  eruption. 

It  may  be  treatedhy  oxide  of  zinc  ointment,  and  to  relieve  the  irrita- 
tion a  solution  of  opium  or  belladonna  in  water,  or  of  sugar  of  lead  or 
oil  of  peppermint.  A  course  of  bitters  (one-half  an  ounce  Peruvian 
bark  daily  for  a  week)  may  be  serviceable  in  bracing  the  system  and 
producing  an  indisposition  to  the  eruption. 

BLEEDING   SKIN   ERUPTIONS — DERMATORRHAGIA  PARASITICA. 

In  China,  Hungary,  Spain,  and  other  countries  horses  frequently  suf- 
fer from  the  presence  of  a  thread  worm  {Filar ia  hcemorrhagicaj{lia'\U[&t: 
F.  multipapullosa,  Condamine,  Drouilly)  iu  the  subcutaneous  connective 
tissue,  causing  effusions  of  blood  under  the  scurf  skin,  and  encrustations 
of  dried  blood  on  the  surface.  The  eruptions,  which  appear  mainly  on 
the  sides  of  the  trunk,  but  may  cover  any  part  of  the  body,  are  rounded 
elevations  about  the  size  of  a  small  pea,  containing  blood  which  bursts 
through  thescurf  skin  and  concretes  like  a  reddish  scab  around  the  erect, 
rigid  hairs.  These  swellings  appear  in  groups,  which  remain  out  for 
several  days,  gradually  diminishing  in  size ;  new  groups  appear  after 
an  interval  of  three  or  four  weeks,  the  manifestation  being  confined  to 
three  or  four  mouths  of  spring  and  disappearing  in  winter.  A  horse 
will  suffer  for  several  years  in  succession,  and  then  permanently  re- 
cover. A  fatal  issue  is  not  unknown.  To  find  the  worm  the  hair  is 
shaved  from  the  part  where  the  elevations  are  felt,  and  as  soon  as  a 
bleeding  point  is  showu  the  superficial  layer  is  laid  open  with  the  knife, 
when  the  parasite  will  be  seen  drawing  itself  back  into  the  parts  be- 
neath. The  worm  is  about  2  inches  long  and  like  a  stout  thread,  thicker 
towards  the  head  than  towards  the  tail,  and  with  numerous  little  con- 
ical elevations  (papillie)  around  the  head.  The  young  worms  are  num- 
erous in  the  body  of  the  adult  female  worm. 

The  worm  has  become  common  in  given  localities,  and  probably  enters 
the  sj'stem  with  food  or  water.  Treatment  is  not  satisfactory,  but  the 
affected  surface  should  be  kept  clean  by  sponging,  and  the  jjressure  of 


430 

harness  on  any  aflFected  part  must  be  avoided.  Thus  rest  may  become 
essential.  The  part  may  be  frequently  washed  with  a  strong  solution 
of  sulphide  of  potassium. 

SUMMER   SORES   FROM  FILARIA  IRRITANS. 

The  summer  sores  of  horses  {dermatitis  granulosa,  boils)  have  been 
traced  to  the  presence  in  the  skin  of  another  parasite,  3  millimeters  in 
length  and  extremely  attenuated  {Filaria  irritans,  liailliet).  The  sores 
may  be  seen  as  small  as  a  millet  seed,  but  more  frequently  the  Size  of  a 
jjea,  and  may  become  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  may  appear  on  any 
point,  but  are  especiallj^  obnoxious  where  the  harness  presses  or  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  limbs.  They  cause  intense  and  insupportable  itching, 
and  the  victim  rubs  and  bites  the  part  until  extensive  raw  surfaces  are 
produced.  Aside  from  such  friction  the  sore  is  covered  by  a  brownish- 
red,  soft,  pulpy  material  with  cracks  or  furrows  filled  with  serous  pus. 
In  the  midst  of  the  softened  mass  are  small,  firm,  rounded  granulations, 
fibrinous,  and  even  caseated,  and  when  the  sof t  pultaceous  material  has 
been  scraped  off  the  surface  bears  a  resemblance  to  the  fine  yellow 
points  of  miliary  tuberculosis  in  the  lung.  The  worm  or  its  debris  is 
found  in  the  center  of  such  masses.  These  sores  are  very  obstinate,  re- 
sisting treatment  for  months  in  summer,  and  even  after  apparent  recov- 
ery during  the  cold  season  they  may  appear  anew  the  following  summer. 
In  bad  cases  the  rubbing  and  biting  may  cause  exposure  of  synovial 
sacs  and  tendons,  and  cause  irremediable  injury.  Even  in  winter,  how- 
ever,  when  the  diseased  process  seems  arrested,  there  remains  the  hard, 
firm,  resistant  patches  of  the  skin  with  points  in  which  the  diseased 
product  has  become  softened  like  cheese. 

The  apparent  subsidence  of  the  disease  in  winter  is  attributed  to  the 
coldness  and  comparative  bloodlessness  of  the  skin,  whereas  in  sum- 
mer, with  high  temperature,  active  circulation,  and  rapid  cell-growth, 
inflammation  is  increased,  itching  follows,  and  from  the  animal  rubbing 
the  part  the  irritation  is  persistently  increased.  The  hotter  the  cli- 
mate the  more  troublesome  the  disease. 

The  life  history  of  the  parasite  is  unknown,  but  it  probably  enters 
the  system  with  the  food  or  water. 

Treatment  consists,  first,  in  placing  the  animal  in  a  cool  place  and 
showering  the  surface  with  cold  water.  The  parasite  may  be  destroyed 
by  rubbing  the  surface  of  the  wound  with  iodoform,  and  covering  it 
with  a  layer  of  collodion,  and  repeating  the  applications  every  twenty- 
four  hours  for  fifteen  days,  or  until  the  sores  heal  up.  Ether  or  chloro- 
form may  be  used  in  place  of  iodoform,  being  poured  on  cotton  wool 
and  applied  to  the  sore  for  two  minutes  before  painting  it  with  collodion. 

CRACKED  HEELS — SCRATCHES — CHAPS  ON  KNEE  AND  HOCK. 

This  usually  sets  in  with  swelling,  heat,  and  tenderness  of  the  hollow 
of  the  heel,  with  erections  of  the  hairs  and  redness  (in  white  skins), 


431 

with  stiffness  and  lameness,  which  may  be  extreme  in  irritable  borses. 
Soon  slight  cracks  appear  transversely',  and  may  gain  in  depth  and 
width,  and  may  even  suppurate.  More  frequently  they  become  covered 
at  the  edges  or  throughout  by  firm  incrustations  resulting  from  the  dry- 
ing of  the  liquids  thrown  out,  and  the  skin  becomes  increasingly  thick 
and  rigid.  A  similar  condition  occurs  behind  the  knee  and  in  front  of 
the  hock  (malanders  and  salanders),  and  may  extend  from  these  points 
to  the  hoof,  virtually  incasing  that  side  of  the  limb  in  a  permanent 
incrustiug  sheath.  Besides  a  heavy  lymphatic  constitution,  which  pre- 
disposes to  this  affection,  the  causes  are  overfeeding  on  grain,  altered 
unwholesome  fodder,  close,  hot,  dirty  stables,  constant  contact  with 
dung  and  urine  and  their  emanations,  working  in  deep,  irritant  mud ; 
above  all,  in  limestone  districts,  irritation  by  dry  limestone  or  sandy 
dust  in  dry  weather  on  dirt  road,  also  cold  draughts,  snow  and  freezing 
mud,  washing  the  legs  with  caustic  soap,  wrapping  the  wet  legs  in 
thick  woolen  bandages  which  soak  the  skin  and  render  it  sensitive 
when  exposed  next  day,  clipping  the  heels,  weak  heart  and  circulation, 
natural  or  supervening  on  overwork,  imperfect  nourishment,  impure 
air,  lack  of  sunshine,  chronic,  exhausting,  or  debilitating  diseases,  or 
functional  or  structural  diseases  of  the  heart,  liver,  or  kidneys.  These 
last  induce  dropsical  swelling  of  the  limbs  (stocking),  weaken  the  parts, 
and  induce  cracking.  Finally  the  cicatrix  of  a  preexisting  crack,  weak, 
rigid,  and  unyielding,  is  liable  to  reopen  under  any  severe  exertion, 
hence  rapid  paces  and  heavy  draft  are  active  causes. 

In  treatment  the  first  step  is  to  ascertain  and  remove  the  cause  when- 
ever possible.  If  there  is  much  local  heat  and  inflammation  a  laxative 
(5  drams  aloes,  or  1  pound  Glauber  salts)  may  be  given,  and  for  the 
pampered  animal  the  grain  should  be  reduced  or  replaced  altogether  by 
bran  m.ishes,  flaxseed,  and  other  laxative,  nonstimulating  food.  In 
the  debilitated,  on  the  other  hand,  nutritious  food  and  bitter  tonics 
may  be  given,  and  even  a  course  of  arsenic  (5  grains  arsenic  with  1 
dram  bicarbonate  of  soda  daily).  When  the  legs  swell  exercise  on  dry 
roads,  hand-rubbing,  and  evenly  applied  bandages  are  good,  and  mild 
astringents,  like  extract  of  witch-hazel  may  be  applied  and  the  part, 
subsequently  rubbed  dry  and  bandaged.  If  there  is  much  heat  but  un- 
broken skin,  a  lotion  of  2  drams  sugar  of  lead  to  1  quart  of  water  may 
be  applied  on  a  thin  bandage,  covered  in  cold  weather  with  a  dry  one. 
The  same  may  be  used  after  the  cracks  api^ear,  or  a  solution  of  sulphu- 
rous acid  solution  1  part,  glycerine  1  part,  and  water  1  part,  applied  on 
cotton  and  well  covered  by  a  bandage.  In  case  these  should  prove  un- 
suitable to  the  particular  case,  the  part  may  be  smeared  with  vaseline 
1  ounce,  sugar  of  lead  1  dram,  and  carbolic  acid  10  drops. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  HEELS  FROM  A  FUNGUS — GREASE — CANKER. 

This  is  a  specific  affection  of  the  heels  of  horses,  associated  with  the 
growth  of  a  i^arasitic  fungus  [Oidium  batracosis,  dermaohyton),  an  otfen- 


432 

sive  discharge  from  the  numerous  sebaceous  glands  and  in  bad  cases 
the  formation  of  red,  raw,  excrescences  {grapes)  from  the  surface.  It  is 
to  be  distinguished  (1)  from  simple  inflammation,  in  which  the  special 
fetid  discharge  and  the  tendency  to  the  formation  of  "grapes"  are  ab- 
sent ;  (2),  from  horsepox,  in  which  the  abundant  exudate  Ibrms  a  firm 
yellow  incrustation  around  the  roots  of  the  hair,  and  is  embedded  at  in- 
tervals in  the  pits  formed  by  the  individual  pocks,  and  in  which  there 
is  no  vascular  excrescence;  (3),  from  foot  scabies  (mange),  in  which  the 
presence  of  an  acarus  is  distinctive ;  (4),  from  lymphangitis,  in  which 
the  swelling  appears  suddenly  extending  around  the  entire  Umbashigh 
as  the  hock,  and  on  the  inner  side  of  the  thigh  along  the  line  of  the  vein 
to  the  groin,  and  in  which  there  is  active  fever,  and  (5) .  from  erysipelas, 
in  which  there  is  active  fever  (wanting  in  grease),  the  i^nplication  of  the 
deeper  layers  of  the  skin  and  of  the  parts  beneath  giving  a  boggy  feel- 
ing to  the  parts,  the  absence  of  the  fetid,  greasy  discharge,  and  finally 
a  tendency  to  form  pus  loosely  in  the  tissues  without  any  limiting  mem- 
brane as  in  abscess.  Another  distinctive  feature  of  grease  is  its  tend- 
ency to  implicate  the  skin  which  secretes  the  bulbs  or  heels  of  the  horny 
frog  and  in  the  cleft  of  the  frog,  constituting  the  disease  kuown  as 
canker. 

The  predisposing  causes  of  grease  are  essentially  the  same  as  those  of 
simple  inflammation  of  the  heel,  so  that  the  reader  may  consult  the 
preceding  article,  and  though  the  specific  fijugus  {Oidium  batracosis)  is 
essential  to  the  disease,  yet  it  usually  remains  inoperative  unless  the 
field  has  been  prepared  by  the  coexistent  predisposing  factors.  Local 
irritants  may  cause  simple  inflammation,  and  may  be  essential  to  the 
growth  of  the  implanted  germ,  but  without  that  germ  it  will  not  pro- 
duce grease. 

The  sijmptoms  vary  according  to  whether  the  disease  comes  on  sud- 
denly or  more  tardily.  In  the  first  case  there  is  a  sudden  swelling  of  the 
skin  in  the  heel  with  heat,  tenderness,  itching,  and  stiflfuess,  which  is 
lessened  during  exercise.  In  the  slower  forms  there  is  only  seen  a  slight 
swelling  after  rest,  and  with  little  heat  or  inflammation  for  a  week  or 
more.  Even  at  this  early  stage  a  slightserous  oozing  may  be  detected. 
As  the  swelling  increases,  extending  up  toward  the  hock  or  knees,  the 
hairs  stand  erect,  and  are  bedewed  by  moisture  no  longer  clear  and 
odorless,  but  grayish,  milky,  and  fetid.  The  fetor  of  the  discharge 
draws  attention  to  the  part  whenever  one  enters  the  stable,  and  the 
swollen  pastern  and  wet,  matted  hairs  on  the  heel  draw  atteutiou  to  the 
precise  seat  of  the  malady.  If  actively  treated  the  disease  may  not  ad- 
vance farther,  but  if  neglected  the  tense  teuder  skin  cracks  open,  leav- 
ing open  sores  from  which  vascular  bleeding  growths  grow  up,  con- 
stituting the  'grapes."  The  hair  is  shed,  and  the  heel  may  appear  but 
as  one  mass  of  rounded,  red,  angry  excrescences  which  bleed  on  hand- 
ling and  are  covered  with  the  now  repulsivelv  fetid  decomposing  dis- 
charge.   Daring  this  time  there  is  little  or  no  fever,  the  animal  feeds 


433 

well,  and  but  for  its  local  trouble  it  might  continue  at  work.  When  the 
malady  extends  to  the  frog  there  is  a  fetid  discharge  from  its  cleft,  or 
from  the  depressions  at  its  sides,  and  this  gradually  extends  to  its  whole 
surface  and  upon  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  sole.  The  horn  meanwhile 
becomes  soft,  whitish,  and  ileshy  in  aspect,  its  constituent  tubes  being 
greatly  enlarged  and  losing  their  natural  cohesion  ;  it  grows  rapidly 
above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  horn,  and  when  pared  is  found  to  be 
penetrated  to  an  unusual  depth  by  the  secreting  papillae,  and  that  at 
intervals  these  have  bulged  out  into  a  vascular  fungus  mass  compar- 
able to  the  "grapes." 

In  treatment  hygienic  measures  occupy  a  front  rank,  but  arc  in  them- 
selves insufficient  to  establish  a  cure.  All  local  and  general  conditions 
which  favor  the  production  and  persistence  of  the  disease  must  be 
guarded  against.  Above  all,  cleanliness  and  purity  of  the  stable  and 
air  must  be  secured;  also,  nourishing  diet,  regular  exercise,  and  the 
avoidance  of  local  irritants — septic,  muddy,  chilling,  etc.  At  the  outset 
benzoated  oxide  of  zinc  ointment  may  be  used  with  advantage.  A  still 
better  dressing  is  made  with  1  ounce  vaseline,  2  drams  oxide  of  zinc, 
and  20  drops  iodized  phenol.  If  the  surface  is  much  swollen  and  tender, 
a  Ihixseed  poultice  may  be  applied  over  the  surface  of  which  has  been 
poured  some  of  the  following  lotion :  Sugar  of  lead,  one-half  ounce;  car- 
boli  a.'id,!  dram;  water,  1  quart.  All  the  astringents  of  the  pharma- 
copoeia have  been  employed  with  more  or  less  advantage,  and  some  par- 
ticular one  seems  to  suit  particular  cases  or  patients.  To  destroy  the 
grai)es,  they  may  be  rubbed  daily  with  strong  caustics  (copperas,  blue 
stone,  lunar  caustic),  or  each  may  be  tied  round  its  neck  by  a  stout 
waxed  thread,  or  finally  and  more  speedily  they  may  be  cut  oft  by  a 
blacksmith's  shovel  heated  to  redness,  and  applied  with  its  sharp  edge 
toward  the  neck  of  the  excrescence,  over  a  cold  shovel  held  b».'t\veeu  it 
and  the  skin  to  protect  it  from  the  heat.  The  latter  must  be  frequently 
dipped  in  water  to  cool  it  down.  After  the  removal  of  the  grapes  the 
astringent  dressing  must  be  persistently  applied  to  the  surface.  When 
the  frog  is  affected  it  must  be  pared  to  the  quick  and  dressed  with  dry 
caustic  powders  (quicklime,  copperas,  bluestone),  or  carbolic  acid  and 
subjected  to  pressure,  the  dressing  being  renewed  every  day  at  least. 

ERYSIPELAS. 

This  is  a  specific  contagious  disease,  characterized  by  spreading  drop- 
sical inflammation  of  the  skin  and  subcutaneous  tissues,  attended  by 
general  fever.  It  differs  from  most  specific  diseases  in  the  absence  of 
a  definite  period  of  incubation,  a  regular  course  and  duration,  and  a 
conferring  of  immunity  on  the  subject  after  recovery.  On  the  contrary, 
one  attack  of  erysipelas  predisposes  to  another,  partly,  doubtless,  by  the 
loss  of  tone  and  vitality  in  the  affected  tissues,  but  also,  perhaps,  be- 
cause of  the  survival  of  the  infecting  germ.  It  is  no  longer  to  be  doubted 
11035 28 


434 

tliat  the  microbes  found  in  the  inflammatory  product  are  the  true  cause 
of  erysipelas,  as  the  disease  can  be  successfully  transferred  from  man 
to  animals  and  from  one  animal  to  another  by  their  means.  This  trans- 
ition may  be  direct  or  through  the  medium  of  infected  bnildings  or  other 
articles.  Yet  from  the  varying  severity  of  erysipelas  iu  different  out- 
breaks and  localities  it  has  been  surmised  that  various  different  microbes 
are  operative  in  this  disease,  and  a  perfect  knowledge  of  these  might 
perhaps  enable  us  to  divide  erysipelas  into  two  or  more  distinct  affec- 
tions. At  present  we  must  recognize  it  as  a  specific  inflammation  due 
to  a  bacterial  poison  and  closely  allied  to  septicaemia.  Erysipelas  was 
formerly  known  as  surgical  when  it  spread  from  a  wound  (through  which 
the  germ  had  gained  access),  and  medical  or  idiopathic  when  it  started 
independently  of  any  recognizable  lesion.  Depending  as  it  does,  how- 
ever, upon  a  germ  distinct  from  the  body  the  disease  must  be  looked 
upon  as  one  no  matter  by  what  channel  the  germ  found  an  entrance. 
Erysipelas  which  follows  a  wound  is  usually  much  more  violent  than  the 
other  form,  the  difference  being  doubtless  partly  due  to  the  lowered  vi- 
tality of  the  wounded  tissues  and  to  the  oxidation  and  septic  changes 
which  are  invited  on  the  raw,  exposed  surface.  As  apparently  idiopathic 
cases  may  be  due  to  infection  through  bites  of  insects,  the  small  amount 
of  poison  inserted  may  serve  to  moderate  the  violence. 

This  affection  may  attack  a  wound  of  any  part  of  the  horse's  body, 
while  apart  from  wounds  it  is  most  frequent  about  the  head  and  the 
hind  limbs.  It  is  to  be  distinguished  from  ordinary  inflammations  by 
its  gradual  extension  from  the  point  first  attacked,  by  the  abundant 
liquid  exudation  into  the  affected  part,  by  the  tension  of  the  skin  over 
the  affected  part,  by  its  soft  boggy  feeling,  allowing  it  to  be  deeply  in- 
dented by  the  finger,  by  the  abrupt  line  of  limitation  between  the 
diseased  and  healthy  skin,  the  former  descending  suddenly  to  the 
healthy  level  instead  of  shading  off  slowly  towards  it,  by  the  tendency 
of  the  inflammation  to  extend  deeply  into  the  subjacent  tissues  between 
and  into  the  muscles  and  other  structures,  by  the  great  tendency  to 
death  and  sloughing  of  portions  of  skin  and  of  the  structures  beneath, 
by  the  formation  of  pus  at  various  different  points  throughout  the 
diseased  parts  without  any  surrounding  sack  to  protect  the  surround- 
ing structures  from  its  destructive  action,  and  without  the  usual  dispo- 
sition of  pus  to  advance  harmlessly  toward  the  surface  and  escape ;  and, 
finally,  by  a  low  prostrating  type  of  fever,  with  elevated  temperature  of 
the  body,  coated  tongue,  excited  breathing,  and  loss  of  appetite.  The  pus 
when  escaping  through  a  lancet  wound  is  grayish,  brownish ,  or  reddish, 
with  a  heavy  or  fetid  odor,  and  intermixed  with  shreds  of  broken-down 
tissues.  The  most  destructive  form,  however,  is  that  in  which  pus  ia 
deficient,  and  gangrene  and  sloughing  more  speedy  and  extensive. 

Treatment  resolves  itvself  mainly  into  the  elimination  from  the  system 
of  the  poisonous  products  of  the  bacteria  by  laxatives  and  diuretics,  the 
sustaining  of  the  failing  vitality  by  tonics  and  stimulants  above  all 


435 

those  of  the  nature  of  antiferments,  and  the  local  application  of  astrin- 
gent and  antiseptic  agents.  Internal  treatment  may  consist  in  4 
drams  tinctnre  of  mnriate  of  iron,  and  one-half  dram  muriate  of  am- 
monia or  chlorate  of  jiotasb,  given  in  a  pint  of  water  every  two 
hours.  To  this  may  be  added,  liberally,  whisky  or  brandy  when  the 
prostration  is  very  marked.  Locally  a  strong  solution  of  iron,  alum,  or 
of  sulphate  of  iron  and  laudanum  may  be  used.  Or  the  affected  part 
may  be  painted  with  tincture  of  muriate  of  iron  or  with  iodized  plienol. 
In  mild  cases  a  lotion  of  4  drams  sugar  of  lead  and  2  ounces  lauda- 
num in  a  quart  of  water  may  be  applied.  It  is  desirable  to  avoid  the 
formation  of  wounds  and  the  consequent  septic  action,  yet  when  pus 
has  formed,  and  is  felt  by  fluctuation  under  the  finger  to  be  approach- 
ing the  surface,  it  should  be  freely  opened  with  a  clean,  sharp  lancet, 
and  the  wound  thereafter  disinfected  daily  with  carbolic  acid  1  part  to 
water  10  parts,  with  a  saturated  solution  of  hyposulphite  of  soda,  or 
with  powders  of  iodoform  or  salol. 

Horse-pox,  anthrax,  and  cutaneous  glanders  (farcy),  will 
come  more  properly  under  contagious  diseases. 

CALLOSITIES. 

These  are  simple  thickening  and  induration  of  the  cuticle  by  reason 
of  continued  pressure,  notably  in  lyj^ng  down  on  a  hard  surface.  Being 
devoid  of  hair  they  cause  blemishes,  hence  smooth  floors  and  good  bed- 
ding should  be  secured  as  preventives. 

HORNY  SLOUGHS — SITFASTS — SLOUGHING   CALLOSITIES. 

These  are  circumscribed  sloughs  of  limited  portions  of  the  skin,  the 
result  of  pressure  by  badly-fitting  harness,  or  by  irritating  masses  of 
dirt,  sweat,  and  hairs  under  the  harness.  They  are  most  common 
under  the  saddle,  but  may  be  found  under  collar  or  breeching  as  well. 
The  sitfast  is  a  piece  of  dead  tissue  which  would  be  thrown  off  but  that 
it  has  formed  firm  connections  with  the  fibrous  skin  beneath,  or  even 
deeper  with  the  fibrous  layers  (fascia)  of  the  muscles,  or  with  the  bones, 
and  is  thus  bound  in  its  place  as  a  persistent  source  of  irritation.  The 
horn-like  slough  may  thus  involve  the  superficial  part  of  the  skin  only, 
or  the  whole  thickness  of  the  skin,  and  even  of  some  of  the  structures 
beneath.  The  first  object  is  to  remove  the  dead  irritant  by  dissecting 
it  off  with  a  sharp  knife,  after  which  the  sore  may  be  treated  with  sim- 
ple wet  cloths  or  a  weak  carbolic  acid  lotion,  like  a  common  wound.  If 
the  outline  of  the  dead  mass  is  too  indefinite,  a  linseed-meal  poultice 
will  make  its  outline  more  evident  to  the  operator.  If  the  fascia  or 
bone  has  become  gangrenous  the  dead  portion  must  be  removed  with  the 
hornlike  skin.  During  and  after  treatment  the  horse  must  be  kept  at 
rest  or  the  harness  must  be  so  adjusted  that  no  pressure  can  come  near 
the  affected  parts. 


436 

WARTS. 

These  are  essentially  a  morbid  overgrowth  of  the  superficial  papil- 
lary layer  of  the  skin  and  of  the  investing  cuticular  layer.  They  are 
mostly  seen  in  young  horses,  about  the  lips,  eyelids,  cheeks,  ears,  be- 
neath the  belly,  and  on  the  sheath,  but  may  develop  anywhere.  The 
smaller  ones  may  be  cli])ped  off  with  scissors  and  the  raw  surface  cau- 
terized with  bluestone.  The  larger  may  be  sliced  off  with  a  sharp 
knife,  or  if  with  a  narrow  neck  they  may  be  twisted  off  and  then  cau- 
terized. If  very  vascular  they  may  be  strangled  by  a  waxed  thread  or 
cord  tied  around  the  neck,  at  least  three  turns  being  made  round  and 
the  ends  being  fixed  by  passing  them  beneath  the  last  preceding  turn 
of  the  c  ird,  so  that  they  can  be  tightened  day  by  day  as  they  slacken 
by  shrinkage  of  the  tissues.  If  the  neck  is  too  broad  it  may  be  trans- 
fixed several  times  with  a  double-threaded  needle  and  then  be  tied  in 
sections.  Very  broad  warts  that  cau  not  be  treated  in  this  way  may  be 
burned  down  to  beneath  the  surface  of  the  skin  with  a  soldering  bolt 
at  a  red  heat  and  any  subsequent  tendency  to  overgrowth  kept  down 
by  bluestone. 

BLACK  PIGMENT  TUMORS — MELANOSIS. 

These  are  common  in  gray  and  white  horses  on  the  naturally  black 
parts  of  the  skin  at  the  root  of  the  tail,  around  the  anus,  vulva,  udder, 
sheath,  eyelids  and  lips.  They  are  readily  recognized  by  their  inky 
black  color,  which  extends  throughout  the  whole  mass.  They  may  ap- 
l^ear  as  simple  pea-like  masses,  or  as  multiple  tumors  aggregating  many 
pounds,  especially  around  the  tail.  In  the  horse  these  are  usually  simple 
tumors,  and  may  be  removed  with  the  knife.  In  exceptional  cases  they 
prove  cancerous,  as  they  usually  are  in  man. 

EPITHELIAL  CANCEit — EPITHELIOMA. 

This  sometimes  occurs  on  the  lips  at  the  angle  of  the  mouth,  and 
elsewhere  in  the  horse.  It  begins  as  a  small  wart-like  tumor,  which 
grows  slowly  at  first  but  finally  bursts  open,  ulcerates  and  extends 
laterally  and  deeply  in  the  skin  and  other  tissues,  destroying  them  as 
it  advances  (rodent  ulcer.)  It  is  made  up  of  a  fibrous  framework  and 
numerous  round,  ovoid,  or  cylindrical  cavities,  lined  with  masses  of 
epithelial  cells,  which  may  be  squeezed  out  as  a  fetid  caseous  material. 
The  most  successful  treatment  is  early  and  thorough  removal  with  the 
knife. 

VEGETABLE  PARASITES  OF  THE  SKIN. 

Parasite:  Tricliopliytoiu  tonsurans.  Malady:  Tinea  tonsurans — 
Circinate  ringworm. — This  is  especially  common  in  young  horses  com- 
ing into  training  and  work,  in  low-conditioned  colts  in  winter  and 
spring  after  confinement  indoors  and  during  moulting,  in  lymphatic 


437 

rather  than  nervous  subjects,  and  at  the  same  time  in  several  animals 
that  have  herded  together.  The  disease  is  common  to  man,  and  among 
the  domestic  animals  to  horse,  ox,  goat,  dog,  cat,  and  in  rare  instances 
to  sheep  and  swine.  Hence  it  is  common  to  find  animals  of  different 
species  and  their  attendants  suffering  at  once,  the  diseases  having  been 
propagated  from  one  to  the  other. 

In  the  horse  the  symptoms  are  the  formation  of  a  circular  scruffy  patch 
where  the  fungus  has  established  itself,  the  hairs  of  the  affected  spot 
being  erect,  bristly,  twisted,  broken,  or  split  up  and  dropping  off.  Later 
the  spot  first  affected  has  become  entirely  bald,  and  a  circular  row  of 
hairs  around  this  are  erect,  bristly,  broken,  and  split.  These  in  turn 
are  shed  and  a  new  row  outside  passes  through  the  same  process,  so  that 
the  extension  is  made  in  a  more  or  less  circular  outline.  The  central 
bald  spot,  covered  with  a  grayish  scruff  and  surrounded  by  a  circle  of 
broken  and  split  hairs,  is  characteristic.  If  the  Sf-ruff  and  diseased 
hairs  are  treated  with  caustic  potash  solution  and  put  under  the  micro- 
scope the  natural  cells  of  the  cuticle  and  hair  will  be  seen  to  have 
become  transparent,  while  the  groups  of  spherical  cells  and  branching 
filaments  of  the  fungus  stand  out  prominently  in  the  substance  of  both, 
dark  and  unchanged.  The  eruption  usually  appears  on  the  back,  loins, 
croup,  chest,  and  head.  It  tends  to  spontaneous  recovery  in  a  month 
or  two,  leaving  for  a  time  a  dappled  coat  from  the  spots  of  short,  light- 
colored  hair  of  the  new  growth. 

The  most  effective  way  of  reaching  the  parasite  in  the  hair  follicles  is 
to  extract  the  hairs  individually,  but  in  the  horse  the  mere  shaving  of  the 
affected  part  is  usually  enough.  It  may  then  be  painted  with  tincture 
of  iodine  twice  a  day  for  two  weeks.  Germs  about  the  stable  may  be 
covered  up  or  destroyed  by  a  whitewash  of  freshly  burned  quicklime, 
the  harness,  brushes,  etc.,  may  be  washed  with  caustic  soda,  and  then 
smeared  with  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  one  half  drachm  and 
water  1  pint.     The  clothing  may  be  boiled  and  dried. 

Parasite:  Trichophyion  sporuloides.  INIalapy:  riica  Polonica. — 
Plica  rolonica,  which  mats  together  the  mane  and  tail  of  the  horse  as 
well  as  the  hair  of  men,  is  associated  with  numerous  spores  of  a  tri- 
chophyton, and  is  rationally  treated  by  cutting  off  the  hair  and  apply- 
ing tincture  of  iodine  or  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  (4  parts  to 
1,000  water). 

Parasite:  Aclior'wn  Sclwnlcini.  Malady:  Favus,  Honeycomb  ring- 
worm.— Megnin  and  Goyan,  who  describe  this  in  the  horse,  say  that  it 
loses  its  characteristic  honeycomb  or  cup-shaped  appearance,  and  forms 
only  a  series  of  closely  aggregated,  dry,  yellowish  crusts  the  size  of 
hemp  seed  on  the  trunk,  shoulders,  flanks,  or  thighs.  They  are  ac- 
companied by  severe  itching,  especially  at  night.  The  cryptogam, 
formed  of  spherical  cells  with  a  few  filaments  only,  grows  in  the  hair 
follicles  and  on  the  cuticle,  and  thus  a  crust  often  forms  around  the 
root  of  a  hair.    Like  the  other  cryptogams,  their  color,  as  seen  under  the 


438 

« 

microscope,  is  unaffected  by  acetic  acid,  alcohol,  ether,  or  oil  of  tarpen- 
tine,  while  the  cells  are  turned  bluish  by  iodine.  For  treatment,  re- 
move the  hair  and  apply  tincture  of  iodine  or  corrosive  sublimate  lotion, 
as  advised  under  the  last  paragraph. 

Parasite:  Mlcrosporon  Furfur.  Malady:  Parasitic  pityriasis. — 
This  ^jttacks  the  horse's  head  where  the  harness  presses,  and  leads  to 
dropping  of  the  hair,  leaving  bald  patches  covered  with  a  branlike 
scruf,  without  any  eruption,  heat,  tenderness,  swelling,  or  rigidity  of 
the  skin.  A  lotion  of  carbolic  acid,  1  dram,  and  water,  2 J  ounces,  is 
usually  applied  to  effect  a  cure. 

ANIMAL  PARASITES   OF   THE   SKIN. 

Acariasis:  Mange. — This  affection  is  due  to  the  irritation  of  the  skin, 
caused  by  the  presence  of  a  nearly  microscopic  acarus  or  mite.  The 
disease  varies,  however,  according  to  the  species  of  acarus  which  in- 
fests the  skin,  so  that  we  must  treat  of  several  different  kinds  of  acari- 
asis. 

Parasite:  Sarcoptes  equi.  Malady:  Sarcoptic  acariasis. — This  is 
the  special  sarcoptes  of  the  horse,  but  under  favorable  conditions  it 
can  be  transmitted  to  ass  and  mule,  and  even  to  man,  and  may  live 
indeilnitely  on  the  human  skin.  The  mite  is  nearly  microscopical,  but 
may  be  detected  with  a  magnifying  lens  among  moving  scurf  taken 
from  the  infected  skin.  Like  all  sarcoptes,  it  burrows  little  galleries  in 
and  beneath  the  scurf  skin,  where  it  hides  and  lays  its  eggs  and  where 
its  young  are  hatched.  It  is  therefore  often  difficult  to  find  the  para- 
site on  the  surface,  unless  the  skin  has  been  heated  by  a  temporary 
exposure  to  the  sun  or  in  a  warm  room.  Even  then  it  may  be  needful 
to  tie  the  scab  on  the  human  arm  till  a  pricking  is  felt,  when  the  aca- 
rus will  be  found  in  the  center  of  a  minute  papule  caused  by  its  bite. 
Like  other  acari  this  is  wonderfully  prolific,  a  new  generation  of  fifteen 
individuals  being  possible  every  fifteen  days,  so  that  in  three  months 
the  offspring  of  a  single  pair  may  produce  a  generation  of  1,500,000 
young.  The  sarcoptes  have  less  vitality  than  the  nonburrowing  acari, 
as  they  die  in  an  hour  when  kept  in  dry  air  apart  from  the  skin  at  a 
heat  of  1450  P.  They  live  twelve  to  fourteen  days  apart  from  the 
skin  in  the  damp  air  of  a  stable.  On  a  piece  of  damp  hide  they  lived 
till  the  twenty-fourth  day,  but  were  dead  on  the  twenty-eighth. 

The  symptoms  are  an  incessant,  intolerable,  and  increasing  itching  of 
some  part  of  the  skin  (head,  mane,  tail,  back,  etc.),  the  horse  inclining 
himself  toward  the  hand  that  scratches  him,  and  moving  his  lips  as  if 
himself  scratching.  The  hairs  may  be  broken  and  rubbed  off,  but  the 
part  is  never  entirely  bald  as  in  ringworm,  and  there  may  be  papules 
or  any  kind  of  eruption  or  open  sores  from  the  energy  of  the  scratching. 
Scabs  of  any  thickness  may  form,  but  the  special  features  are  the  in- 
tense itching  and  the  discovery  of  the  acarus. 


439 

Treatment  consists  in  the  removal  of  the  scabs  by  soapsuds,  and,  if 
iivScessary,  a  brush,  and  the  thorough  apjilication  of  tobacco  1^  ounces 
and  water  2  pints,  prepared  by  boiling.  This  may  be  applied  more 
than  once,  and  should  always  be  repeated  after  fifteen  days,  to  destroy 
the  new  brood  that  may  have  been  hatched  in  the  interval.  All  harness 
and  stable  utensils  should  be  similarly  treated*  blankets  and  rubbers 
may  be  boiled,  and  the  stalls  should  be  covered  with  a  whitewash  of 
quicklime,  containing  one  fourth  jiound  of  chloride  of  lime  to  the  gallon. 

Parasite:  Sarcoptes  mutans.  Malady:  Sarcoptic  acariasis  from 
fowls. — This  parasite  belongs  to  chickens,  but  can  live  on  the  skin  of  the 
fox  and  horse  as  well.  A  troublesome  mange  may  therefore  at  times 
be  traceable  to  the  proximity  of  a  chicken  roost.  The  general  symptoms 
and  treatment  are  essentially  the  same  as  for  sarcoptis  equi. 

Parasite  :  Psoroptis  equi  {Dennatocoptis  equi,  Dermatodectis  equi). 
Malady  :  Psoroptic  acariasis. — This  produces  tlie  most  frequent  mange 
in  horses,  and  as  the  parasite  only  bites  the  surface  and  lives  among 
the  crusts  under  the  shelter  of  a  hair,  it  is  very  easily  discovered.  It 
reproduces  itself  with  equal  rapidity,  and  causes  similar  symptoms  to 
those  produced  by  the  sarcoptes.  The  same  treatment  will  suffice  and 
is  more  promptly  effectual.  The  purifying  of  the  stable  must  be  more 
thorough,  as  the  psoroptis  will  survive  twenty  to  thirty  days  in  the 
moist  atmosphere  of  a  stable,  and  may  even  revive  after  six  or  eight 
weeks  when  subjected  to  moist  warmth.  Infested  pastures  will  there- 
fore prove  dangerous  to  horses  for  that  length  of  time,  and  with  rub- 
bing posts,  etc.,  should  be  secluded. 

Parasite  :  Symbiotis  equi,  Dermatophagus  equi,  Chorioptes  spathifer- 
ous.  Malady:  Foot  mange. — This  acarus  attacks  the  heels  and  lower 
parts  of  the  legs,  especially  the  hind  ones,  and  may  be  present  for  years 
■without  extending  upon  the  body.  Like  the  psoroptis,  it  lives  on  the 
Burf^ice,  on  the  hairs,  and  among  the  scabs.  It  gives  rise  to  great  itch- 
ing, stamping,  rubbing  of  the  one  leg  with  the  other,  and  the  formation 
of  papules,  wounds,  ulcerous  sores,  and  scabs.  The  intense  itching  will 
always  suggest  this  parasite,  and  the  discovery  of  the  acarus  will 
identify  the  disease.  Treatment  is  the  same  as  for  the  sarcoptes,  but 
may  be  confined  to  the  legs  and  the  parts  with  which  they  come  in 
contact. 

F AR ASiT^.—Dermanyssus gallinece — Chiclien  Acari.  Malady:  Poultry 
acariasis. — This  is  a  large-sized  acarus,  though  usually  miscalled  "  hen 
louse,"  and  the  disease  "  poultry-lousiness."  The  mite  lives  in  the  hen 
manure  and  adjacent  woodwork,  but  temporarily  passes  on  to  the  skin 
of  man,  and  of  the  horse  and  other  quadrupeds,  when  occasion  serves. 
It  causes  much  irritation,  with  the  eruption  of  papules  or  vesicles  and 
the  formation  of  sores  and  scabs.  The  examination  of  the  skin  is 
usually  fruitless,  as  the  attacks  are  mostly  made  at  night  and  the  effects 
only  may  be  seen  during  the  day.  Theproximityof  hen  manure  swarm- 
ing with  the  acari  explains  the  trouble,  and  the  removal  of  this  and  a 


440 

whitewashinj?  with  quick  lime  with  or  without  chloride  of  lime  will  pre- 
vent future  attacks.  The  skiu  may  still  require  bland  ointments  or 
lotions,  as  for  congestion. 

Parasite:  Larva  of  a  Tromhidium — Lepfns  AmeHcanus— Harvest 
Bug .  misnamed  Jigger  {Chigoe).  Malady:  Autumn  mange. — This  par- 
asite is  a  brick-red  acarus,  visible  to  the  naked  eye  on  a  dark  ground, 
and  living  on  green  vegetation  in  many  localities.  It  attacks  man, 
and  the  horse,  ox,  dog,  etc.,  burrowing  under  the  skin  and  giving  rise  to 
small  papules  and  intolerable  irritation.  This  continues  for  two  or  three 
days  only  if  no  fresh  acari  are  received,  but  will  last  until  cold  weather 
sets  in  if  a  fresh  colony  is  received  every  day.  Horses  at  pasture  suffer 
mainly  on  the  lower  part  of  the  face.  If  kept  indoors  the  disease  will 
disappear,  or  if  left  at  pasture  a  weak  tar  water  or  solutiou  of  tobacco 
ma^'  be  applied  to  the  face. 

Parasites:  Gamarus  Pteropioides  and  Chegletaes  live  in  musty  fod- 
ders and  are  found  on  the  horse. 

TICKS. 

The  wood  tick  is  familiar  to  inhabitants  of  uncultivated  lands,  and 
proves  a  troublesome  parasite  to  man  and  beast  alive.  It  lives  on 
bushes,  and  only  attaches  itself  to  the  mammal  to  secure  a  feast  of 
blood,  for  when  gorged  it  drops  off  to  sleep  off  its  debauch  on  the  soil. 
The  tick  produces  great  irritation  by  boring  into  the  skin  with  its  armed 
proboscis.  If  pulled  out  the  head  and  thorax  are  often  left  in  the  skin. 
They  may  be  covered  with  oil  to  shut  out  the  air  from  their  breathing 
pores,  or  by  touching  them  with  a  hot  penknife  they  will  be  impelled 
to  let  go.  If  extracted  by  the  hand  they  should  be  turned  to  the  left 
like  a  screw.  It  is  needless  to  particularize  the  several  species,  as  all 
can  be  treated  alike. 

GRUBS  IN    SKIN. 

P/VRASTTE:  Hypoderma  Silenus.  Malady:  Larva  (Grubs)  under  the 
skin. — This  fly  deposits  its  embryo  on  or  in  the  skin  of  the  horse,  as  its 
congener  {Eijpoderma  bonis)  does  in  the  ox,  and  the  resulting  larvae 
pass  the  winter  in  little  rounded  sacks  beneath  the  integument,  fur- 
nished with  a  central  opening,  through  which  the  mature  larva  escapes 
in  early  summer  and  develops  into  a  fly.  In  districts  where  they  exist 
the  grubs  should  be  pressed  out  of  the  skin  and  destroyed  in  the  course 
of  the  winter. 

LARVA   (GRUBS)    ON   THE   SKIN — FLY-BLOW. 

The  following  flies,  among  others,  deposit  their  eggs  on  open  sores 
or  on  wet  filthy  parts  of  the  skin,  where  their  larvse  or  grubs  give  rise 
to  serious  trouble  :  Lucilia  Ccesar  (blue  bottle).  Lucilid  hominivorax 
(screw-worm  fly),  ATusca  vomitoria  (meat  fly),  and  Sarcophaga  carnaria 


441 

(flesh-fly).  To  prevent  their  attacks  wet,  filthy  hair  shoukl  be  removed 
and  wounds  kept  clean,  and  rendered  antiseptic  by  a  lotion  of  carbolic 
acid  1  part,  water  50  parts ;  by  a  mixture  of  1  ounce  oil  of  tar  in  20 
ounces  sweet  oil,  or  some  other  antiseptic.  If  the  grubs  are  already 
present  they  should  be  picked  ofif  and  one  of  these  dressings  freely 
ajiplied. 

FLIES. 

A  number  of  flies  attack  horses  and  suck  their  blood,  producing  great 
annoyance,  and  in  some  instances  death.  These  insects  not  only  suck 
the  blood,  but  also  often  instil  an  acid  poison  into  the  skin,  and  in  ex- 
ceptional cases  transfer  infectious  germs  from  animal  to  animal  by  inoc- 
ulation. 

Various  devices  are  resorted  to  to  prevent  the  attack*,  as  to  sponge 
the  skin  with  a  decoction  of  walnut  or  elder  leaves,  of  tobacco,  to  dust 
with  Persian  insect  powder,  to  keep  a  light  blanket  or  fly-net  on  the 
horse,  to  close  doors  and  windows  with  fine  screens  and  destroy  by  pyr- 
ethium  any  flies  that  have  gained  admission,  to  remove  all  manure 
heaps  that  would  prove  breeding  places  for  flies,  to  keep  the  stalls 
clean,  deodorize  by  gypsum  and  to  spread  in  them  trays  of  dry  chlo- 
ride of  lime.  For  the  poisoned  bites  apply  ammonia,  or  a  solution  of 
1  part  of  carbolic  acid  in  20  parts  of  sweet  oil  or  glycerine,  or  one- 
fourth  ounce  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  1  dram  of  carbolic  acid  in  a  quart 
of  water  may  be  used. 

STINGS    OF    BEES,    WASPS,    AND    HORNETS. 

These  are  much  more  irritating  than  the  bites  of  flies,  partly  because 
the  barbed  sting  is  left  in  the  wound,  and  partly  because  of  the  amount 
and  quality  of  the  venom.  When  a  swarm  attacks  an  animal  the  result 
may  prove  fatal. 

Treatment  consists  in  the  application  of  wet  clay,  or  of  a  lotion  of  soda 
or  ammonia,  or  of  carbolic  acid,  or  of  sugar  of  lead  2  drams,  laudanum 
1  ounce,  and  water  1  pint.  The  embedded  stings  should  be  extracted 
with  fine  forceps  or  even  with  the  finger  nails. 

FLEA — PULEX. 

The  flea  of  man  and  those  of  the  dog  and  cat,  when  numerous,  will 
bite  the  horse  and  give  rise  to  rounded  swellings  on  the  skin.  To  dis- 
pose of  them  it  is  needful  to  clear  the  surroundings  of  the  grublike 
larvae  as  well  as  to  treat  the  victim.  The  soil  may  be  sprinkled  with 
quicklime,  carbolic  acid,  coal  tar,  or  petroleum;  the  stalls  maybe  del- 
uged with  boiling  water  and  afterward  painted  with  oil  of  turpentine 
and  littered  with  fresh  pine  sawdust,  and  all  blankets  sbould  be  boiled. 
The  skin  may  be  sponged  with  a  solution  of  1  part  carbolic  acid  in  50 
parts  water.  Dogs,  ciits,  and  pigs  should  be  dressed  with  the  same 
lotion,  or,  better,  removed  from  the  vicinity  of  the  stable. 


442 

The  chigoe  (Pulex  penetrans)  of  the  Gulf  coast  is  still  more  injurious, 
because  it  burrows  under  the  surface  and  deposits  its  eggs  to  be  hatched 
out  slowly  with  much  irritation.  The  tumor  formed  by  it  should  be 
laid  open  and  the  parasite  extracted.  If  it  bursts  so  that  its  eggs 
escajje  into  the  wound,  they  may  be  destroyed  by  introducing  a  wire  at 
a  red  heat. 

LICE — PEDICULI. 

Two  kinds  of  lice  attack  the  horse,  one  of  which  is  furnished  with 
narrow  head  and  a  i^roboscis  for  perforating  the  skin  and  sucking  the 
blood,  and  the  other — the  broad-headed  kind — with  strong  mandibles, 
by  which  it  bites  the  skin  only.  Of  the  bloodsuckers,  one  is  common 
to  horse  and  ass  and  another  to  horse  and  ox,  while  of  the  nonsuckiug 
lice  one  species  attacks  horse  and  ox  and  a  second  ox  and  ass.  The 
poor  condition,  itching,  and  loss  of  hair,  should  lead  to  suspicion  and  a 
close  examination  wi)l  detect  the  lice.  They  may  be  destroyed  by  rub- 
bing the  victim  with  sulphur  oiutment,  or  with  sulphuret  of  potassium 
4  ounces,  water  1  gallon,  or  with  tar  water,  or  the  skin  may  be  sponged, 
with  benzine.  The  application  should  be  repeated  a  week  later  to  de- 
stroy all  lice  hatched  from  the  nits  in  the  interval.  Buildings,  clothes, 
etc.,  should  be  treated  as  for  fleas. 

TARANTULA  AND   SCORPION. 

The  bite  of  the  first  and  the  sting  of  the  second  are  poisonous,  and 
may  be  treated  like  other  insect  venom,  by  carbolated  glycerine  or  a 
strong  solution  of  ammonia. 

SNAKE   BITES. 

These  are  marked  by  the  double  incision  caused  by  the  two  fangs,  by 
the  excessive  doughy  (dark  red)  swelling  around  the  wounds,  and  in  bad 
cases  by  the  general  symptoms  of  giddiness,  weakness,  and  prostration. 
They  are  best  treated  by  enormous  doses  of  alcohol,  whisky  or  brandy, 
or  by  aqua  ammonia  very  largely  diluted  in  water,  the  object  being  to 
sustain  life  until  the  i^oison  shall  have  spent  its  power.  As  local  treat- 
ment, if  the  wound  is  in  a  limb,  the  latter  may  have  a  handkerchief  or 
cord  tied  around  it,  above  the  injury,  and  drawn  tight  by  a  stick  twisted 
into  it.  In  this  way  absorption  may  be  checked  until  the  poison  can  be 
destroyed  by  the  application  of  a  hot. iron  or  a  piece  of  nitrate  of  silver 
or  other  caustic.  A  poultice  of  tobacco  leaves  is  a  favorite  remedy, 
and  may  be  used  to  soothe  the  sore  after  cauterization. 

BURNS   AND   SCALDS. 

For  scalds  the  surface  may  be  bathed  with  a  solution  of  bicarbonate 
of  soda,  sweetened  or  not  by  carbolic  acid,  or  a  weak  solution  of  sugar 
of  lead  may  be  used ;  or  the  surface  may  be  dusted  thickly  with  starch 
or  flour  and  covered  with  cotton  wool,  or  oil  of  turpentine  may  be  ap- 


443 

lulled  over  the  scalded  skin.  Burns  are  -well  treated  by  liniment  made 
of  equal  parts  of  lime  water  and  linseed  oil  (Carron  oil).  For  both 
kinds  of  injuries,  cosmoliue  ten  parts,  and  carbolic  acid,  one  part,  proves 
an  excellent  dressing.  Blisters  should  be  pricked  with  a  needle  and 
emptied  to  prevent  their  rupture  and  the  exposure  of  the  raw  surface. 
Severe  burns,  leading  to  destruction  of  very  extensive  patches  of 
skin,  usually  render  a  horse  useless  b}^  reason  of  the  contraction  of  the 
resulting  scar,  hence  the  treatment  of  such  is  rarely  advisable,  unless 
followed  by  a  skillful  plastic  operation.  In  other  cases  a  skillful  trans- 
planting of  epidermis,  shaved  from  a  healthy  surface  with  a  sharp 
razor,  will  secure  the  healing  of  a  granulating  wound  which  has  proved 
obstinate  to  all  other  measures.  In  cases  of  burns  with  mineral  acids 
(sulphuric,  nitric  or  hydrochloric)  avoid  water,  as  that  will  develop 
heat,  and  cover  the  surface  with  dry  whiting  or  chalk,  and  only  when 
effervescence  has  ceased  wash  off  with  water.  When  the  caustic  has 
been  a  salt  (copperas,  bluestone,  chloride  of  zinc,  etc.)  apply  lime 
water  or  white  of  egg.  If  the  irritant  has  been  caustic  potash,  soda  or 
ammonia,  vinegar  should  be  the  first  application.  If  sores  result  they 
may  be  treated  like  ordinary  wounds. 

WOUNDS   OF   THE   SKIN. 

These  are  divided  into  incised  {clean  cut)  icounds,  lacerated  {torn) 
wounds,  and  contused  (bruised)  and  punctured  wounds. 

Incised  wounds  are  the  simplest,  and  the  sharper  the  instrument  and 
the  cleaner  the  cut  the  greater  the  hope  of  speedy  healing.  Something, 
however,  depends  on  the  seat  and  direction  of  the  wound ;  thus  one 
running  from  before  backward  on  the  body,  or  from  above  downward 
in  the  limb,  will  not  tend  to  be  drawn  open  and  gape  as  would  one  run- 
ning transversely  on  the  body  or  limb.  Again  a  wound  on  a  joint  and 
running  across  the  limb  will  gape  when  the  joint  is  bent.  Again,  a 
clean  cut  wound  which  has  not  been  exposed  to  the  air,  and  which 
lodges  no  foreign  body  and  no  septic  nor  infecting  germ,  will  heal  read- 
ily by  simple  adhesion,  whereas  those  that  have  been  exposed  and  con- 
tain matter  foreign  to  the  tissues  will  have  healing  delayed  or  pre- 
vented by  the  disturbing  action  of  such  bodies. 

Healing  in  wounds  may  be  said  to  take  place  by  these  modes : 

(1)  By  primary  adhesion,  in  which  case  the  spherical  {embryonic) 
cells,  and  the  stellate  connective  tissue  cells  (placoids)  thrown  out  on 
the  surface  of  the  wound,  rapidly  multiply  and  form  a  bond  of  union 
between  the  divided  lips.  Union  by  this  means  may  be  affected  within 
twenty-four  hours  after  the  wound  has  been  inflicted.  Of  all  domestic 
animals,  however,  the  horse  is  the  least  prone  to  such  union,  being  more 
disposed  to  the  formation  of  pus. 

(2)  By  granulation,  which  is  the  common  form  of  healing  in  raw,  ex- 
posed sores,  in  those  containing  foreign  bodies  and  septic  and  infecting 
ferments  j  also  in  torn  and  contused  wounds.     In  ths  form  the  wound 


444 

becomes  covered  with  a  layer  of  embryonic  and  placoid  cells,  of  which 
the  superficial  ones  degenerate  into  pus  cells,  and  thus  the  surface  is 
kept  moist  by  a  layer  of  whitish,  creamy  pus.  In  the  deeper  layer  of 
cells  miuute  loops  of  capillary  blood-vessels  start  up,  cause  the  small 
rounded  elevations  known  as  granulations.  In  this  way  the  deeper 
layer  of  cells  receiving  a  blood  supply  is  transformed  into  connective 
tissue,  and  from  its  surface  new  loops  of  blood  vessels  start  into  the 
layer  above,  and  thus  layer  after  layer  of  new  tissue  is  formed,  and  the 
breach  caused  by  the  wound  is  gradually  filled  up.  The  new  tissue  as 
formed  undergoes  a  steady  contraction,  drawing  iu  the  adjacent  skin 
over  the  wound,  and  hence  large  wounds  healed  in  this  way  have  the 
skin  more  or  less  puckered  around  them. 

(3)  By  secondary  adhesion,  in  which  two  granulating  lips  of  a  wound 
having  b.een  brought  together  and  kept  in  apposition,  union  takes  place 
through  the  medium  of  the  cells,  as  in  primary  adhesion. 

(4)  By  scabbing,  in  which  the  exudation  on  the  surface  of  the  wound 
dries  up  into  a  firm  scab,  under  which  the  process  of  repair  goes  on  by 
the  development  of  tissue  from  the  deeper  cells,  as  in  adhesion. 

In  treating  clean,  incised  wounds,  attempts  should  be  made  to  secure 
healing  by  primary  adhesion,  even  in  the  horse.  Bleeding  should  first 
be  arrested,  or  nearly  so,  by  applying  a  cold  or  hot  sponge,  or  by  tying 
bleeding  vessels,  and  the  lips  of  the  wound  should  then  be  closed  ac- 
curately, without  any  twisting  or  overlapping.  In  small  wounds  pieces 
of  sticking  plaster  may  be  used,  the  lips  of  the  wound  having  first  been 
smoothly  shaved,  so  that  they  may  adhere  firmly.  In  larger  wounds 
the  wound  may  be  sewed  with  a  curved  surgical  needle  and  a  silk 
thread  dipped  in  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid.  The  stitches  may  be  con- 
tinued from  end  to  end  of  the  wound  and  the  thread  prevented  from 
slipping  and  loosening  by  a  knot  at  each  end  ;  or  the  stitches  may  be 
independent,  the  two  ends  being  tied  together  across  the  wound.  In 
such  cases  they  may  be  one  quarter  to  one-third  inch  apart ;  or  the  lips 
of  the  wound  may  be  pinned  together,  the  pins  in  a  simple  skin  wound 
being  inserted  one-eighth  inch  from  the  edge,  and  when  both  lips  have 
been  transfixed  in  this  way  a  thread  (or  hair)  carried  successively 
around  the  two  ends  of  the  pin  and  made  to  describe  a  figure  8  will 
hold  the  wound  close.  When  the  stitching  is  not  continuous  from  end 
to  end  of  the  wound  the  apposition  of  the  edges  will  be  rendered  more 
perfect  by  the  application  of  strips  of  sticking  plaster  in  the  intervals. 

When  eflbrts  at  primary  union  have  failed  and  pus  has  formed,  or 
fermentative  changes  have  occurred  on  the  raw  surfaces  and  the  lips 
gape  more  or  less,  some  antiseptic  dressing  will  be  required,  as  in  the 
case  of  lacerated  and  contused  wounds. 

In  cases  where  an  incised  wound  has  had  foreign  bodies  or  septic 
ferments  introduced  into  it,  these  should  first  be  removed.  A  current 
of  water  that  has  been  boiled  and  cooled  is  one  of  the  best  methods  of 
cleansing  a  wound,  and  there  is  no  objection  to  the  addition  of  one- 


445 

twentieth  of  its  amount  of  carbolic  acid,  as  this  will  tend  to  destroy 
any  germ  life  that  might  otherwise  prove  fatal  to  the  healing  process. 
Then  the  wound  may  be  stitched  up  as  if  it  had  been  cleau,  and  a  daily 
dressing,  of  carbolic  acid  1  part  and  sweet  oil  10  parts,  may  be  applied. 

For  a  wound  on  the  convex  surface  of  a  joint,  where  stitches  are  not 
sufficient  to  keep  the  lips  accurately  applied  to  each  other,  the  movement 
of  the  joint  maybe  temporarily  abolished  by  the  aiiplication  of  a  splint 
and  bandage,  and  in  any  such  case  the  bandage  should  bo  applied  uni- 
formly from  the  hoof  upward,  as  otherwise  the  limb  below  the  bandage 
is  liable  to  swell  or  even  die. 

The  treatment  of  contused,  punctured,  and  lacerated  wotmds  demands 
cleansing  and  antiseptic  applications  as  for  an  incised  wound,  but  as 
primary  adhesion  is  next  to  im^wssible,  the  same  accurate  apposition  of 
the  lips  by  stitching  is  not  so  essential.  If  portions  of  shin  or  other 
tissue  are  so  detached  or  crushed  that  they  can  not  possibly  live,  tbey 
may  be  cut  off,  but  if  there  is  any  doubt  on  this  matter  the  injured  por- 
tion should  be  left  and  every  attempt  should  be  made  to  preserve  it. 
Such  portions  of  the  wound  as  are  free  from  such  fatally  injured  parts 
may  be  disinfected  by  the  carbolic  lotion  referred  to  above,  and  stitched 
up  like  a  clean  wound.  The  severely  injured  parts  may  be  left  open  to 
discharge,  and  the  whole  may  be  dressed  dailj^  with  the  carboiized  oil, 
or  with  a  solution  of  one  part  of  mercuric  chloride  in  one  thousand 
parts  water. 

Granulating  wounds  may  be  irrigated  with  the  mercuric  chloride  solu- 
tion and  if  the  granulations  become  inflamed  (soft,  flabby,  exuberant, 
rising  above  the  edges  of  the  wound)  they  may  be  touched  lightly  with 
a  stick  of  lunar  caustic  so  as  to  leave  them   covered  with  a  white  film. 

In  all  wounds  that  fail  to  heal  by  primary  union  an  elaborate  anti- 
septic treatment  is  desirable,  but  the  difficulty  of  applying  this  suc- 
cessfully to  the  horse  in  an  ordinary  stable  would  seem  to  forbid  a 
lengthy  description  in  a  book  of  this  kind. 


platl:  XXXV 


T'ertical  section  through   skin. 
after  Clu-iux-eau . 


_„  1 

.-._2 


,_4- 
_6 


'     -f. 


y/cw/'  disco ■'••('*/  /\y 

Trwhophytjon  Ton.sn  ra u.-i 

aftei-  Mt^anii'  ■ 


.,.,^'\ 


J  lair  diseased  by 
Achorion,  Schonleini 


I  tames,  del . 


4- 


0      0  0 
OOo    0 


7. 


j    o  o 


0  o 
^£-— &o"  °0  o 


^^'^:= 


,^ 


Microspoixiw  Adoiiinii  from 
PcircLsitic  Pifyriusts  ire  tJiA  horse . 

after  Mc^nin. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  SKIN 


platl:  XXXV I. 


\   W 


'^ 


Sai'cojyfc.s  .scabifi  ^  \ai:  EquL. 


( 'hoiioifics  spiitJii f'f'rtis 


Psoroptes  lon/yirosl7is ,  \ar  Eqiii . 


Dprninnxssu'i  f/aUiiiai- 


Haines, del. after Megnin  . 


MITES  THAT  INFEST   THE    HORSE 


WOUNDS  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT. 


By  CH.  B.  MICHENER,  V.  S., 

Professor  of  Cattle  Fatholoqn  and  Obstetrics  at  the  New  Yorlc  College  of  Veterinary  Sur- 
geons, Inspector  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  etc. 


Wounds  are  of  different  kinds,  and  are  classified  as  incised,  lacerated^ 
contused,  punctured,  and  gunshot. 

An  incised  wound,  or  cut,  is  made  witli  some  sliarp  body.  The  edges 
of  the  wound  are  smooth,  as  though  cut  with  a  knife.  These  wounds 
are  the  simplest  we  are  called  upon  to  treat.  If  they  occur  in  fleshy 
parts,  if  blood-vessels,  tendons,  or  joints  are  not  injured,  they  soon  re- 
cover and  often  without  any  treatment  whatever.  When  bleeding  to 
any  considerable  extent  follows,  and  this  is  more  likely  to  occur  from 
incised  than  lacerated  or  contused  wounds,  we  must  first  of  all  stop  the 
flow  of  blood  before  attempting  to  close  the  wound  itself  or  apply  any 
other  treatment.  Hemorrhage  may  take  place  from  either  arteries  or 
veius.  If  from  arteries,  the  blood  is  bright  red  or  scarlet  in  color,  and 
flows  in  jerks  or  jets  ;  if  from  veins,  it  is  darker  in  color  and  the  flow  is 
regular.  Bleeding  from  large  vessels  may  be  stopped  by  compress  ban- 
dages, torsion,  hot  iron,  and  ligatures. 

By  bandages.— If  the  blood  is  from  an  artery,  the  pressure  should  be 
applied  between  the  wound  and  the  center  of  circulation,  i.  e.,  towards 
the  body  ;  if  from  a  vein,  toward  the  extremities.  Torsion  is  to  be  ap- 
plied by  the  artery  forceps  grasping  the  divided  vessel  and  twisting  ifc 
the  proper  number  of  times.  The  hot  iron  (budding  iron)  may  also  be 
used  to  sear  the  end  of  a  blood  vessel  and  thus  stop  bleetling.  Of  all 
means,  however,  employed  to  stop  the  flow  of  blood  from  a  large  vessel 
a  ligature  is  the  best.  The  divided  end  of  the  artery  or  vein  is  to  be 
caught  up  and  firmly  tied  about  one-half  inch  from  its  division.  Should 
profuse  bleeding  occur  from  the  incision  of  a  great  number  of  small  ves- 
sels, it  is  best  stopped  by  compresses  moistened  with  the  tincture  of  the 
chloride  of  iron  or  other  astringents.  Any  moderately  tight  bandage 
of  oakum,  tow,  cob-webs,  etc.,  will  stop  the  hemorrhage,  often  without 
the  medicaments  referred  to. 

When  we  have  controlled  the  bleeding  our  next  step  is  to  cleanse  the 
wound.    This  is  to  be  accomplished  by  allowing  warm  water  to  flow  or 

447 


448 

trickle  over  the  wound.  Never  rub  an  incised  wound  with  any  coarse 
substance.  When  the  incision  is  parallel  to  the  muscular  fibers  the 
wound  does  not  gape  to  any  extent.  Stitches  placed  about  an  inch 
apart  are  here  advisable,  or  we  may  keep  the  edges  of  the  wound  to- 
gether by  means  of  a  bandage.  If  the  incision  be  across  the  direction 
of  the  muscular  fibers  gaping  ensues  and  a  "  pocket "  forms  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  wound  in  which  lodge  blood  and  pns.  In  my  experience 
fititchcs  do  more  harm  than  good  in  such  cases.  They  irritate  the  parts 
and  soon  cause  sloughing  of  the  skin.  A  bandage,  so  applied  as  to 
bring  the  edges  of  the  wound  as  close  together  as  possible,  is  here  pref- 
erable. It  should  be  applied  from  below  upwards,  as  this  encourages 
union  from  the  bottom,  and  serves  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  pus 
in  the  wound.  But  little  is  to  be  done  after  this.  By  means  of  a  soft 
sponge  apply  some  simple  antiseptic  wash,  carbolic  acid  1  part,  glycer- 
ine 10  to  15  parts.  If  the  parts  become  very  much  soiled  they  are  to 
be  gently  washed  with  eastile  or  carbolic  soap  and  hot  water.  Should 
proud  flesh  api^ear  it  is  to  be  treated  with  burnt  alum,  powdered  blue- 
stone,  etc.  Officious  meddling  and  frequent  "  dressing  "  of  such  wounds 
do  more  harm  than  good. 

Incised  wounds  of  tendons,  or  of  any  vital  part  of  the  body,  require 
professional  attendance,  and  can  not  be  separately  treated  of  here. 

Lacerated  and  contused  wounds  may  be  described  together,  although 
there  is  of  course  this  difference,  that  in  contused  wounds  there  is  no 
break  or  laceration  of  the  skin.  Lacerated  wouuds,  however,  are  as  a 
rule  also  contused — the  surrounding  tissues  are  bruised  to  a  greater  or 
lesser  extent.  While  such  wounds  may  not  appear  at  first  sight  to  be 
as  serious  as  incised  wounds  they  are  commonly  very  much  more  so. 
Lacerations  and  contusions,  when  extensive,  are  always  to  be  regarded 
as  dangerous.  Many  horses  die  from  septic  iufection  or  mortification  as 
as  a  result  of  these  injuries.  We  find  in  severe  contusions  an  infiltration 
of  blood  into  the  surrounding  tissues;  disorganization  and  mortifica- 
tion follow,  and  involve  often  the  deeper  seated  structures.  Abscesses, 
single  or  multiple,  may  also  result  and  call  for  special  treatment. 

In  wounds  that  are  lacerated  the  amount  of  hemorrhage  is  mostly 
inconsiderable;  even  very  large  blood  vessels  are  thus  toru  apart  with- 
out iuducing  a  fatal  result.  The  edges  of  the  wound  are  ragged  and 
uneven.  These  wounds  are  produced  by  some  blunt  object,  as  where  a 
horse  runs  against  fences,  board  piles,  the  corners  of  buildings,  or 
where  he  is  struck  by  the  pole  or  shafts  of  another  team,  fulling  on 
rough,  irregular  stones,  etc. 

Treatment. — In  lacerated  wounds  great  care  must  at  first  be  exercised 
in  examining  or  probiug  to  the  very  bottom  of  the  rent  or  tear  to  see 
if  any  foreign  body  be  present.  Very  ofteu  splinters  of  wood  or  bits 
of  stone  or  dirt  are  thus  lodged,  and  unless  removed  prevent  the  wound 
from  healing;  orif  it  should  heal  the  wound  soon  opens  again,  discharging 
a  thin,  gluey  matter  that  is  characteristic  of  the  presence  of  some  object 


449 

in  the  parts.  After  a  thorough  exploration  these  wounds  are  to  bo 
carefully  aud  patiently  fomented  with  warm  water,  to  which  has  been 
added  carbolic  acid  in  the  proportion  of  1  part  to  100  of  water.  Earely, 
if  ever,  are  stitches  to  be  inserted  in  lacerated  wounds.  The  surround- 
ing tissues  and  skin  are  so  weakened  in  vitality  and  structure  by  the 
contusion  that  stitches  will  not  hold ;  they  only  irritate  the  parts.  It 
is  better  to  endeavor  to  secure  coadaptation  by  means  of  bandages, 
plasters,  or  collodion.  One  essential  in  the  treatment  of  lacerated 
wounds  is  to  secure  a  free  exit  for  the  pus.  If  the  orifice  of  the  wound 
is  too  high,  or  if  pus  is  found  to  be  burrowing  in  the  tissues  beneath 
the  opening,  we  must  then  make  a  counter  opening  as  low  as  possible. 
This  will  admit  of  the  wound  being  thoroughly  washed  out,  at  first 
with  warm  water,  and  afterward  injected  with  some  mild  astringent 
and  antiseptic  wash,  as  chloride  of  zinc,  1  dram  to  a  pint  of  water.  A 
depending  opening  must  be  maintained  until  the  wound  ceases  to  dis- 
charge. Repeated  hot  fomentations  over  the  region  of  lacerated  wounds 
afford  much  relief  and  should  be  persisted  in. 

Bruises  are  nothing  but  contused  wounds,  where  the  skin  has  not 
been  ruptured.     There  is  often  considerable  solution  of  continuity  of 
the  parts  under  the  skin,  subcutaneous  hemorrhage,  etc.,  which  may 
result  in  local  death— mortification— and  slough  of  the  bruised  part. 
If  the  bruise  or  contusion  is  not  so  severe,  very  many  cases  are  quickly 
cured  by  constant  fomentation  with  hot  water  for  from  two  to  four  hours. 
The  water  should  be  allowed,  about  this  time,  to  gradually  become  cool 
and  then  cold.     Cold  fomentation  must  then  be  kept  up  for  another 
hour  or  two.     Dry  the  parts  thoroughly  and  quickly,  and  bathe  them 
freely  with  camphor  1  ounce,  sweet  oil  8  ounces.     A  dry,  light  bandage 
should  then  be  applied,  the  horse  allowed  rest,  and,  if  necessary,  the 
camphorated  oil  may  be  repeated  for  two  or  three  days.     If,  however, 
the  wound  is  so  severe  that  sloughing  must  ensue,  we  must  encourage 
this  by  poultices  made  of  linseed  meal,  wheat  bran,  turnips,  onions, 
bread  and  milk,  or  hops.     Charcoal  is  to  be  sprinkled  over  the  surface 
of  the  poultice  when  the  wound  is  bad  smelling.     After  the  slough 
has  fallen  off  the  wound  is  to  be  dressed  with  antiseptic  washes  of  car- 
bolic acid,  chloride  of  zinc,  permanganate  of  potash,  etc.     If  granulat- 
ing (filling  up)  too  fast,  use  burnt  alum,  or  air-slaked  lime.     Besides 
this  local  treatment  we  find  that  the  constitutional  symptoms  of  fever 
and  inflammation  call  for  measures  to  prevent  or  control  them.     This 
is  best  done  by  placing  the  injured  animal  on  soft  or  green  food.     A 
physic  of  Barbadoes  aloes,  1  ounce,  should  be  given  as  soon  as  possible 
after  the  accident.     Sedatives,  as  tincture  of  aconite  root,  15  drops 
every  two  or  three  hours,  aud  ounce  doses  of  saltpeter  twice  or  three 
times  a  day,  are  also  to  be  administered.     When  the  symptoms  of  fever 
are  abated,  and  if  the  discharges  from  the  wound  are  abundant,  the 
strength  of  our  patient  must  be  supported  by  good  food  and  tonics. 
One  of  the  best  tonics  is  as  follows :  Powdered  sulphate  of  iron,  pow- 
11035 29 


450 

dered  gentian,  and  powdered  ginger,  of  each.  4  ounces.  Mix  thoroughly 
and  give  a  heaping  tablespoonful  twice  a  day  on  the  feed,  or  as  a 
drench. 

Punctured  icounds  are  produced  by  the  penetration  of  a  sharp  or  blunt 
pointed  substance,  as  a  tlioru,  fork,  nail,  etc.,  and  the  orifice  of  these 
wounds  is  always  small  in  proportion  to  their  depth.  In  veterinary 
practice  punctured  wounds  are  much  more  common  than  the  others. 
They  involve  the  feet  most  frequeutl3',  next  the  legs,  and  often  the 
head  and  face  from  nails  protruding  through  the  stalls  and  trough. 
They  are  not  only  the  most  frequent  but  they  are  also  the  most  serious. 
One  circumstance  rendering  them  so  is  the  lack  of  attention  that  they 
at  first  receive.  The  external  wound  is  so  small  that  but  little  or  no 
importance  is  attached  to  it,  yet  in  a  short  time  swelling,  pain,  and  acute 
inflammation  often  of  a  serious  character,  are  manifested.  Considering 
the  most  common  of  the  punctured  wounds  we  must  give  precedence  to 
those  of  the  feet.  Horses  "worked  in  cities,  about  iron  works,  around 
building  places,  etc.,  are  most  likely  to  receive  "  nails  in  the  feet."  The 
animal  treads  upon  nails,  pieces  of  iron  or  screws,  and  forces  them  into 
the  soles  of  the  feet.  If  the  nail,  or  whatever  it  is  that  has  punctured 
the  foot,  is  fast  in  some  large  or  heavy  body,  and  is  withdrawn  as  the 
horse  lifts  his  foot,  lameness  may  last  for  only  a  few  steps  ;  but  unless 
properly  attended  to  at  once  he  will  be  found  in  a  day  or  two  to  be  ex- 
cruciatingly liime  in  tlie  injured  member.  If  the  foreign  body  remains 
in  the  foot  he  gradually  grows  worse  from  the  time  of  puncture  until 
the  cause  is  discovered  and  removed.  If,  when  shoeing,  a  nail  is  driven 
into  the  "quick"  (sensitive  laminae)  and  allowed  to  remain,  the  horse 
gradually  evinces  more  pain  from  day  to  day  ;  but  if  the  nail  has  at  once 
been  removed  by  the  smith  lameness  does  not.  as  a  rule,  show  itself  for 
some  days;  or,  if  the  nail  is  simply  driven  "  too  close,"  not  actually 
pricking  the  horse,  he  may  not  show  any  lameness  for  a  vreek  or  even 
much  louger.  At  this  point  it  is  due  the  blacksmith  to  say  that,  con- 
sidering how  thin  the  walls  of  some  feet  are,  the  uneasiness  of  many 
horses  while  shooing,  the  ease  with  which  a  nail  is  diverted  from  its 
course  by  striking  an  old  piece  of  nail  left  in  the  wall,  or  from  the  nail 
itself  splitting,  the  wonder  is  not  that  so  many  horses  are  pricked  or 
7iaUs  driven  '■'too  close, ^^  but  rather  that  many  more  are  not  so  injured. 
It  is  not  always  carelessness  or  ignorance  on  the  part  of  the  smith,  by 
any  means,  that  is  to  account  for  this  accident.  Bad  and  careless 
shoers  we  do  meet  with,  but  let  us  be  honest  and  say  that  the  raritij  of 
these  accidents  points  rather  to  the  general  care  and  attention  given  by 
these  much-abused  mechanics. 

From  the  construction  of  the  horse's  foot  (being  encased  in  an  im- 
permeable horny  box),  and  from  the  elasticity  of  the  horn  closing  the 
orifice,  punctured  wounds  of  the  feet  are  almost  always  productive  of 
lameness.  Inflammation  results,  and  as  there  is  no  relief  afforded  by 
swelling  and  no  escape  for  the  product  of  luHammation,  this  matter 


451 

must  and  does  burrow  betweeu  the  sole  or  wall  aud  the  sensitive  parts 
■witliin  it  until  it  generally  opens  "  between  hair  and  hoof."  We  can 
thus  see  why  pain  is  so  much  more  severe,  why  tetanus  (lockjaw)  more 
frequently  follows  wounds  of  the  feet,  and  why,  from  the  extensive,  or 
at  times  complete,  separation  and  "casting"  of  the  hoof,  these  wounds 
must  always  be  regarded  with  grave  apprehension. 

Symptoms  and  treatment. — A  practice  which,  if  never  deviated  from — 
that  of  picking  up  each  foot,  cleaniug  the  sole,  and  thoroughly  examin- 
ing the  foot  each  and  every  time  the  horse  comes  into  the  stable — will 
enable  us  to  reduce  the  serious  consequences  of  punctured  wounds  of 
the  feet  to  the  minimum.  If  the  wound  has  resulted  from  pricking, 
lameness  follows  soon  after  shoeing;  if  from  the  nails  being  driven  too 
close,  it  usually  appears  from  four  to  tive  days  or  a  week  after  receiv- 
ing the  shoe.  We  should  always  inquire  as  to  the  time  of  shoeing,  ex- 
amine the  shoe  carefally  aud  see  whether  it  has  been  partially  pulled 
and  the  horse  stepped  back  upon  some  of  the  nails  or  the  clip.  The 
pain  from  these  wounds  is  lancinating  ;  the  horse  is  seen  to  raise  and 
lower  the  limb  or  hold  it  from  the  ground  altogether;  often  he  points 
the  foot,  Ilexes  the  leg,  and  knuckles  at  the  fetlock.  Swelling  of  the 
fetlock  and  back  tendons  is  also  frequently  seen  and  is  apt  to  mislead 
us.  The  foot  must  he  carefully  examined,  and  this  can  not  he  properly  done 
without  removing  the  shoe.  The  nails  should  be  drawn  separately  and 
carefully  examined.  If  there  is  no  escape  of  matter  from  the  nail-holes, 
or  if  the  nails  themselves  are  not  moist,  we  must  continue  our  examina- 
tion of  the  foot  by  carefully  pinching  or  tapping  it  at  all  parts.  With  a 
little  practice  we  can  detect  the  spot  where  pain  is  the  greatest  or  dis- 
cover the  delicate  line  or  scar  left  at  the  point  of  entrance  of  the  foreign 
body.  The  entire  sole  is  then  to  be  thinned,  after  which  we  are  to  care- 
fully cut  down  upon  the  point  where  paiu  is  greatest  upon  pressure, 
and,  finally,  through  the  sole  at  this  spot.  When  the  matter  has  escaped, 
the  sole,  so  far  as  it  was  undermined  by  pus,  is  to  be  removed.  The  foot 
must  now  be  poulticed  for  one  or  two  days  and  afterward  dressed  with 
a  compress  of  oakum  saturated  with  carbolic-acid  solution  or  other  anti- 
septic dressing. 

If  we  discover  anail  or  other  object  in  the  foot  the  principal  direction, 
after  having  removed  the  offending  body,  is  to  cut  away  the  sole,  in  a 
funnel  shape,  down  to  the  sensitive  parts  beneath.  This  is  imperative, 
and  if  a  good  free  opening  has  been  made  and  is  maintained  for  a  few 
days,  hot  fomentations  and  antisei)tic  dressings  applied,  the  cure  is 
mostly  easy,  simple,  quick,  aud  permanent.  The  horse  should  be  shod 
•with  a  leather  sole  under  the  shoe,  first  of  all  a]:>plying  tar  and  oakum 
to  prevent  any  dirt  from  entering  the  wound.  In  some  instances  nails 
may  puncture  the  flexor  tendons,  the  coffin  bone,  or  enter  the  coffin 
joint.  Such  injuries  are  always  serious,  their  recovery  slow  and  tedious, 
and  the  treatment  so  varied  aud  difficult  that  the  services  of  a  veteri- 
narian will  be  necessary. 


452 

Punctured  wounds  of  joints — Open  joints. — These  wounds  are  more  or 
less  frequeut.  They  are  always  serious,  and  ofteu  result  in  anchylosis 
(stiifening)  of  the  joint  or  death  of  the  animal.  The  joints  mostly 
punctured  are  the  hock,  fetlock,  or  knee,  though  other  joints  may  of 
course  suffer  this  injury.  As  the  symptoms  and  treatment  are  much 
the  same  for  all,  I  will  only  describe  this  accident  as  it  occurs  in  the 
hock  joint.  Probably  the  most  common  mode  of  injury  is  from  the  stab 
of  a  fork,  but  it  may  result  from  the  kick  of  another  horse  that  is  newly 
shod,  or  in  many  other  ways.  At  first  the  horse  evinces  but  slight  pain 
or  lameness.  The  owner  discovers  a  small  wound  scarcely  larger  than 
a  pea,  and  pays  but  little  attention  to  it.  In  a  few  days,  however,  tho 
pain  and  lameness  become  excessive ;  the  horse  can  no  longer  bear  any 
weight  upon  the  injured  leg;  the  joint  is  very  much  swollen  and  pain- 
ful upon  pressure;  there  are  well-marked  symptoms  of  constitutional 
disturbance — quick  pulse,  hurried  breathing,  high  temperature,  103°  to 
100°  Fahr.,  the  appetite  is  lost,  thirst  is  present,  the  horse  reeks  with 
sweat,  and  shows  by  an  anxious  countenance  the  i)ain  he  suffers.  He 
may  lie  down,  though  mostly  he  persists  in  standing,  and  the  opposite 
limb  becomes  greatly  swollen  from  bearing  the  entire  weight  and  strain 
for  so  long  a  time.  The  wound,  which  at  first  appeared  so  insignificant, 
is  now  constantly  discharging  a  thin,  whitish  or  yellowish  fluid— joint- 
oil  or  water,  which  becomes  coagulated  about  the  mouth  of  the  wound 
and  adheres  to  the  jjartiu  clots  like  jelly,  or  resembling  somewhat  the 
white  of  an  egg.  Not  infrequently  the  joint  opens  at  different  places, 
discharging  at  first  a  thin  bloody  fluid  that  soon  assumes  the  character 
above  described. 

Treatment  of  these  wounds  is  most  difficult  and  unsatisfactory.  In 
my  own  experience  we  can  do  much  to  prevent  this  array  of  symptoms 
if  the  case  is  seen  early,  within  the  first  twenty  four  or  forty-eight 
hours  after  the  injury,  but  when  inflammation  of  the  joint  is  once  fairly 
established  the  case  becomes  one  of  grave  tendencies.  Whenever  a 
punctured  wound  of  a  joint  is  noticed,  even  though  apparently  of  but 
small  moment,  we  should  without  the  least  delay  apply  a  strong  canthar- 
ides  blister  over  the  entire  joint,  being  even  careful  to  fill  the  orifice 
of  the  wound  with  the  blistering  ointment.  This  treatment  is  almost 
always  effectual.  It  operates  to  i)erform  a  cure  in  two  ways — first,  the 
swelling  of  the  skin  and  tissues  underneath  it  completely  closes  the 
wound  and  prevents  the  ingress  of  air;  second,  by  the  superficial  in- 
flammation established  itacts  to  check  and  abate  all  deep-seated  inflam- 
mation. In  the  great  majority  of  instances,  if  pursued  soon  after  the 
accident,  this  treatment  performs  a  cure  in  about  one  week,  but  should 
the  changes  described  as  occuiTing  later  ia  the  joint  have  already  taken 
place,  we  must  then  treat  by  cooling  lotions  and  the  application  to  the 
wound  of  chloride  of  zinc,  10  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water,  or  a  paste 
made  up  of  flour  and  alum.  A  bandage  is  to  hold  these  applications  in 
place,  which  is  only  to  be  removed  v/hen  swelling  of  the  leg  or  iucreas- 


453 

ing  febrile  symptoms  demand  it.  In  the  treatment  of  open  joints  our 
chief  aim  must  be  to  close  the  orifice  as  soon  as  possible.  For  this 
reason  repeated  i)robiug  or  even  injections  are  contra-indicated.  The 
only  probing  of  an  open  joint  that  is  to  be  sanctioned  is  on  our  first 
visit,  when  we  should  carefully  examine  the  wound  for  foreign  bodies 
or  dirt,  and  after  removing  them  the  probe  must  not  again  be  used. 
The  medicines  used  to  coagulate  the  synovial  discharge  are  best  simply 
applied  to  the  surface  of  the  wound,  on  pledgets  of  tow,  and  held  in 
place  by  bandages.  Internal  treatment  is  also  indicated  in  those  cases 
of  open  Joints  where  the  suffering  is  great.  At  first  we  should  admin- 
ister a  light  physic,  and  follow  this  up  with  sedatives  and  anodynes,  as 
directed  for  contused  wounds.  Later,  however,  we  should  give  quinine 
or  salicylic  acid  in  one-dram  doses  two  or  three  times  a  day. 

Wounds  of  tendons  are  similar  to  open  joints  in  that  there  is  an  escape 
of  synovial  fluid,  "  sinew  water."  Where  the  tendons  are  simply  punc- 
tured by  a  thorn,  nail,  or  fork,  we  must,  after  a  thorough  exploration 
of  the  wound  for  any  remaining  foreign  substance,  treat  with  the  flour 
and  alum  paste,  bandages,  etc.,  as  for  open  joint.  Should  the  skin  and 
tendons  be  divided  the  case  is  even  more  serious  and  often  incurable. 
There  is  always  a  large  bed  of  granulations  (proud  flesh)  at  the  seat  of 
injury,  and  a  thickening  more  or  less  pronounced  remains.  When  the 
back  tendons  of  the  leg  are  severed  we  should  apply  at  once  a  high-heel 
shoe  (which  is  to  be  gradually  lowered  as  healing  advances)  and  band- 
age firmly  with  a  compress  moistened  with  a  ten-grain  chloride  of  zinc 
solution.  When  proud  flesh  appears  this  is  best  kept  under  control  by 
repeated  applications  of  a  red-hot  iron.  Mares  that  are  valuable  as 
brood  animals,  and  stock  horses,  should  always  be  treated  for  this  in- 
jur^',  as,  even  though  blemished,  their  value  is  not  seriously  impaired. 
The  length  and  time  required  and  the  expense  of  treatment  will  cause  us 
to  hesitate  in  attempting  a  cure  if  the  subject  is  old  and  comi^aratively 
valueless. 

Gunshot  icounds. — These  wounds  are  so  seldom  met  with  in  our  ani- 
mals that  an  extended  reference  to  them  seems  unnecessary.  If  a 
wound  has  been  made  by  a  bullet  a  careful  examination  should  be  made 
to  ascertain  if  the  ball  has  passed  through  or  out  of  the  body.  If  it  has 
not  we  must  then  probe  for  the  ball,  and  if  it  can  be  located  it  is  to  be 
cut  out  when  practicable  to  do  so.  Oftentimes  a  ball  may  be  so  lodged 
that  it  can  not  be  removed,  and  it  then  may  become  encysted  and  re- 
main for  years  without  giving  rise  to  any  inconvenience.  It  is  often 
difficult  to  locate  a  bullet,  as  it  is  very  readily  deflected  by  resistances 
met  with  after  entering  the  body.  Should  bones  be  struck  by  a  ball 
they  are  frequenily  shattered  and  splintered  to  such  an  extent  as  to  war- 
rant us  in  having  the  animal  destroyed.  A  gunshot  wound,  when  ir- 
reparable injury  has  not  been  done,  is  to  be  treated  the  same  as  punctured 
wounds,  i.  e.,  remove  the  foreign  body  if  i)0S8ible,  and  apply  hot  fomen- 
tations or  poultices  to  the  wound  until  suppuration  is  fairly  established. 


454 

Antiseptic  and  disinfectant  injections  may  then  be  used.  Should  pus 
accumulate  in  the  tissues  openings  must  be  made  at  the  most  depend- 
ing i)arts  for  its  escape.  Wounds  from  shotguns  if  fired  close  to  the 
animal  are  serious.  They  are  virtually  lacerated  and  contused  wounds. 
Eemove  all  the  shot  possible  from  the  wound,  and  treat  as  directed 
for  contusions.  When  small  shot  strikes  the  horse  from  a  distance  it 
sticks  in  the  skin  or  only  goes  through  it.  The  shot  grains  must  be 
picked  out,  but  as  a  rule  this  "peppering"  of  the  skin  amounts  to  but 
little. 

Chafing  by  the  harness — saddle  or  collar  galls. — Wounds  or  abrasions 
of  this  description  are  very  commonly  met  with  during  the  spring  plow- 
ing, particularly  in  "  new  ground,"  or  from  ill-fitting  saddles  or  collars 
at  any  time  of  the  year.  Collars  too  large  or  too  small  are  equally 
productive  of  this  trouble.  In  the  spring  of  the  year,  when  the  horse 
has  been  unused  to  steady  work  for  some  months,  the  skin  is  tender 
and  easily  abraded.  The  horse,  from  being  wintered  on  a  scanty  allow- 
ance of  grain,  is  soft,  sweats  easily,  and  if  the  collar  and  shoulders  are 
not  properly  attended  to  chafing  of  the  skin  is  almost  sure  to  follow. 
The  harness  should  be  repaired,  cleaned,  and  oiled  before  using,  and  the 
collar  in  particular  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed  after  every  day's  use. 
The  shoulders  are  to  be  frequently  washed  with  cold  water,  and  after- 
ward bathed  with  white-oak  bark  tea,  alcohol,  or  other  astringents. 
Should  ill-fitting  or  badly  made  harness  or  saddles  gall  a  horse,  they 
must  be  refitted  at  once,  or  laid  aside  for  other  and  better  ones. 

The  treatment  of  such  abrasions  is  simple  and  efiective  if  the  cause  be 
removed  without  delay.  The  parts  must  be  thoroughly  bathed  in  soapy 
water,  allowing  the  lather  to  remain  on  the  abraded  surface.  There  are 
many  remedies  for  harness  galls.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  alco- 
hol, 1  pint,  in  which  are  well  shaken  the  whites  of  two  eggs;  a  solution 
of  nitrate  of  silver,  10  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water;  sugar  of  lead  or 
sulphate  of  zinc,  20  grains  to  an  ounce  of  water;  carbolic  acid,  1  part 
in  15  parts  of  glycerine,  and  so  on  almost  without  end.  Any  simple  as- 
tringent wash  or  powder  will  effect  a  cure  provided  the  sores  are  not 
irritated  by  friction.  If  the  animal  must  continue  his  work  the  harness 
must  be  padded  or  chambered. 

Burns  and  scalds. — Wounds  from  burning  or  scalding  are  rare  in  the 
domestic  animals,  but  when  extensive  they  prove  very  troublesome  and 
are  often  fatal.  According  to  the  severity  of  the  burn  we  find  the  skin 
simply  reddened,  vesicles  (bbsters)  may  be  jjroduced,  or  the  part  may 
be  literally  roasted  or  boiled,  causing  complete  destiuction  of  the  tissues 
and  sloughing.  When  a  large  surface  of  the  skin  is  burned  or  scalded 
the  animal  (if  he  does  not  die  at  once  from  shock)  will  soon  show  symp- 
toms of  fever — shivering,  coldness  of  the  extremities,  weakness,  rest- 
lessness, quick,  feeble  pulse,  sighing  breathing,  etc. 

The  treatment  in  such  cases  must  be  prompt  and  energetic.  Stimu- 
lants, such  as  whisky  with  mi'k  and  eggs,  are  to  be  frequently  given. 


455 

Quinine  and  salicylic  acid,  of  each  1  dram,  should  also  be  adaiinistered 
twice  a  day.  The  burned  surface  must  be  immediately  bathed  with 
equal  parts  of  lime-water  and  linseed  oil,  and  afterwards  dredged  with 
as  much  hour  as  can  be  made  to  adhere.  If  these  can  not  be  obtained 
cover  the  parts  with  flour  paste,  layers  of  cotton,  or  anything  to  exclude 
the  air.  Nitrate  of  silver,  5  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water,  or  carbolic 
acid,  1  part  to  50  of  water,  afford  great  relief  if  frequently  applied. 
When  the  slough  takes  place  we  must  support  the  animal's  strength 
with  good  food  and  tonics,  and  treat  the  raw  surface  the  same  as  other 
granulating  wounds. 

ABSCESSES. 

These  consist  of  accumulations  of  pus  within  circumscribed  walls, 
at  different  parts  of  the  body,  and  may  be  classed  as  acute j  and  cold  or 
chronic  abscesses. 

Acute  abscesses  follow  as  the  result  of  local  inflammation  in  glands, 
muscular  tissue,  or  even  bones.  They  are  very  common  in  the  two 
former.  The  abscesses  most  commonly  met  with  in  the  horse  (and  the 
ones  which  will  be  here  described)  are  those  of  the  salivary  glands, 
occurring  during  the  existence  of  "  strangles"  or  "  colt  distemper."  The 
glands  behind  or  under  the  jaw  are  seen  to  slowly  increase  in  size,  be- 
coming firm,  hard,  hot,  and  painful.  At  first  the  swelling  is  uniformly 
hard  and  resisting  over  its  entire  surface,  but  in  a  little  while  becomes 
soft — fluctuating — at  some  portion,  mostly  in  the  center.  From  this 
time  on  the  abscess  is  said  to  be  "  pointing"  or  "coming  to  a  head," 
which  is  shown  by  a  small  elevated  or  projecting  prominence,  which  at 
first  is  dry,  but  soon  becomes  moist  with  transuded  serum.  The  hairs 
over  this  part  loosen  and  fall  off,  and  in  a  short  time  the  abscess  opens, 
the  contents  escape,  and  the  cavity  gradually  fills  up — heals  by  granu- 
lations. 

Abscesses  in  muscular  tissue  are  usually  the  result  of  bruises  or  in- 
juries. In  all  cases  where  abscesses  are  forming  we  should  hurry  the 
ripening  i^rocess  by  frequent  hot  fomentations  and  poultices.  When 
they  are  very  tardy  in  their  development  a  blister  over  their  surface  is 
advisable.  It  is  a  common  rule  with  surgeons  to  open  an  abscess  as 
soon  as  pus  can  be  plainly  felt,  but  this  practice  can  scarcely  be  recom- 
mended to  owners  of  stock  indiscriminately,  since  this  little  operation 
frequently  requires  an  exact  knowledge  of  anatomy.  It  will  usually 
be  found  the  better  plan  to  encourage  the  full  ripening  of  an  abscess 
and  allow  it  to  open  of  itself.  This  is  imperative  if  the  abscess  is  in  the 
region  of  joints,  etc.  When  open,  we  must  not  squeeze  the  walls  of  the 
abscess  to  any  extent.  They  may  be  very  gently  i)res8ed  with  the  fin- 
gers at  first  to  remove  the  clots — inspissated  pus — but  after  this  the 
orifice  is  simply  to  be  kept  open  by  the  introduction  of  a  whalebone 
probe,  should  it  be  disposed  to  heal  too  soon.  If  the  opening  is  at  too 
high  a  level  another  should  be  made  into  the  loivest. portion  of  the  ab- 


456 

scess.  Hot  fomentations  or  poultices  are  sometimes  required  for  a  day 
or  two  after  an  abscess  has  opened,  and  are  particularly  indicated  when 
the  base  of  the  abscess  Is  hard  and  indurated.  As  a  rule,  injections 
into  the  cavity  of  abscesses  are  not  indicated,  though  in  cases  of  serous 
abscesses  (if  one  may  be  allowed  such  latitude  of  terms),  as  cysts  of  the 
elbow,  knee,  etc.,  astringent  injections — sulphate  of  zinc,  15  grains  to  the 
ounce  of  water — are  required  to  cause  adhesions  of  the  walls  of  the 
cavity  and  prevent  it  from  refilling.  If  abscesses  are  foul  and  bad- 
smelling  their  cavities  must  be  syringed  with  a  weak  solution  of  car- 
bolic acid  or  other  antiseptics. 

Cold  abscess  is  the  term  applied  to  those  large,  indolent  swellings  that 
are  the  result  of  a  low  or  chronic  form  of  inflammation,  in  tbe  center  of 
which  there  is  a  small  collection  of  pus.  These  are  mostly  met  with  at 
the  base  of  the  neck  and  in  front  of  the  shoulder  joint.  The  swelling  is 
diffuse  and  of  enormous  extent,  but  slightly  hotter  than  surrounding 
parts,  and  not  very  painful  upon  pressure.  There  is  a  pronounced 
stiffness,  rather  than  pain,  evinced  upon  moving  the  animal.  Such  ab- 
scesses have  the  appearance  of  a  hard  tumor,  surrounded  by  a  softer 
cedematous  swelling,  involving  the  tissues  to  the  extent  of  a  foot  or 
more  in  all  directions  from  the  tumor.  This  diffused  swelling  gradually 
subsides  and  leaves  the  large,  hardened  mass  somewhat  well  defined. 
One  of  the  chara(;teristics  of  cold  abscesses  is  their  tendency  to  remain 
in  the  same  condition  for  a  great  leugth  of  time.  There  is  neither  heat 
nor  soreness;  no  increase  nor  lessening  in  the  size  of  the  tumor;  it  re- 
mains statu  quo.  If,  however,  the  animal  should  be  put  to  work  for  a 
short  time  the  irritation  of  the  collar  causes  the  surrounding  tissues  to 
again  assume  an  cedematous  condition,  which,  after  a  few  days'  rest, 
disappear,  leaving  the  tumor  as  before  or  but  slightly  larger.  Upou 
careful  manipulation  we  may  discover  what  appears  to  be  a  fluid  deep 
seated  in  the  center  of  the  mass.  The  quantity  of  matter  so  contained 
is  very  small — often  not  more  than  a  tablespoonful— and  for  this  reason 
it  can  not,  in  all  cases,  be  detected. 

Cold  abscesses  are  mostly,  if  not  a'ways,  caused  by  the  long-contin- 
ued irritation  of  a  loose  and  badly  fitting  collar.  There  is  a  slow  in- 
flammatory action  going  on,  which  results  in  the  formation  of  a  small 
quantity  of  matter,  inclosed  in  very  thick  and  but  partially  organized 
walls,  that  are  not  as  well  defined  as  is  the  circumference  of  fibrous 
tumors,  which  they  most  resemble. 

Treatment. — The  means  recommended  to  bring  the  acute  abscess  "to 
a  htad  "  are  but  rarely  effectual  with  this  variety ;  or,  if  successful,  too 
much  time  has  been  occupied  in  the  cure.  We  must  look  for  other  and 
more  rapid  methods  of  treatment.  These  consist  in,  first  of  all,  care- 
fully exploring  the  tumor  for  the  presence  of  pus.  The  incisions  must 
be  made  over  the  softest  part,  and  carried  deep  into  the  tumor  (to  its 
very  bottom  if  necessary),  and  the  matter  allowed  to  escape.  After  this, 
and  whether^we  have  found  matter  or  not,  we  must  induce  an  active 


457 

infiammaiion  of  the  tumor  in  order  to  promote  solution  of  tlie  tliick  walls 
of  the  abscess.  This  may  be  done  by  inserting  well  into  the  incision  a 
piece  of  oakum  or  cotton  saturated  with  turpentine,  carbolic  acid,  tinc- 
ture of  iodine,  etc.,  or  we  may  pack  the  incision  with  powdered  sul- 
phate of  zinc  and  keep  the  orifice  plugged  for  twenty-four  hours.  These 
agents  set  up  a  destructive  inflammation  of  the  walls.  Suppuration  fol- 
lows, and  this  should  now  be  encouragedbybot  fomentations  and  poul- 
tices. The  orifice  must  be  kept  open,  and  should  it  be  disposed  to  heal 
we  must  again  introduce  some  of  the  agents  above  described.  A  fa- 
vored treatment  with  many,  and  it  is  probably  the  best,  is  to  plunge  a 
red-hot  iron  to  the  bottom  of  the  incision,  and  thoroughly  sear  all  parts 
of  the  walls  of  the  abscess.  This  is  to  be  repeated  after  the  first  slough 
has  taken  place,  if  the  walls  remain  thickened  and  indurated. 

It  is  useless  to  waste  time  with  fomentations,  poultices,  or  blisters  in 
the  treatment  of  cold  abscesses,  since,  though  apparently  removed  by 
such  methods,  they  almost  invariably  return  again  when  the  horse  is 
put  to  work.  Extirpation  by  the  knife  is  not  practicable,  as  the  walls 
of  the  tumor  are  not  sufficiently  defined.  If  treated  as  above  directed, 
and  properly  fitted  with  a  good  collar  after  healing,  there  will  not  re- 
main any  track,  trace,  or  remembrance  of  the  large,  unsightly  mass. 

FISTULA. 

The  word  fistula  is  properly  applied  to  sinuous  pipes  or  ducts  leading 
from  cavities  to  the  surface  of  the  body,  through  which  a  discharge  is 
constantly  taking  i^lace.  They  are  liued  by  a  false  or  adventitious 
membrane,  and  show  no  disposition  to  heal.  Fistulas  may  then  exist 
at  any  part,  but  the  name  has  come  to  be  commonry  accepted  as  appli- 
cable only  to  such  discharges  takiug  place  from  the  withers,  and  we 
shall  refer  to  this  location  when  usiug  the  term. 

Poll  evil  is  a  fistula  upon  the  poll,  and  iu  no  sense  differs  from  fistu- 
lous withers  except  as  to  location.  The  description  of  fistula  will  apply 
then,  in  the  main,  to  poll  evil  as  well.  Fistuke  are  particularly  liable 
to  occur  at  either  of  these  locations  from  the  disposition  of  the  muscles 
and  tendinous  expansions,  which  favor  the  burrowing  of  pus  and  its 
retention.  Fistulae  follow  as  a  result  of  abscesses,  bruises,  wounds,  or 
long  continued  irritation  by  the  harness.  Among  the  more  common 
causes  of  fistula  of  the  poll — poll  evil— are  chafing  by  the  halter  or  heavy 
bridle;  blows  from  the  butt  end  of  the  whip;  the  horse  striking  his 
head  against  the  hayrack,  beams  of  the  ceiling,  low  doors,  etc.  Fis- 
tulous withers  are  seen  mostly  in  those  horses  that  have  thick  necks 
as  well  as  those  that  are  very  high  in  the  withers ;  or,  among  saddle 
horses,  those  that  are  ve^y  loic  on  the  withers,  the  saddle  here  riding  for- 
ward and  bruising  the  parts.  They  are  often  caused  by  bad-fitting  col- 
lars or  saddles,  by  direct  injuries  from  blows,  and  from  the  horse  roll- 
ing upon  rough  or  sharp  stones.  In  either  of  these  locations,  ulcers  of 
the  skin,  or  simple  abscesses,  if  not  properly  and  punctually  treated 


458 

may  become  fistnlce.  The  pus  burro vrs  aDcl  finds  lodgment  deep  down 
between  the  muscles,  and  only  escapes  when  the  sinus  becomes  sur- 
charged or  during  motion  of  the  parts,  when  the  matter  is  squeezed 
out. 

Symptoms. — These  of  course  will  vary  according  to  the  progress  made 
•by  the  fistula.  Following  an  injury  we  may  oiten  notice  soreness  or 
stiffness  of  the  front  legs,  and  upon  careful  examination  of  the  withers 
we  will  see  small  tortuous  lines  running  from  the  point  of  irritation 
downward  and  backward  over  the  region  of  the  shoulder.  These  are 
superficial  lymphatics,  and  are  swollen  and  painful  to  the  touch.  In  a 
day  or  two  a  swelling  is  noticed  on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  dorsal  ver- 
tebraj,  which  is  hot  and  painful  and  rapidly  enlarging.  The  pain  may 
at  this  time  subside  somewhat,  the  stiffness  disappear,  but  the  swelling 
continues  and  increases  in  size.  It  iiuctuates  upon  pressure,  and  either 
opens  or  its  contents  become  inspissated,  dry  uj),  leaving  a  tumor 
that  gradually  develops  the  common  characteristics  of  a  fibrous  tumor. 
When  the  enlargement  has  opened  we  should  carefully  examine  its 
cavity,  as  on  its  condition  will  wholly  depend  our  treatment. 

In  the  earliest  stage,  when  there  is  soreness,  enlarged  lymi>hatics,  but 
no  well-marked  swelling,  the  trouble  may  be  frequently  aborted.  To 
do  this  requires  both  general  and  local  treatment.  Ajjhysic  should  be 
given,  and  the  horse  receive  1  ounce  of  powdered  saltpeter  three  times 
a  day  in  his  water  or  feed.  If  the  fever  runs  high,  20-drop  doses  of 
tincture  of  aconite  root  every  two  hours  may  be  administered.  Locally 
we  vvill  find  much  relief  by  pouring  cold  water  from  a  height  upon  the 
inflamed  spot  for  an  hour  at  a  time  three  or  four  times  a  day.  Cooling 
lotions,  muriate  of  ammonia,  or  saltpeter  and  water,  sedative  washes, 
as  tincture  of  opium  and  aconite,  chloroform  liniment,  or  camphorated 
oil  are  also  to  be  frequently  ai>plied.  I  have  seen  a  number  of  cases 
presenting  these  initial  symptoms  of  fistula  thus  aborted  that  required 
no  other  treatment  than  the  avoidance  of  the  original  cause.  When, 
however,  the  formation  of  pus  is  inevitable,  this  must  be  hurried  as 
much  as  possible.  Hot  fomentations  and  poultices  are  to  be  constantly 
used,  and  as  soon  as  fluctuation  can  be  plainly  felt  the  abscess  wall  is  to 
be  opened  at  its  lowest  point.  In  this  procedure  lies  our  hope  of  a 
speedy  cure.  If  the  parts  are  so  laid  open  by  the  knife  that  the  pus 
must  escape  as  fast  as  it  is  formed,  and  where  there  is  left  no  possibility 
of  its  burrowing  between  the  muscles,  forming  pockets  or  sinuses,  the 
parts  rapidly  and  permanently  heal  without  any  mediation  whatever, 
as  though  we  had  been  dealing  with  a  simple  abscess  of  the  withers,  and 
not  a  true  fistula  at  all. 

Attention  is  again  called  to  the  directions  given  above  as  to  the  neces- 
sity of  probing  the  cavity  when  opened.  If  upon  a  careful  examination 
"With  the  probe  we  find  that  there  are  no  pockets,  no  sinuses,  but  a  sim- 
ple, regular  abscess  wall,  the  indication  for  treatment  is  to  make  an 
opening  from  below  so  that  the  matter  must  all  escape.    Earely  is  any- 


459 

tiling  more  neeileel  than  to  keep  tlie  orilice  open  and  to  bcatlie  or  injed 
the  parts  with  some  simple  antiseptic  wash  that  is  not  irritant  or  caustic 
A  low  opening  and  cleanliness  constitute  the  essential  and  ratioua". 
treatment.     If  caustics  are  inserted,  they  cause  sloughing  of  healthj 
tissues  and  favor  the  formation  of  sinuses  by  producing  sloughs  belo^ 
the  point  of  incision.     If  the  abscess  has  existed  for  some  time  and  has 
not  opened,  its  walls  become  thickened,  the  pus  granular  or  inspissated, 
then,  after  an  opening  has  been  made  by  the  knife  and  the  contents 
washed  and  squeezed  out  as  thoroughly  as  possible,  the  plan  of  treat 
mentis  materially  different.     There  is  enormous  thickening  of  the  walls, 
which  must  be  destroyed  a^nd  sloughed  out  by  caustics.     The  best  plar 
here  is  to  make  the  first  incision  inihe  highest  point  of  the  swelling,  intro- 
duce a  piece  of  caustic  potash  (fused)  1  to  2  inches  in  length,  carefully 
plug  the  opening  with  oakum  or  cotton,  and  secure  the  horse  so  that  he 
can  not  disturb  the  parts  by  rubbing  or  biting  them.     The  skin  of  the 
shoulder  and  entire  leg  must  be  thoroughly  greased  with  lard  or  oil  in 
order  to  prevent  the  caustic  (should  it  escape)  from  excoriating  the  skin 
over  which  it  flows.     Twenty-four  hours  after  the  introduction  of  the 
caustic  the  plug  is  to  be  removed  and  hot  fomentations  applied.     As 
soon  as  the  discharge  is  again  established  wo  must  make  another  open- 
ing with  the  knife  or  seton  needle  as  low  as  possible,  and  keep  this  open 
with  a  seton.     The  object  of  making  the  first  incision  on  top  is  to  insure 
the  retention  of  the  caustic  uutil  it  has  attacked  the  entire  inner  sur- 
face of  the  cavity.     If  this  is  done  the  caustic  causes  sloughing  of  every 
portion  of  the  diseased  parts,  leaving  a  healthy  granulating  surface 
underneath,   which  only  requires  that  the  depending  orifice  be  kept 
open  and  the  cavity  washed  out  with  a  weak  antiseptic  solution  once  or 
twice  a  week  to  effect  a  cure.     In  many  cases  of  fistula  there  is  more 
than  one  sinus  or  pipe  that  must   be  explored,   laid  open    with   the 
knife  if  possible,  or  opened  through  its  bottom  by  means  of  a  sharp 
seton  needle,  passing  a  tape  through  the  openings,  and  retaining  it  in 
this  position  for  some  time.     If  the  pipes  are  directed  straight  downward 
between  the  shoulder  blade  and  the  spine  it  is  difficult  or  impossible  to 
make  a  counter  opening,  and  the  case  becomes  serious  or  intractable. 
Caustic  sohitio7is  must  now  be  injected  carefully  into  the  sinuses  with 
the  hope  of  reaching  every  diseased  part.     Probably  the  best  is  gran- 
ular chloride  of  zinc,  1  ounce  to  a  half  pint  of  water.     This  should  be 
injected  three  times  during  one  week,  after  which  a  weak  solution  of 
the  same,  or  sulphate  of  zinc,  is  to  be  occasionally  injected.     Pressure 
must  be  applied //-owi  hclow,  and  endeavors  made  in  this  manner  to  heal 
the  different  pipes /ro»i  the  bottom.     Should  the  bones  of  the  withers  or 
the  shoulder  blade  be  diseased  the  complication  is  again  serious,  and 
these  must  be  scraped  or  jiortions  of  them  removed,  requiring  the  aid 
of  the  veterinary  surgeon. 

In  those  cases  of  fistula  where  the  tumor  is  large  and  hard,  yet  not 
sufficiently  defined  to  admit  of  extirpation  with  the  knife,  we  may  often 


460 

effect  a  cure  by  making  a  shallow  incision  under  the  skin,  over  the 
center  of  the  tumor,  and  inserting  from  20  to  30  grains  of  arsenious  acid 
— powdered  arsenic — wrapped  in  a  single  layer  of  tissue  paper,  and 
retaining  in  the  same  manner  as  before  directed  for  the  caustic  potassa. 
No  further  treatment  is  nece^ssary  for  some  time.  In  about  ten  days 
to  two  weeks  there  will  have  taken  place  a  large,  deep  slough,  leaving 
a  very  ugly  looking  granulating  wound,  which,  however,  gradually  con- 
tracts during  the  healing  process  and  results  in  the  entire  disappear- 
ance of  the  tumor. 

It  is  to  be  inferred  from  the  foregoing  that,  even  though  fully  estab- 
lished, fistulas  of  the  withers  or  poll  are,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  cura- 
ble. They  often  require  much  time  and  patient  attention.  The  sinuses 
must  be  opened  at  their  inferior  extremity'  and  kept  open.  At  first 
caustic  injections  or  applications  must  be  thoroughly  aj)plied  once  or 
twice,  after  which  mild  astringent  antiseptic  washes  and  cleanliness 
complete  the  cure.  In  those  cases  where  the  sinuses  or  pipes  are  so 
directed  that  counter  openings  can  not  be  made;  where  there  are  dis- 
eased conditions  of  the  bones,  articulations,  etc.,  that  can  not  be  reached, 
the  horse  had  often  best  be  destroyed  at  once. 

It  is  not  at  all  unusual  for  fistulfe  to  break  out  again  after  having 
healed.  This  should  not  discourage  us  of  a  complete  cure,  as  there  is 
mostly  only  some  small  particle  of  diseased  tissue  remaining,  caught, 
probably,  in  the  healing  of  the  orifice.  A  small  abscess  forms,  points, 
and  opens.  This  abscess  should  be  injected  with  a  solution  of  sulphate 
of  zinc,  20  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water,  every  second  or  third  day  until 
entirely  healed. 

Fistula?  of  the  foot — quittor — should  be  treated  on  the  same  principle 
as  those  already  described. 

When  fistulous  tracts  are  found  at  unusual  points  we  must  carefully 
examine  the  character  and  time  of  the  discharges,  and  diligently  probe 
the  sinus  to  ascertain  if  the  duct  of  some  gland  has  not  been  opened,  or 
if  some  foreign  body,  as  a  splinter  of  wood,  etc.,  is  not  retained  in  the 
wound.  In  the  first  case — fistula  of  a  gland  duct— a  competent  veteri- 
ur.rian  must  be  called.  In  the  second  instance  the  foreign  body  is  to  be 
carefully  cut  down  upon  and  reinoved,  after  which  healing  i)rogresses 
rapidly  and  satisfactorily. 


GENERAL  DISEASES. 


BY  RUSH  SHIPPEN  HUIDEKOPER,  M.  D.,  Vet. 
Editor  Journal  of  Comparative  Medicine  and  yeierinarj/  Archives,  J:'hUadel2)hia. 


INFLAMMATION. 

Synonyms  :  Infammatio,  Latin,  from  Inflammare,  to  flame,  to  bnrn ; 
Phlegmasia  OhyiJ-aala,  Greek  j  Infiammation,  'Pv^nch -,  Injianimazione^ 
Italian  ;  Injlaniacion,  Spanish  ;  Entzundung,  German. 

Defmition. — Inflammation  is  a  process  of  excessive  nutrition — hyper- 
nutrition — of  a  living  tissue,  by  which  the  latter  may  be  altered  in  its 
functions  while  retaining  for  an  indefinite  time  a  morbid  life;  may  be 
destroyed,  as  in  abscesses,  ulcers,  necrosis,  etc. ;  or  may  be  trans- 
formed into  a  new  tissue,  as  in  the  healing  of  a  previously  injured  part, 
the  normal  tissue  in  this  case  being  rei)laced  by  a  scar  (cicatricial 
tissue),  or  by  masses  of  calcareous  deposits  (lime  salts). 

ANIMAL   TISSUES. 

The  non-professional  reader  may  regard  the  animal  tissues,  which  are 
subject  to  inflammation,  as  excessively  simple  structures,  as  similar, 
simple,  and  fixed  in  their  organization  as  the  joists  and  boards  which 
frame  a  house,  the  bricks  and  iron  coils  of  pipe  which  build  a  furnace, 
or  the  stones  and  mortar  which  make  the  support  of  a  great  railroad 
bridge.  Yet  while  the  principles  of  structure  are  thus  simple,  for  the 
general  understanding  by  the  student  who  begins  their  study,  the  com- 
plete appreciation  of  the  shades  of  variation,  which  differentiate  one 
tissue  from  another,  which  define  a  sound  tendon  or  ligament  from  a 
fibrous  band,  the  result  of  disease  filling  in  an  old  lesion  and  tying  one 
organ  with  another,  is  as  complicated  as  the  nicest  jointing  of  Chinese 
woodwork,  the  building  of  a  furnace  for  the  most  difficult  chemical 
analysis,  or  the  construction  of  a  bridge  which  will  stand  for  ages  and 
resist  any  force  or  weight. 

All  tissues  are  composed  of  certain  fundamental  and  similar  elements 
which  are  governed  by  the  same  rules  of  life,  though  they  may  appear 
at  first  glance  to  be  widely  different.  These  are :  (a)  amorphous  sub- 
stances ;  {b)  fibers  j  (c)  cells. 

■461 


462 

(fl)  Amorphous  substances  may  be  in  liquid  form,  as  in  the  fluid  of  the 
blood,  which  holds  a  vast  amount  of  salts  and  nutritive  matter  in  solu- 
tion, or  they  may  be  in  a  semi-liquid  condition,  as  the  plasma  which 
infiltrates  the  loose  meshes  of  connective  tissue  and  lubricates  the  sur- 
face of  some  membranes,  or  they  may  be  in  the  form  of  a  glue  or  cement, 
fastening  one  structure  to  another,  as  a  tendon  or  muscle  end  to  a  bone, 
or  again  they  hold  similar  elements  firmly  together  as  in  bone,  where 
they  form  a  stiff  matrix  which  becomes  impregnated  with  lime  salts. 
Amorphous  substances  again  form  the  protoplasm  or  nutritive  element 
of  cells  or  the  elements  of  life. 

(h)  Fibers  are  formed  of  elements  of  organic  matter  which  have  only 
a  passive  function.  They  can  be  assimilated  to  little  strings  or  cords 
tangled  one  with  another  like  a  mass  of  waste  yarn,  woven  regularly 
like  a  cloth  or  bound  together  like  a  rope.  They  are  of  two  kinds,  white 
connectivetissuefiberSjOnly  slightly  extensible,  pliable,  and  very  strong, 
and  yellow  elastic  fibers,  elastic,  curly,  ramified,  and  very  dense.  These 
fibers  once  created  require  the  constant  presence  of  fluids  around  them 
in  order  to  retain  their  functional  condition,  as  a  i)iece  of  harness 
leather  demands  continual  oiling  to  keep  its  strength,  but  they  undergo 
no  cliange  or  alteration  in  their  form  until  destroyed  by  death. 

(c)  Cells,  "which  may  even  be  regarded  as  low  forms  of  life,  are  masses 
of  protoplasm  or  amorphous  living  matter  with  a  nucleus  and  frequently 
a  nucleolus  or  living  germs,  which  are  capable  of  assimilating  nutriment 
or  food,  propagating  themselves  either  into  others  of  the  same  form  or 
into  fixed  cells  of  another  outward  appearance  and  different  function, 
but  of  the  same  constitution.  It  is  simply  in  the  mode  of  groui^ing  of 
these  elements  that  mc  have  the  variation  in  tissues,  as:  (1)  loose  con- 
nective tissue  ;  (2)  aponeurosis  and  tendons;  (3)  muscles;  (4)  cartilage; 
(5)  bones;  (G)  epithelia  and  endothelia;  (7)  nerves. 

(1)  Loose  connective  tissue  forms  the  great  framework  or  scaffolding 
of  the  body,  and  is  found  under  the  skin,  between  the  muscles  sur- 
rounding the  bones  and  blood  vessels,  and  entering  into  the  structures 
of  almost  all  of  the  organs.  In  this  the  fibers  are  loosely  meshed 
together  like  a  sponge,  leaving  spaces  in  which  the  nutrient  fluid  and 
cells  are  irregularly  distributed.  This  tissue  we  tiud  in  the  skin,  in  the 
spaces  between  the  organs  of  the  body  where  fat  accumulates,  and  as 
the  framework  of  all  glands. 

(2)  Aponeurosis  and  tendons  are  structures  which  serve  for  the  ter- 
mination of  muscles  and  for  their  contention  and  for  the  attachment  of 
bones  together.  In  these  the  fibers  are  more  frequent  and  dense  and 
are  arranged  with  regularity  either  crossing  each  other  or  lying  parallel, 
and  here  the  cells  are  found  in  minimum  quantity. 

(3)  Muscles. — In  these  the  cells  lie  end  to  end,  forming  long  fibers 
which  have  the  power  of  contraction,  and  the  connective  tissue  is  in 
small  quantity,  serving  the  passive  purpose  of  a  baud  around  the  con- 
tractile elements. 


4G3 

(4)  In  cartilar/e  a  mass  of  firm  amorphous  substance,  witli  no  vas* 
ciilarity  and  little  vitality,  forms  the  bed  for  the  choudroplasts  or  cells 
of  this  tissue. 

(5)  Bone  differs  from  the  above  iu  having  the  amorphous  matter  im- 
preguated  with  lime  salts,  which  gives  it  its  rigidity  and  firmness. 

(G)  Epitlielia  and  endotJielia,  or  the  membranes  which  cover  the  body 
and  line  all  of  its  cavities  and  glands,  are  made  up  of  single  or  strati- 
fied and  multiple  layers  of  cells  bound  together  by  a  glue  of  amorphous 
substance,  and  resting  on  a  layer  composed  of  more  or  less  fibers. 
"When  the  membrane  serves  for  secreting  or  excreting  purposes,  as  in 
the  salivary  glands  or  the  kidneys,  it  is  usually  simple  when  it  serves 
the  mechanical  purpose  of  protecting  a  part,  as  over  the  tongue  or  skin 
it  is  invariably  multiple  and  stratified,  the  surface  wearing  away  while 
new  cells  replace  it  from  beneath. 

(7)  In  nerves,  stellate  cells  are  connected  by  their  rays  to  each  other, 
or  to  fibers  which  conduct  the  nerve  impressions,  or  they  act  as  recep- 
tacles and  storehouses^  for  them,  just  as  the  switch  board  of  a  telephone 
system  serves  to  connect  the  various  wires. 

All  of  these  tissues  are  sui)plied  with  blood  in  greater  or  less  quan- 
tity. The  vascularity  depends  upon  the  function  which  the  tissue  is 
called  upon  to  perform.  If  this  is  great,  as  in  the  tongue,  the  lungs,  or 
the  sensitive  part  of  the  foot,  a  large  amount  of  blood  is  required;  if 
the  labor  is  a  passive  one,  as  iu  cartilage,  the  membrane  over  the 
withers,  or  the  tendons  of  the  legs,  the  vessels  only  reach  the  periphery, 
and  nutrition  is  furnished  by  imbibition  of  the  fluids  brought  to  their 
surface  by  the  blood  vessels. 

Blood  is  brought  to  the  tissues  by  arterioles,  or  the  small  termina- 
tions of  the  arteries,  and  is  carried  off  from  them  by  the  veinlets  or  the 
commencement  of  the  veins.  Between  these  two  systems  are  small 
delicate  networks  of  vessels  called  capillaries,  which  subdivide  into  a 
veritable  lace- work  so  as  to  reach  th.e  neighborhood  of  every  element. 

In  health  the  blood  passes  through  these  capillaries  with  a  regular 
current,  the  red  cells  or  corpuscles  floating  rapidly  in  the  fluid  iu  the 
center  of  the  channel,  while  the  white  or  amceboid  cells  are  attracted  to 
the  walls  oi  che  vessels  and  move  very  slowly.  The  supply  of  blood  is 
regulated  by  the  condition  of  repose  or  activity  of  the  tissue,  and  under 
normal  conditions  the  outflow  compensates  exactly  the  sux)ply.  The 
caliber  of  the  blood  vessels,  and  consequently  the  amount  of  blood  which 
they  carr^'^,  is  governed  by  nerves  of  the  sympathetic  system  in  a  healthy 
body  with  unerring  regularity,  but  in  a  diseased  organ  the  flow  may 
cease  or  be  greatly  augmented.  In  health  a  tissue  or  organ  receives  its 
proper  quantity  of  blood ;  the  nutritive  elements  are  extracted  for  the  sup- 
liort  of  the  tissue  and  for  the  product,  which  the  function  of  the  organ 
forms.  The  force  required  in  the  achievement  of  this  is  furnished  by 
combustion  of  the  hydro  carbons  and  oxygen  brought  by  the  arterial 
blood,  then  by  the  veins  this  same  fluid  passes  off.  less  its  oxygen, 


464 

loaded  with  the  waste  products,  which  are  the  result  of  the  worn  out 
and  disintegrated  tissues,  and  of  those  which  have  undergone  combus- 
tion. The  above  brief  outline  indicates  the  process  of  nutrition  of  the 
tissues. 

Hyper-nutrition  or  excessive  nutrition  of  a  tissue  may  be  normal  or 
morbid.    If  the  latter  the  tissue  becomes  congested  or  inflamed. 

CONaESTION. 

Congestion  is  an  unnatural  accumulation  of  blood  in  a  part.  Excessive 
accumulation  of  blood  may  be  normal,  as  in  blushing  or  in  the  red  face 
which  temporarily  follows  a  violent  muscular  effort,  or,  as  in  the  stom- 
ach or  liver  during  digestion,  or  in  the  lungs  after  severe  work,  from 
which,  in  the  latter  case,  it  is  shortly  relieved  by  a  little  rapid  breath- 
ing. The  term  congestion,  hosvever,  usually  indicates  a  morbid  condi- 
tion, with  more  or  less  lasting  effects.  Congestion  is  active  or  passive. 
The  former  is  produced  by  an  increased  supply  of  blood  to  the  part,  the 
latter  by  an  obstacle  preventing  the  escape  of  blood  from  the  tissue. 
In  either  case  there  is  an  increased  supply  of  blood,  and  as  a  result  in- 
creased combustion  and  augmented  nutrition. 

Active  congestion  is  caused  by : 

(1)  Functional  activity. — Any  organ  which  is  constantly  or  excessively 
used  is  habituated  to  hold  an  unusual  quantity  of  blood;  the  vessels 
become  dilated ;  if  overstrained  the  walls  become  weakened,  lose  their 
elasticity,  and  any  sudden  additional  amount  of  blood  engorges  the 
tissues  so  that  they  can  not  contract  and  congestion  results.  Example : 
The  lungs  of  a  race  horse,  after  an  unusual  burst  of  speed  or  severe 
work,  in  damp  weather. 

(2)  Irritants. — Heat,  cold,  chemical  or  mechanical.  Any  of  these, 
by  threatening  the  vitality  of  a  tissue,  induce  immediately  an  aug- 
mented flow  of  blood  to  the  part  to  furnish  the  means  of  repair — a  hot 
iron,  frostbites,  acids,  or  a  blow. 

(3)  Nerve  injlnence. — This  may  produce  congestion  either  by  acting 
on  the  part  reflexly,  or  as  the  result  of  some  central  nerve  disturbance 
affecting  the  branch  which  supplies  a  given  organ. 

(4)  Plethora  and  sanguinary  tenqjeranient.—F all-hlooded  animals  are 
much  more  predisposed  to  congestive  diseases  than  those  of  a  lymphatic 
character,  or  those  in  an  ausemic  condition.  The  circulation  in  them  is 
forced  to  all  parts  with  much  greater  force  and  in  larger  quantities.  A 
well-bred,  full-blooded  horse  is  much  more  subject  to  congestive  dis- 
eases than  a  common,  coarse,  or  old  worn-out  animal. 

(5)  Fevers. — In  fever  the  heart  works  more  actively  and  forces  the 
current  of  blood  more  rapidly;  the  tissues  are  weakened,  and  it  requires 
but  a  slight  local  cause  at  any  part  to  congest  the  structures  already 
overloaded  with  blood.  Again,  in  certain  fevers,  we  find  alteration  of 
the  blood  itself,  rendering  it  less  or  more  fluid-  which  interferes  with  its 
free  passage  through  the  vessels  and  induces  a  local  predisposition  to 
congestion. 


465 

(6)  Warm  climate  and  summer  heat. — Warmth  of  the  atmosphere  re- 
laxes tbe  tissues ;  it  demands  of  the  auimals  less  blood  to  keep  up  their 
own  body  temperature,  and  the  extra  quantity  accumulates  in  the 
bloodvessel  system.  It  causes  sluggishness  in  the  performance  of  the 
organic  functions,  and  in  this  way  it  induces  congestion,  especially  of 
the  internal  organs.  So  we  find  founders,  congestive  colics,  and  stag- 
gers more  frequent  in  summer  than  in  winter. 

(7)  Previous  congestion. — Whether  the  previous  congestion  of  any 
organ  has  been  a  continuous  normal  one,  that  is,  a  repeated  functional 
activity,  or  has  been  a  morbia  temporary  overloading,  it  always  leaves 
the  walls  of  the  vessels  weakened  and  more  predisposed  to  recurrent 
attacks  from  accidental  causes  than  perfectly  healthy  tissues  are.  Thus 
a  horse  which  has  had  a  congestion  of  the  lungs  from  a  severe  drive  is 
apt  to  have  another  attack  from  even  a  lesser  cause. 

The  alterations  of  congestion  are  distention  of  the  blood  vessels,  ac- 
cumulation of  the  cellular  elements  of  the  blood  in  them,  and  effusion 
of  a  portion  of  the  liquid  of  the  blood  into  the  fibrous  tissues  which 
surround  the  vessels.  Where  the  changes  produced  by  congestion  are 
visible,  as  in  the  eye,  the  nostril,  the  mouth,  the  genital  organs,  and  on 
the  surface  of  the  body  in  white  or  unpigmented  animals,  the  part  ap- 
pears red  from  the  increase  of  blood ;  it  becomes  swollen  from  the 
effusion  of  liquid  into  the  sponge-like  connective  tissues ;  it  is  at  times 
more  or  less  hot  from  the  increased  combustion  ;  the  part  is  frequently 
painful  to  the  animal  from  pressure  of  the  effusion  on  the  nerves,  and 
the  function  of  the  tissue  is  interfered  with.  The  secretion  or  excre- 
tion of  glands  may  be  augmented  or  diminished.  Muscles  may  be 
affected  with  spasms  or  may  be  unable  to  contract.  The  eye  and  ears 
may  be  affected  with  imaginary  sights  and  sounds. 

PASSIVE   CONGESTION. 

Passive  congestion  is  caused  by  interference  with  the  return  of  the 
current  of  blood  from  a  part. 

Old  age  and  debility  weaken  the  tissues  and  the  force  of  the  circulation, 
especially  in  the  veins,  and  retard  the  movement  of  the  blood.  We 
then  see  horses  of  this  class  with  stocked  legs,  swelling  of  the  sheath 
of  the  penis  or  of  the  milk  glands,  and  of  the  under  surface  of  the  belly. 
We  find  them  also  with  effusions  of  the  liquid  parts  of  the  blood  into 
the  lymph  spaces  of  the  posterior  extremities  and  organs  of  the  pelvic 
cavity. 

Tumors  or  other  mechanical  obstruction,  by  pressing  on  the  veins,  retard 
the  flow  of  blood  and  cause  it  to  back  up  in  distal  parts  of  the  body, 
causing  passive  congestion. 

The  alterations  of  passive  congestion,  as  in  active  congestion,  consist 
of  an  increased  quantity  of  blood  in  the  vessels  and  an  exudation  of  its 
fluid  into  the  tissues  surrounding  them,  but  in  passive  congestion  we 
have  a  dark  thick  blood  which  has  lost  its  oxygen,  instead  of  the  rich 
combustible  blood  rich  in  oxygen  which  is  found  in  active  congestion. 
11035 30 


466 

The  termination  of  congestion  is  by  resolutiou  or  inflammation.  In  the 
first  case,  the  choked-up  blood  vessels  find  an  outlet  for  the  excessive 
amount  of  blood  and  are  relieved  5  the  transuded  serum  or  fluid  of  the 
blood  is  reabsorbed,  and  the  part  returns  almost  to  its  normal  condi- 
tion, with,  however,  a  tendency  to  weakness  predisposing  to  future 
trouble  of  the  same  kind.  In  the  other  case  further  alterations  take 
place,  and  we  have  inflammation. 

INFLAMMATION. 

Injlammation  is  a  hyperuutrition  of  a  tissue.  It  is  described  by  Dr. 
Agnew,  the  surgeon,  as  "  a  double-edged  sword,  cutting  either  way  for 
good  or  for  evil."  The  increased  nutrition  may  be  moderate  and  cause 
a  growth  of  new  tissue,  a  simple  increase  of  quantity  at  first;  or  it  may 
produce  a  uew  growth  differing  in  quality,  as  a  cancer;  or  it  may  be  so 
great  that,  like  luxuriant,  overgrown  weeds,  the  elements  die  from  their 
very  haste  of  growth,  and  we  have  immediate  destruction  of  the  part. 
According  to  the  rapidity  and  intensity  of  the  process  of  structural 
changes  which  take  place  in  an  inflamed  tissue,  inflammation  is  de- 
scribed as  acute  or  clironic,  with  a  vast  number  of  intermediate  forms. 
When  the  phenomena  are  marked  it  is  termed  sthenic  ;  when  less  dis- 
tinct, as  the  result  of  a  broken  down  and  feeble  constitution  in  the  ani- 
mal, it  is  called  asthenic.  Certain  inflammations  are  specific,  as  in 
strangles,  the  horsepox,  glanders,  etc.,  where  a  characteristic  or  spe- 
cific cause  or  condition  is  added  to  the  origin,  character  of  phenomena, 
or  alterations  which  result  from  an  ordinary  inflammation.  An  inflam- 
mation may  be  circumscribed  or  limited,  as  in  the  abscess  on  the  neck 
caused  by  the  jjressuie  of  a  collar,  in  imeumonias,  ia  glanders,  in  the 
small  tumors  of  a  splint  or  a  jack  ;  or  it  may  bo  diffuse,  as  in  severe 
fistulas  of  the  withers,  in  an  extensive  lung  fever,  in  the  legs  in  a  case 
of  grease,  or  in  ti><;'  spavins  which  affect  horses  with  poorly  nourished 
bones.  The  causes  of  inflammation  are  practically  the  same  as  those  of 
congestion,  which  is  the  initial  step  of  all  inflammation. 

The  temperament  of  a  horse  predisposes  the  animal  to  inflammation 
of  certain  organs.  A  full-blooded  animal,  whose  veins  show  on  the 
surface  of  the  body,  and  which  has  a  strong,  bounding  heart  pumping 
large  quantities  of  blood  into  the  vascular  organs  like  the  lungs,  the 
intestines,  and  the  laminiB  of  the  feet,  is  more  apt  to  have  pneumonia, 
congestive  colics,  and  founder,  while  lymphatic,  cold-blooded  animals 
have  pleurisies,  inflammation  of  the  bones,  spavins,  ring  bones,  etc., 
inflammation  of  the  glands  of  the  Isss  vascular  skin  of  the  extremities, 
greasy  heels,  thrush,  etc. 

Young  horses  have  inflammation  of  the  membranes  liuiug  the  air 
passages  and  digestive  tract,  while  older  animals  are  more  subject  to 
troubles  in  the  closed  serous  sacks  and  in  the  bones. 

The  work  to  which  a  horse  is  put  (saddle  or  harness,  speed  or  draft) 


467 

will  inflnence  the  predisposition  of  an  animal  to  iijfiammatory  diseases. 
Like  in  congestion,  the  functional  activity  of  a  part  is  an  important 
factor  in  localizing  tliis  form  of  disease.  Given  a  group  of  horses  ex- 
posed to  the  same  draft  of  cold  air  or  other  exciting  cause  of  inflamma- 
tion, the  one  which  has  jast  been  eating  will  be  attacked  with  an  in- 
flammation of  the  bowels;  the  one  that  has  just  been  working  so  as  to 
increase  its  respiration  will  have  an  inflammation  of  the  throat,  bronchi, 
or  lungs  ;  the  one  that  has  just  been  using  its  feet  excessively  will  have 
a  founder  or  inflammation  of  the  laminoe  of  the  feet. 

The  direct  cause  of  inflammation  is  usually  an  irritant  of  some  form. 
This  may  be  mechanical  or  chemical,  external  or  internal.  Cuts,  bruises, 
injuries  of  any  kind,  parasites,  acids,  blisters,  heat,  cold,  secretions,  as 
an  excess  of  tears  over  the  cheek  or  urine  on  the  legs,  all  cause  inflam- 
mation by  direct  injury  to  the  part.  Strains  or  wrenches  of  joints,  liga- 
ments, and  tendons  cause  trouble  by  laceration  of  the  tissue. 

Inflammations  of  the  internal  organs  arc  caused  by  irritants  as  above, 
and  by  sudden  cooling  of  the  surface  of  the  animal,  which  drives  the 
blood  to  that  organ  which  at  the  moment  is  most  actively  supplied  with 
blood.  This  is  called  repercussion.  A  horse  which  has  been  worked  at 
speed  and  is  breathing  rapidly  if  suddenly  chilled  is  liable  to  have 
pneumonia,  while  an  animal  which  has  just  been  fed  if  exposed  to  the 
same  inflnence  is  more  apt  to  have  a  congestive  colic,  the  blood  in 
this  case  being  driven  from  the  exterior  to  the  intestines,  while  in  the 
former  it  was  driven  to  the  lungs. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  inflammation  are,  as  in  congestion, 
change  oi  color,  due  to  an  increased  supply  of  blood;  swelling,  from  the 
same  cause,  with  the  addition  of  an  efl'asion  into  the  surrounding  tis- 
sues; /terti, owing  to  the  increased  combustion  in  the  part;  pain,  due  to 
pressure  o\\  thQw^vxe^,  ixud  altered  function.  This  latter  may  be  aug- 
mented or  diminished,  or  first  one  and  then  the  other.  In  addition  to 
the  local  symptoms,  inflammation  always  produces  more  or  less  con- 
stitutional disturbance  ov  fever.  A  splint  or  small  spavin  will  cause  so 
little  fever  that  it  is  not  appreciable,  while  a  severe  spavin,  an  inflamed 
joint,  or  a  pneumonia  may  give  rise  to  a  marked  fever. 

The  alterations  in  an  inflamed  tissue  ti.re  first  those  of  congestion,  dis- 
tension of  the  blood  vessels,  and  exudation  of  the  fluid  of  the  blood  into 
the  surrounding  fibers,  with,  however,  a  more  complete  stagnation  of 
the  blood;  fibrine  or  lymph,  a  glue-like  substance,  is  thrown  out  as 
well,  and  the  cells,  which  we  have  seen  to  be  living  organisms  in  them- 
selves, no  longer  carried  in  the  current  of  the  blood,  migrate  from  the 
vessels  and  finding  proper  nutriment  proliferate  or  multiply  with  greater 
or  less  rapidity.  The  cells  which  lie  dormant  in  the  meshes  of  the  sur- 
rounding fibers  are  au^akened  into  activity  by  the  nutritious  lymph 
which  surrounds  them  and  they  also  multiidy. 

Whether  the  cell  in  an  inflamed  part  is  the  white  amceboid  cell  of  the 
blood  or  the  fixed  connective  tissue  cell  embedded  in  the  fibers,  it  multi- 


468 

plies  in  the  same  way.  The  germ  ia  the  center  (nucleus)  is  divided  into 
two,  and  then  each  again  into  two  ad  infinitum.  If  the  process  is  slow, 
each  new  cell  may  assimilate  nourishment  and  become,  like  its  ancestor, 
an  aid  in  the  formation  of  new  tissues ;  if,  however,  the  changing  takes 
place  rapidly  the  brood  of  young  cells  have  not  time  to  grow  or  use  up 
the  surrounding  nourishment,  and  but  half-developed  they  die,  and  we 
then  have  destruction  of  tissue,  and  pus  or  matter  is  formed,  a  material 
made  up  of  the  imperfect  dead  elements  and  the  broken  down  tissue. 
Between  the  two  there  is  an  intermediate  form,  where  we  have  imper- 
fectly formed  tissues,  as  in  "proud  flesh,"  cancer,  large  and  soft  splints, 
fungus  growths,  greasy  heels,  aud  thrush. 

Whether  the  inflamed  tissue  is  one  like  the  skin,  lungs,  or  intestines, 
very  loose  in  their  texture,  or  a  tendon  or  bone,  dense  in  structure,  and 
comparatively  poor  in  blood-vessels,  the  principle  of  the  process  is  the 
same.  The  effects,  however,  and  the  appearance  may  be  widely  differ- 
ent. After  a  cut  on  the  face  or  an  exudation  into  the  lungs,  the  loose 
tissues  and  multiple  vessels  allow  the  proliferatiug  cells  to  obtain  rich 
nouris'hment ;  absorption  can  take  place  readily,  and  the  part  regains 
its  normal  condition  entirely,  while  a  bruise  at  the  heel  or  at  tlie  withers 
finds  a  dense,  inextensible  tissue  where  the  multiplying  elements  aud 
exuded  fluids  choke  up  all  communication,  and  the  parts  die  (ulcerate) 
from  want  of  blood  and  cause  a  serious  quittor  or  fistula. 

This  effect  of  structure  of  a  part  on  the  same  process  shows  the  im- 
portance of  a  perfect  knowledge  in  the  study  of  a  local  trouble,  and 
the  indispensable  part  which  such  knowledge  plays  in  judging  of  the 
gravity  of  an  inflammatory  disease,  and  in  formulating  a  prognosis  or 
opinion  of  the  final  termination  of  it.  It  is  this  which  allows  the  vet- 
erinarian, through  his  knowledge  of  the  intimate  structure  of  a  part 
aud  the  relations  of  its  elements,  to  judge  of  the  severity  of  a  disease, 
and  to  iirescribe  different  modes  of  treatment  in  two  animals  for  trou- 
bles which  appear  to  the  less  exi^erienced  observer  to  be  absolutely 
identical. 

TerminciUon  of  inflammation. — Like  congestion,  inflammation  may  ter- 
minate by  resolution.  In  this  case  the  exuded  lymph  undergoes  chemi- 
cal alteration  by  oxidizat'on,  and  the  products  are  absorbed  and  car- 
ried off  by  the  blood  vessels  and  lymphatics,  to  be  thrown  out  of  the 
body  by  the  liver,  the  glands  of  the  skin,  and  the  other  excretory  organs. 
The  cells,  which  have  wandered  into  the  neighboring  tissues  from  the 
blood  vessels,  find  their  way  back  again  or  become  transformed  into 
fixed  cells.  Those  which  are  the  result  of  the  tissue  cells,  wakened  into 
active  life,  follow  the  same  course.  The  vessels  themselves  contract, 
and  having  resumed  their  normal  caliber,  the  part  apparently  reassnraes 
its  normal  condition  ;  but  it  is  always  weakened,  and  a  new  intlamraa- 
tion  is  more  liable  to  reappear  in  a  previously  inflamed  part  than  in  a 
sound  one.  The  alternate  termination  is  mortification.  If  the  mortifi- 
cation, or  death  of  a  part,  is  by  molecules,  each  losing  its  vitality  after 


469 

the  other  in  more  or  less  rapid  succession,  it  takes  the  name  of  tdeera- 
tion.  If  it  occurs  in  a  considerable  part  at  once,  it  is  called  gangrene. 
If  this  death  of  the  tissues  occurs  deep  in  the  organism,  and  the  de- 
stroyed elements  and  proliferated  and  dead  cells  are  enclosed  in  a 
cavity,  the  result  of  the  process  is  called  an  abscess.  When  it  occurs  on 
a  surface,  it  is  an  ulcer,  and  an  abscess  by  breaking  ou  tbe  exterior 
becomes  then  also  an  ulcer.  Proliferating  and  dying  cells,  and  the 
fluid  which  exudes  from  an  ulcerating  surface,  and  the  debris  of  broken 
down  tissue,  is  known  as  pus,  and  the  process  by  which  this  is  formed 
is  known  as  suppuratio7i.  A  mass  of  dead  tissue  in  a  soft  part  is  termed 
a  slough,  while  the  same  in  bone  is  called  a  sequestrum. 

Treatment  <if  inflammation. — The  study  of  the  cause  and  pathological 
alterations  of  inflammation  has  shown  the  process  to  be  one  of  hy{)er- 
nutrition,  attended  by  excessive  blood  snpply,  so  this  study  will  indi- 
cate the  primary  factor  to  be  employed  in  the  treatment  of  it.  Any 
agent  which  will  reduce  the  blood  supply  and  prevent  the  excessive 
nutrition  of  the  elements  of  the  part  will  serve  as  a  remedy.  The 
means  employed  maybe  used  locally  to  the  part,  or  they  may  be  consti- 
tutional remedies,  which  act  indirectly. 

Local  treatment  consists  of: 

{a)  Removal  of  the  cause,  as  a  stone  in  the  frog,  causing  a  traumatic 
thrush 5  a  badly  fitting  harness  or  saddle,  causing  ulcers  of  the  skin; 
decomposing  manure  and  urine  in  a  stable,  whicli,  by  their  vapors,  irri- 
tate the  air  tubes  and  lungs  and  cause  a  cough.  These  causes,  if  re- 
moved, will  frequently  allow  the  part  to  heal  at  once. 

{b)  Best. — Motion  stimulates  the  action  of  the  blood,  and  thus  feeds 
an  inflamed  tissue.  This  is  alike  applicable  to  a  diseased  point  irritated 
by  movement,  to  an  intlamed  pair  of  lungs  surcharged  with  blood  by 
the  use  demandetl  of  them  in  a  working  animal,  or  to  an  inflamed  eye 
exposed  to  light,  or  an  inflamed  stomach  and  intestines  still  further 
fatigued  by  .^ood.  Absolute  quiet,  a  dark  stable,  and  small  quantities 
of  easily  digested  food  will  often  cure  serious  intlammatory  troubles 
without  farther  treatment. 

(c)  Cold. — The  application  of  ice  bags  or  cold  water  by  bandages, 
douching  with  a  hose,  or  irrigation  with  dripping  water,  contracts  the 
bloodvessels,  acts  as  a  sedative  to  the  nerves  and  lessens  the  vitality 
of  a  part;  it  consequently  prevents  the  tissue  change  which  inflamma- 
tion produces. 

(d)  Heat — Either  dry  or  moist  heat  acts  as  a  derivative.  It  quick- 
ens the  circulation  and  renders  the  chemical  changes  more  active  in  the 
surrounding  parts;  it  softens  the  tissues  and  attracts  the  current  of 
blood  from  the  inflamed  organ  ;  it  also  promotes  the  absorption  of  the 
effusion  and  hastens  the  elimination  of  the  waste  products  in  the  part. 
Heat  may  be  applied  by  hand  rubbing  or  active  friction  and  tlie  ap- 
plication of  warm  coverings  ^bandages),  or  by  cloths  wrung  out  of 
warm  water,  or  steaming  with  warm  moist  vapor,  medicated  or  not,  will 


470 

answer  tlie  same  purpose.  The  latter  is  especially  applicable  to  in- 
flammatory troubles  iu  the  air  passages. 

(c)  Local  bleedinrj. — This  treatment  frequently  aifords  immediate  re- 
lief by  carrying  off  the  excessive  blood  and  draining  the  effusion  which 
has  already  occurred.  It  affords  direct  mechanical  relief,  and,  by  a 
stimulation  of  the  part,  promotes  the  chemical  changes  necessary  for 
bringing  the  diseased  tissues  to  a  heaUby  condition.  Local  blood  let- 
ting can  be  done  by  scarifying,  or  making  small  punctures  into  the 
inflamed  part,  as  in  the  eyelid  of  an  inflamed  eye,  or  into  the  sheath  of 
the  penis,  or  iuto  the  skin  of  the  latter  organ  when  congested,  or  the 
leg  when  acutely  swelled.  This  treatment,  however,  is  frequently  very 
advantageous  in  the  toe  of  the  foot  in  acute  founder  5  leeches,  cups, 
etc.,  are  rarely  applicable  in  veterinary  practice. 

Counter  irriti}nts  are  used  for  deep  inflammations.  They  act  by 
bringing  the  blood  to  the  surface  and  consequently  lessening  the  blood 
pressure  within.  The  derivation  of  the  blood  to  the  exterior  diminishes 
the  amount  iu  the  internal  organs  and  is  often  almost  miraculous  iu  its 
action  in  relieving  a  congested  lung  or  liver.  The  most  common  coun- 
ter irritant  is  mustard  flour.  It  is  applied  as  a  soft  paste  raixed  with 
warm  water  to  the  under  surfaee  of  the  belly  and  to  the  sides  where 
the  skin  is  comparatively  soft  and  vascular.  Colds  in  the  throat  or 
inflammations  at  any  point  demand  the  treatment  applied  in  tlie  same 
manner  to  the  belly  and  sides  and  not  to  the  throat  or  on  the  legs,  as 
so  often  used.  Blisters,  iodine,  and  many  other  irritants  are  used  in 
the  same  waj-. 

Constitutional  treatment  iu  inflammation  is  designed  to  reduce  the 
current  of  blood,  which  is  the  fuel  for  the  iuflainmatiou  in  the  diseased, 
part,  to  quiet  the  patient  and  to  combat  the  fever  or  general  effects  of 
the  trouble  iu  the  system.     It  consists  of: 

Reduction  of  Mood. — This  is  obtained  in  various  ways.  The  diminu- 
tion of  the  quantity  of  blood  lessens  the  amount  of  pressure  on  the 
vessels,  and,  as  a  sequel,  the  volume  of  it  which  is  carried  to  the  point 
of  inflammation ;  it  diminishes  the  body  temperature  or  fever ;  it  numbs 
the  nervous  system,  which  plays  an  important  part  as  a  conductor  of 
irritation  in  diseases. 

Bloodletting  is  the  most  rapid  means,  and  frequently  acts  like  a  charm 
in  relieving  a  commencing  inflammatory  trouble.  The  class  of  horses 
and  cattle  in  which  this  mode  of  treatment  is  indicated  usually  tolerates 
the  loss  of  a  considerable  quantity  of  blood  without  inconvenience  and 
recuperates  from  the  loss  rajjidly. 

Cathartics  act  by  drawing  off  a  large  quantity  of  fluid  from  the  blood 
through  the  intestines,  and  have  the  advantage  over  the  last  remedy 
of  removing  only  the  watery  and  not  the  formed  elements  from  the  cir- 
culation. The  blood  cells  remain,  leaving  the  blood  as  rich  as  it  was 
before.  Again,  the  glands  of  the  intestines  are  stimulated  to  excrete 
much  waste  matter  and  other  deleterious  material  which  may  be  acting 
as  a  poison  in  the  blood. 


471 

Diuretics  operate  through  the  kidneys  in  the  same  way. 

Diaphoretics  aid  depletion  of  the  blood  by  pouring  water  in  the  form 
of  sweat  from  the  surface  of  the  skin  and  stimulating  the  discharge  of 
waste  material  out  of  its  glands,  which  has  the  same  efi'ecton  the  blood 
pressure. 

Depressants  are  drugs  which  act  on  the  heart.  They  slow  or  weaken 
the  action  of  this  organ  and  reduce  the  quantity  and  force  of  the  cur- 
rent of  the  blood  which  is  carried  to  the  point  of  local  disease  5  they 
lessen  the  vitality  of  the  animal ;  so  they  act  in  two  ways  :  first,  as  in  the 
previous  classes, by  reduction  of  the  force  of  the  blood;  and,  secondly, 
as  in  the  next  class,  by  putting  to  rest  the  animal  system. 

Anodynes  quiet  the  nervous  system.  Pain  in  the  horse,  as  in  man,  is 
one  of  the  important  factors  in  the  production  of  fever,  and  the  dulling 
of  the  former  often  prevents,  or  at  least  reduces,  the  latter.  They  pro- 
duce sleep,  so  as  to  rest  the  patient  and  allow  recuperation  for  the  suc- 
ceeding struggle  of  the  vitality  of  the  animal  against  the  exhausting 
drain  of  the  disease. 

The  diet  of  an  animal  suffering  from  acute  inflammation  is  a  factor  of 
the  greatest  importance.  An  overloaded  circulation  can  be  starved  to  a 
reduced  quantity  and  to  a  less  rich  quality  of  blood,  by  reducing  the 
quantity  of  food  given  to  the  patient.  Matters  of  easy  digestion  do  not 
tire  the  already  fatigued  organs  of  an  animal  with  a  torpid  digestive 
system.  IsJourishment  will  be  taken  by  a  suffering  brute  in  the  form  of 
sloi^s  and  cooling  drinks  where  it  wonld  be  totally  refused  if  offered  in 
its  ordinary  form,  as  hard  oats  or  dry  hay,  requiring  the  labor  of  grind- 
ing between  the  teeth  and  swallowing  by  the  weakened  muscles  of  the 
jaws  and  throat. 

Tonics  and  stimulants  are  remedies  which  enter  rather  into  the  after 
treatment  of  inflammatory  trouble  than  into  the  acute  stages  of  them. 
They  brace  up  weakened  and  torpid  glands  ;  they  stimulate  the  secre- 
tion of  the  necessary  fluids  of  the  body,  and  hasten  the  excretion  of  the 
waste  material  produced  by  the  inflammatory  process ;  they  regulate 
the  action  of  a  weakened  heart;  they  promote  healty  vitality  of  dis- 
eased parts,  and  aid  the  chemical  changes  needed  for  returning  the 
altered  tissues  to  their  normal  condition. 

FEVER. 

Synonyms:  .Fe&m,  Latin;  Pyrexia,  Greek ;  Fievre,  French;  Fieber, 
German;  Febb re,  Italian  :  Galentura,  S[mmsh. 

The  etymology  of  the  word  fever  from  the  Latin  fecere,  to  boil  or  to 
burn,  and  o^ pyrexia,  from  the  Greek  word  Ttup,  fire,  defines  in  a  general 
way  the  meaning  of  the  term. 

Fever  is  a  general  condition  of  the  animal  body  in  which  there  is  an 
elevation  of  the  animal  body  temperature,  which  may  be  only  a  degree 
or  two  or  may  be  10°  Fahrenheit.  The  elevation  of  the  body  tem- 
perature, which  represents   tissue   change  or  combustion,  is   accom- 


472 

panied  by  au  acceleration  of  the  heart's  action,  a  quickening  of  the 
respiration,  and  au  aberration  in  the  functional  activity  of  the  various 
organs  of  the  body.  These  organs  may  be  stimulated  to  the  perform- 
ance of  excessive  work,  or  they  may  be  incapacitated  from  carrying 
out  their  allotted  tasks,  or  in  the  course  of  a  fever  the  two  conditions 
may  both  exist,  the  one  succeeding  the  other.  To  fever  as  a  disease  is 
usually  added  chills  as  an  essential  symptom. 

Fevers  are  divided  into  essential  fevers  and  symptomatic  fevers.  In 
symptomatic  fever  some  local  disease,  usually  of  an  inflammatory  char- 
acter, develops  first,  and  the  constitutional  febrile  phenomena  are  the 
result  of  the  primary  point  of  combustion,  irritating  the  whole  body, 
either  through  the  nervous  system  or  directly  by  means  of  the  waste 
material  which  is  carried  into  the  circulation  and  through  the  blood 
vessels,  and  is  distributed  to  distal  parts.  Essential  fevers  are  those  in 
which  there  is  from  the  outset  a  general  disturbance  of  the  whole  econ- 
omy. This  may  consist  of  an  elementary  alteration  in  the  blood,  or  a 
general  change  in  the  constitution  of  the  tissues. 

Essential  fevers  are  subdivided  into  ephemeral  fevers,  which  last  but 
a  short  time  and  terminate  by  critical  phenomena ;  intermittent  fevers, 
in  which  there  are  alternations  of  exacerbations  of  the  febrile  symp- 
toms and  remissions,  in  which  the  body  returns  to  its  normal  condition 
or  sometimes  to  a  depressed  condition,  in  which  the  functions  of  life 
are  but  badly  performed  ;  and  continued  fevers,  which  include  the  conta- 
gious diseases,  as  glanders,  influenza,  etc.,  the  septic  diseases,  as  pysemia, 
septicaemia,  etc.,  and  the  eruptive  fevers,  as  variola,  etc. 

Whether  the  cause  of  the  fever  has  been  an  injury  to  the  tissues,  as  a 
severe  bruise,  a  broken  bone,  an  inflamed  lung,  or  excessive  work 
which  has  surcharged  the  blood  with  the  waste  products  of  the  com- 
bustion of  the  tissues,  which  were  destroyed  to  produce  force  j  or  the 
puUalation  of  the  ferments  of  influenza  in  the  blood  which  destroy  the 
red  blood  corpuscles;  or  the  "presence  of  irritating  material,  either  in 
the  form  of  living  organisms  or  of  their  products,  as  in  glanders  or 
tuberculosis,  the  general  train  of  symptoms  are  the  same,  only  varying 
as  the  amount  of  the  irritant  differs  in  quantity,  or  when  some  special 
quality  in  them  has  a  specific  action  on  one  or  another  tissue. 

There  is  in  fever  at  first  a  relaxation  of  the  small  blood  vessels, 
which  may  have  been  preceded  by  a  contraction  of  the  same  if  there 
was  a  chill,  and  as  a  consequence  there  is  an  acceleration  of  tlie  cur- 
rent of  the  blood.  There  is  then  an  elevation  of  the  peripheral  tem- 
perature, followed  by  a  lowering  of  tension  in  the  arteries  and  an  ac- 
celeration in  the  movement  of  the  heart.  These  conditions  may  be 
produced  by  a  primary  irritation  of  the  nerve  centers,  or  the  brain 
from  the  effects  of  heat,  as  is  seen  in  thermic  fever  or  sunstroke,  in 
which  trouble  the  extremes  of  symptoms  may  sometimes  be  seen  alter- 
nating with  a  very  short  period,  to  be  counted  scarcely  by  hours. 

There  are  times  when  it  is  difiQcult  to  distinguish  between  the  exist- 


473 

ence  of  fever  as  a  disease  and  a  temporary  feverish  condiiion  wbicli  is 
the  result  of  excessive  worlc.  Like  the  condition  of  congestion  of  the 
lungs,  which  is  normal  up  to  a  certain  degree  in  the  lungs  of  a  racehorse 
after  a  severe  race,  and  morbid  when  it  produces  more  than  temporary 
phenomena  or  when  it  causes  distinct  lesions,  fever,  or  as  it  is  better 
termed  a  feverish  condition,  may  follow  any  work  or  other  employment 
of  energy  in  which  excessive  tissue  change  has  taken  place,  but  if  the 
consequences  are  ephemeral,  and  no  recognizable  lesion  is  apparent,  it 
Is  not  considered  morbid.  This  condition,  however,  may  predispose  to 
severe  organic  disturbance  and  local  inflammations  which  will  cause 
disease,  as  an  animal  in  this  condition  is  liable  to  take  cold,  develop  a 
lung  fever  or  a  severe  enteritis,  if  chilled  or  otherwise  exposed. 

Fever  in  all  animals  is  characterized  by  the  same  general  phenomena, 
but  we  find  the  intensity  of  the  symptoms  modified  by  the  species  of 
animals  affected,  by  the  races  which  subdivide  the  species,  by  the  fam- 
ilies which  form  groups  of  tlie  races,  and  by  certain  conditions  in  indi- 
viduals themselves.  For  example,  a  pricked  foot  in  a  thoroughbred 
may  cause  intense  fever,  while  the  same  injury  in  the  foot  of  a  Clydes- 
dale may  scarcely  cause  a  visible  general  symptom.  In  tbe  horse,  fever 
produces  the  following  symptoms : 

The  normal  body  temperature,  which  varies  from  9S^  to  100^  F.,  the 
latter  being  usually  the  result  of  some  temporary  cause,  is  elevated 
from  1  to  9  degrees.  A  temi^erature  of  102°  or  103*3  p.  is  moderate, 
104°  to  105°  F.  is  high,  and  106°  F.  and  over  is  excessive. 

This  elevation  of  temperature  can  readily  be  felt  by  the  hand  placed 
in  the  mouth  of  the  animal,  or  in  the  rectum,  and  in  the  folds  between 
the  hind  legs  j  it  is  usually  appreciable  at  any  point  over  the  surface  of 
the  body  and  in  the  expired  air  emitted  from  the  nostrils.  The  ears 
and  cannons  are  often  as  hot  as  the  rest  of  the  body,  but  are  sometimes 
cold,  which  denotes  a  debility  in  the  circulation.  The  pulse,  which  in 
a  healthy  horse  is  felt  beating  about  42  to  48  times  in  the  minute,  is 
increased  to  GO,  70,  90  or  even  100.  The  respirations  are  increased  from 
14  or  10  to  24,  30, 36,  or  even  more.  With  the  commencement  of  a  fever 
the  horse  usually  has  its  appetite  diminished,  or  it  may  have  total  loss 
of  appetite,  if  the  fever  is  excessive.  There  is,  however,  a  vast  differ- 
ence a^mong  horses  in  this  regard.  With  the  same  amount  of  elevation 
of  temperature  one  horse  may  lose  its  appetite  entirely,  while  others, 
usually  of  the  more  common  sort,  will  eat  at  hay  throughout  the  course 
of  the  fever  and  will  even  continue  to  eat  oats  or  other  grains.  Thirst 
is  usually  increased,  but  the  animal  desires  only  a  small  quantity  of 
water  at  a  time,  and  in  most  cases  of  fever  a  backet  of  water  with  the 
chill  laken  off  should  be  kept  standing  before  the  patient,  who  may  be 
allowed  it  ad  libitum.  The  skin  becomes  dry  and  tlie  hairs  stand  on 
end.  Sweating  is  almost  unknown  in  the  early  stage  of  fevers,  but 
frecpiently  occurs  later  in  their  course,  when  an  outbreak  of  warm  sweat 
is  often  a  most  favorable  symptom.     The  mucous  membranes,  which  are 


474 

most  easily  examiued  iu  the  conjuuctiva  of  the  eyes  and  inside  of  the 
luoLitb,  change  color  if  the  fever  is  an  acnte  one  ;  without  alteration  of 
blood  the  mucous  membranes  become  of  a  rosy  or  deep  red  color  at  the 
outset ;  if  the  fever  is  attended  with,  distinct  alteration  of  the  blood,  as 
iu  iufluenza,  and  at  the  end  of  two  or  three  days  in  severe  cases  of 
l^neumonia  or  other  extensive  inflammatory  troubles,  the  mucous  mem- 
branes are  tinged  with  yellow,  which  may  even  become  a  deep  ochre  in 
color,  the  result  of  the  decomi)osition  of  the  blood  corpuscles  and  the 
freeing  of  their  coloriug  matter,  which  acts  as  a  stain.  At  the  outset  of 
a  fever  the  various  glands  are  checked  in  their  secretions,  the  salivary 
glauds  fail  to  secrete  the  saliva,  and  we  find  the  surface  of  the  tongue 
and  inside  of  the  cheeks  dry  and  covered  with  a  brownish,  bad-smelling 
deposit.  The  excretion  from  the  liver  and  intestinal  glands  is  dimin- 
ished and  produces  an  inactivity  of  the  digestive  organs  which  causes 
a  constipation.  If  this  is  not  remedied  at  an  earl}'  period  the  undigested 
material  acts  as  an  irritant,  and  later  we  may  have  it  followed  by  an 
inflammatory  i)rocess,  i)roducing  a  severe  diarrhea. 

The  excretion  from  the  kidneys  is  sometimes  at  first  entirely  sup- 
pressed. It  is  always  considerably  diminished,  and  what  urine  is  passed 
is  dark  in  color,  undergoes  ammoniacal  change  rapidly,  and  dei)osits 
quantities  of  salts.  At  a  later  period  the  diminished  excretion  may 
be  replaced  by  an  excessive  excretion,  which  aid^  in  carryiug  off  waste 
products  and  usually  indicates  an  amelioration  of  the  fever. 

While  the  cars,  cannons,  and  hoofs  of  a  horse  sufferiug  from  fever  are 
usually  found  hot,  they  may  frequently  alternate  from  hot  to  cold  iu 
their  temperature,  or  be  much  cooler  than  they  normally  are.  This  lat- 
ter condition  usually  indicates  great  weakness  on  the  part  of  the  circu- 
latory system.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  as  an  aid  in  diagnosing 
the  gravity  of  an  attack  of  fever  and  as  an  indic.ition  in  the  selection  of 
its  mode  of  treatment,  to  recognize  the  exact  cause  of  a  febrile  condi- 
tion in  the  horse.  In  certaiu  cases,  in  very  nervous  animals  in  which 
fever  is  the  result  of  nerve  influence,  a  simple  anodyne,  or  even  only 
quiet  with  continued  cire  and  nursing,  will  sometimes  be  sufficient  to 
diminish  it.  When  fever  is  the  result  of  local  injury  the  cure  of  the 
cause  produces  a  cessation  in  the  constitutional  symptoms  ;  when  fever 
is  the  result  of  a  pneumonia  or  other  severe  parenchymatous  inflamma- 
tion, it  usually  lasts  for  a  definite  time,  and  subsides  with  the  first  im- 
provemeut  of  the  local  trouble,  but  iu  these  cases  we  constantly  have 
exaccerbations  of  fever  due  to  secondary  inflammatory  i^rocesses,  such  as 
the  formation  of  small  abscesses,  the  development  of  secondary  bron- 
chitis;, or  the  death  of  a  limited  amount  of  tissue  (gangrene). 

In  specific  cases,  such  as  influenza,  strangles,  and  septicaemia,  there 
is  a  definite  poison  contained  in  the  blood-vessel  system,  and  carried  to 
the  heart  and  to  the  nervous  system,  which  produces  a  peculiar  irrita- 
tion, usually  lasting  for  a  specific  period,  during  which  the  temperature 
can  be  but  slightly  diminished  by  any  remedy. 


475 

In  cases  attended  with  complications,  the  diagnosis  becomes  at  times 
still  more  ditficiilt,  as  at  the  end  of  a  case  of  influenza  which  becomes 
complicated  with  pneumonia.  The  high  temperature  of  the  simple  in- 
flammatory disease  may  be  grafted  on  that  of  the  specific  trouble,  and 
the  line  of  causation  of  the  fever  between  the  two,  frequently  a  narrow 
is  yet  an  important  one,  as  npon  it  depends  the  mode  of  treatment. 

Any  animal  suffering  from  fever,  from  any  cause,  is  much  more  sus- 
ceptible to  attacks  of  local  inflammation,  which  become  complications  of 
the  original  disease,  than  are  animals  in  sound  health.  In  fever  we 
have  the  tissues  and  the  walls  of  the  blood  vessels  weakened,  we  have 
an  increased  current  of  more  or  less  altered  blood,  flowing  through  the 
vessels  and  stagnating  in  the  capillaries,  which  need  but  an  exciting 
cause  to  transform  the  passive  congestion  of  fever  into  an  active  con- 
gestion and  acute  inflammation.  These  conditions  become  still  more 
distinct  when  the  fever  is  accompanied  by  a  decided  deterioration  in 
the  flood  itself,  as  is  seen  in  influenza,  septicemia,  and  at  the  termina- 
tion of  severe  pneumonias. 

Fever,  with  its  symptoms  of  increased  temperature,  acceleration  of  the 
pulse,  acceleration  of  respiration,  dry  slcin,  diminished  secretions,  etc.,  must 
be  considered  as  a  symptom  of  organic  disturbance. 

This  organic  disturbance  may  be  the  result  of  local  inflammation  or 
other  irritants  acting  through  the  nerves  on  nerve  centers  5  alterations 
of  the  blood,  in  which  a  poison  is  carried  to  the  nerve  centers,  or  direct 
irritants  to  the  nerve  centers  themselves,  as  in  cases  of  heat  stroke, 
injury  to  the  brain,  etc. 

The  treatment  of  fever  depends  upon  its  cause.  As  nerve  irritation 
enters  into  the  etiology  of  fever  in  all  cases,  one  of  the  important  factors 
in  treatment  is  absolute  quiet.  This  may  be  obtained  by  placing  a  sick 
horse  in  a  box  stall,  away  from  other  animals  and  extraneous  noises, 
and  sheltered  from  excessive  light  and  draughts  of  air.  Anodynes, 
belladonna,  hyoscyamus,  and  opium,  act  as  antipyretics  simply  by  quiet- 
ing the  nervous  system.  As  an  irritant  exists  in  the  blood  in  most  cases 
of  fever,  any  remedy  which  will  favor  the  excretion  of  foreign  elements 
from  it  will  diminish  this  caase.  Wo  therefore  employ  diaphoretics  to 
stimulate  the  sweat  and  excretions  from  the  skin  5  diuretics  to  favor 
the  elimination  of  matter  by  the  kidneys ;  chohigogues  and  laxatives 
to  increase  the  action  of  the  liver  and  intestines,  and  to  drain  from  these 
important  organs  all  the  waste  material  which  is  aiding  to  choke  up 
and  congest  their  rich  plexuses  of  blood  vessels.  As  the  heart  becomes 
stimulated  to  increased  action  at  the  outset  of  a  fever,  and  increases  it 
by  pumping  an  augmented  quantity  of  blood  through  the  whole  body, 
we  employ  cardiac  depressants  to  diminish  the  force  of  this  organ. 
Among  these  antimony,  aconite,  vcratrum  viride,  and  iodide  of  potash 
are  the  most  important.  The  increased  blood  pressure  throughout  the 
body  may  also  be  diminished  by  lessening  the  quantity  of  blood.  Tliis 
in  obtained  in  many  cases  with  advantage  by  direct  abstraction  of  blood, 


476 

as  in  bleeding  from  the  jngnlar  or  other  veins,  or  by  derivatives,  suck 
as  mustard,  turpeutiue,  or  blisters  applied  to  the  skin 5  or  setous,  which 
draw  to  the  surface  the  fluid  of  the  blood,  thereby  lessening  its  volume, 
without  having  the  disadvantage  found  in  bleeding,  of  impoverishing 
the  elements  of  the  blood. 

When  the  irritation  which  is  the  cause  of  fever  is  a  specific  one,  either 
in  the  form  of  a  bacteria  (living  organism),  as  in  glanders,  tuberculosis, 
influenza,  septicismia,  etc.,  or  in  the  form  of  a  foreign  chemical  element, 
as  in  rheumatism,  gout,  h?emaglobinuria,  and  other  so-called  diseases 
of  nutrition,  we  empIoy^  remedies  which  have  been  found  to  have  a  di- 
rect specific  action  on  them.  Among  the  specific  rejnedies  for  various 
diseases  are  counted  quinine,  carbolic  acid,  salicylic  acid,  autipyrine, 
mercury,  iodine,  the  empyreumatic  oils,  tars,  resins,  arornatics,  sulphur, 
and  a  host  of  other  drugs,  some  of  which  are  ad  hoc  and  others  of  which 
are  theoretical  in  action.  Certain  remedies,  like  simple  aromatic  teas, 
vegetable  acids,  as  vinegar,  lemon  juice,  etc.,  alkalines  in  the  form  of 
salts,  sweet  spirits  of  niter,  etc.,  which  are  household  remedies,  are  al- 
ways useful,  because  they  act  on  the  excreting  organs  and  ameliorate 
the  effects  of  fever.  Other  remedies,  which  are  to  be  used  to  influence 
the  cn^icof  fever,  must  be  selected  with  judgment  and  from  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  disease. 

INFLUENZA. 

Synonyms:  PinJcEye,  Typhoid  Fever,  Epizooty,  Epihipplc  Fever,  Fiev  re 
Typ  ho  id  e,  French;  Grijype,  French;  Pferdestauhe,  German;  Gastro-enter- 
itis  of  Vatel  and  d'Arboval ;  Febris  Frysipelatodes,  Zundel ;  Typhus  of 
Delafond  ;  Hepatic  Fever,  Bilious  Fever,  etc. 

Definition. — Influenza  is  a  contagious  and  infectious  specific  fever  of 
the  horse,  ass,  and  mule,  with  alterations  of  the  blood,  stupefaction  of 
the  brain  and  nervous  system,  great  depression  of  the  vital  forces  and 
frequent  inflammatory  complications  of  the  important  vascular  organs, 
especially  of  the  lungs,  intestines,  brain,  and  lamimeof  the  feet.  One 
attack  usually  protects  the  animal  from  future  ones  of  the  same  disease, 
but  not  always.  An  apparent  complete  recovery  is  sometimes  followed 
by  serious  sequehe  of  the  nervous  and  blood-vessel  systems.  The  dis- 
ease is  very  apt,  under  certain  conditions  of  the  atmosphere  or  from 
unknown  causes,  to  assume  an  epizootic  form,  with  tendency  to  compli- 
cations of  especial  organs,  as,  at  one  period  the  lungs,  at  auotiier  the 
intestines,  etc. 

The  first  description  of  influenza  is  given  by  Laurentius  Rusiiis,  in 
1.301,  A.  D.,  when  its[)read  over  a  considerable  portion  of  Italy,  caus- 
ing great  loss  amongst  the  war-horses  of  Kome  and  its  surroundings. 
In  1G48,  A.  D.,  an  epizootic  of  this  disease  visited  Germany  and  spread 
to  other  ports  of  Europe.  In  1711,  A.  D.,  under  the  name  of  "  epidemioa 
equorum,^^  it  followed  the  tracks  of  the  great  armies  all  over  Euroi)e, 
causing  immense  losses  among  the  horses,  while  the  "  rinderpesV  was 


477 

scourging  the  cattle  of  the  same  regions.  The  two  diseases  were  con- 
founded with  each  other,  and  were,  by  the  scientists  of  the  day,  allied  to 
the  typhus,  which  was  a  jilague  to  the  human  race  at  the  same  time.  We 
find  the  first  advent  of  this  disease  to  the  British  Islands  in  an  epi- 
zootic among  the  horses  of  London  and  the  southern  counties  of  Eng- 
land, in  1732,  which  is  described  by  Gibson.  In  1758,  Robert  Whytt 
recounts  the  devastation  of  the  horses  of  the  north  of  Scotland  from  the 
same  trouble.  Throughout  the  eighteenth  century  a  number  of  epizootics 
occurred  in  Hanover  and  other  portions  of  Germany  and  in  France, 
which  were  renewed  early  in  the. present  century,  with  complications 
of  the  intestinal  tract,  which  obtained  for  it  its  name  of  gastro-enteritis. 
In  17G6  it  first  attacked  the  horses  in  North  America,  but  is  not  de- 
scribed as  again  occurring  in  a  severe  form  until  1870-1872,  when  it 
spread  over  the  entire  country,  from  Canada  south  to  Ohio,  and  then 
eastward  to  the  Atlantic  and  westward  to  California.  It  is  now  a  per- 
manent disease  in  our  large  cities,  selecting  for  the  continuance  of  its 
virulence  young  or  especially  susceptible  horses  which  pass  through 
the  large  and  ill-ventilated  and  uncleaned  dealers'  stables  and  assumes, 
from  time  to  time,  an  enzootic  form,  as  from  some  reason  its  virulence 
increases,  or  as  from  reasons  of  rural  economy  and  commerce  large  num- 
bers of  young  and  more  susceptible  animals  are  exi^osed  to  its  conta- 
gion. 

Etiology. — As  one  attack  is  self-protective,  numbers  of  old  horses, 
having  had  an  earlier  attack,  are  not  capable  of  contracting  it  again; 
but,  aside  from  this,  young  horses,  especially  those  about  four  or  five 
years  of  age,  are  much  more  predisposed  to  be  attacked,  while  the  older 
ones,  even  if  they  have  not  had  the  disease,  are  less  liable  to  it.  Again, 
the  former  age  is  that  in  which  the  horse  is  brought  from  the  farm, 
where  it  has  been  free  from  the  risk  of  contamination,  and  is  sold  to 
pass  through  the  stables  of  the  country  taverns,  the  dirty,  infected 
railway  cars,  and  the  foul  stockyards  and  damp  dealers'  stables  of  our 
large  cities.  Want  of  training  is  a  predisposing  cause.  Overfed,  fat, 
young  horses,  which  have  just  come  through  the  sales  stables,  are  much 
more  susceptible  to  contagion  than  the  same  horses  are  after  a  few 
months  of  steady  work. 

Pilger,  in  1805,  was  the  first  to  recognize  infection  as  the  direct  cause 
of  the  disease.  Roll  and  others  studied  the  contagiousness  of  influenza, 
and  finding  it  so  much  more  virulent  and  permanent  in  old  stables  than 
elsewhere  classed  it  as  a  "  stall  miasm."  The  atmosphere  is  the  most 
common  carrier  of  the  infection  from  sick  animals  to  healthy  ones,  and 
through  it  it  may  be  carried  for  a  consi<lerable  distance.  The  contagion 
will  remain  in  the  straw  bedding  and  droppings  of  the  animal,  and  in 
the  feed  in  an  infected  stable,  for  a  considerable  time,  and  if  these  are 
removed  to  other  localities  it  may  be  carried  in  them.  It  may  be  car- 
ried in  the  clothing  of  tl'ose  who  have  been  in  attendance  on  horses 
sufiering  from  the  disease.     The  drinking  water  in  troughs  and  even 


478 

rnnning  water  may  hold  the  virus  aud  be  a  means  of  its  communication 
to  other  animals  even  at  a  distance.  The  studies  of  Dieciierhoff,  in 
1881,  in  regard  to  the  contagion  of  influenza  were  especially  interest- 
ing. He  found  that  daring  a  local  enzootic,  produced  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  horses  suffering  from  influenza  into  an  extensive  stable  other- 
wise perfectly  healthy,  that  the  infection  took  place  in  what  at  first 
seemed  to  be  a  most  irregular  manner,  but  which  was  shown  later  to  be 
dependent  on  the  ventilation  and  currents  of  air  through  the  various 
buildings.  His  experiments  showed  that  the  virus  of  influenza  is  ex- 
cessively diffusible,  and  that  it  will  si^read  rapidly  to  the  roof  of  a  build- 
ing and  pass  by  the  apertures  of  ventilation  to  others  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. The  writer  has  seen  cases  spread  through  a  brick  wall  and  attack 
animals  on  the  opposite  side  before  others  even  in  the  same  stable  were 
affected.  Brick  walls,  old  woodwork,  and  the  dirt  which  is  too  fre- 
quently left  about  the  feed  boxes  of  a  horse  stall,  will  all  hold  the  con. 
tagion  for  some  days,  if  not  weeks,  and  communicate  it  to  susceptible 
animals  when  placed  in  the  same  locality.  A  four-jear  old  colt,  belong- 
ing to  the  writer,  stood  at  the  open  door  of  a  stable  where  two  cases  of 
influenza  had  developed  the  day  before,  fully  40  feet  from  the  st<dl,  for 
about' ten  minutes  on  two  successive  mornings,  and  in  six  days  devel- 
oped the  disease.  On  the  morning  when  the  trouble  in  the  colt  was 
recognized  it  stood  in  an  infirmary  with  a  dozen  horses  being  treated 
for  various  diseases,  but  was  immediately  isolated  5  within  one  week 
two-thirds  of  the  other  horses  had  contracted  the  pink-eye. 

Symjytoms. — After  the  exposure  of  a  susceptible  horse  to  infection  a 
period  of  incubation  of  from  five  to  seven  days  elapses,  during  which  the 
animal  seems  in  perfect  health,  before  any  symptom  is  visible.  When 
the  symptoms  of  influenza  develop  they  may  be  intense  or  they  may  be 
so  moderate  as  to  occasion  but  little  alarm,  but  the  latter  condition 
frequently  exposes  the  animal  to  use  and  to  the  danger  of  the  exciting 
causes  of  complications  which  would  not  have  happened  had  the  animal 
been  left  quietly  in  its  stall  in  place  of  being  worked  or  driven  out  to 
show  to  prospective  purchasers.  The  disease  may  run  its  simple  course 
as  a  specific  fever,  with  alterations  only  of  the  blood,  or  it  may  become 
at  any  period  complicated  by  local  inflammatory  troubles,  the  gravity 
of  which  is  augmented  by  developing  in  an  animal  with  an  impoverished 
blood  and  already  irritated  aud  rapid  circulation  and  defective  nutritive 
aiid  reparative  functions. 

The  first  symptoms  are  those  of  a  rapidly  developing  fever,  which 
becomes  intense  within  a  very  short  period.  The  animal  becomes  de- 
jected and  inattentive  to  surrounding  objects;  stands  with  its  head 
down,  and  not  back  on  the  halter  as  in  serious  lung  diseases.  It  has 
chills  of  the  flanks,  the  muscles  of  the  croup,  and  the  muscles  of  the 
shoulders,  or  of  the  entire  body,  lasting  from  fifteen  to  thirty  minutes, 
aud  frequently  a  grinding  of  the  teeth  which  warns  one  that  a  severe 
attack  may  be  expected.     The  hairs  become  dry  and  rough  and  stand 


479 

on  end.  The  body  temperature  increases  to  104'^,  104^,  and  105°  F.,  or 
even  in  severe  cases  to  107°  F.,  within  the  first  twelve  or  eighteen  hours- 
The  horse  becomes  stupid,  stands  immobile  with  its  head,  haugiug,  the 
ears  listless,  and  it  pays  but  little  attention  to  the  surrounding  attend- 
ants or  the  crack  of  a  whip.  The  stupor  becomes  rapidly  more  marked, 
the  eyes  become  puffy  and  swollen  with  excessive  lacrymation,  so  that 
the  tears  run  from  the  internal  canthus  of  the  eye  over  the  cheeks  and 
may  blister  the  skin  in  its  course.  The  respiration  becomes  accelerated 
to  twenty-five  or  thirty  in  a  minute,  and  the  pulse  is  quickened  to 
seventy,  eighty,  or  even  one  hundred,  moderate  in  volume  and  in  force. 
There  is  great  depression  of  muscular  force ;  the  animal  stands  limp  as 
if  excessively  fatigued.  There  is  diminution,  or  in  some  cases  total  loss, 
of  sensibility  of  the  skin,  so  that  it  may  be  i^ricked  or  handled  without 
attracting  the  attention  of  the  animaL  On  movement,  the  horse  stag- 
gers and  shows  a  want  of  coordination  of  all  of  the  muscles  of  its  limbs. 
The  senses  of  hearing,  sight,  and  taste  are  diminished,  if  not  entirely 
abolished.  The  visible  mucous  membranes  (as  the  conjunctiva),  from 
whi(;h  it  is  known  as  the  "  pink-eye,"  and  the  mouth  and  the  natural 
openings  become  of  a  deep  saffron,  ocher,  or  violet-red  color.  This  latter 
is  especially  noticeable  on  the  rim  of  the  gums  and  is  a  condition  not 
found  in  any  other  disease,  so  that  it  is  an  almost  diagnostic  symptom. 
If  the  animal  is  bled  at  this  period  the  blood  is  found  more  coagulable 
than  normal,  but  at  a  later  period  it  becomes  of  a  dark  color  and  less 
coagulable.  There  is  great  diminution  or  total  loss  of  appetite  with  an 
excessive  thirst,  but  in  many  cases  in  cold-blooded  horses  the  animal 
may  retain  a  certain  amount  of  appetite,  eating  slowly  at  its  hay,  oats, 
or  other  feed. 

We  have,  following  the  fever,  a  tumefaction  or  eedema  of  the  subcu- 
taneous tissues  at  the  fetlocks,  of  the  under  surface  of  the  belly,  and  of 
the  sheath  of  the  penis,  which  may  be  excessive.  This  infiltration  is 
non  inflammatory  in  character  and  produces  an  insensibility  of  the  skin 
like  the  excessive  stocking  which  we  see  in  debilitated  animals  after  ex- 
posure to  cold.  In  ordinary  cases  the  temperature  has  reached  its 
maximum  of  105°  or  100°  F.  in  from  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours 
from  the  origin  of  the  fever.  It  remains  stationary  for  a  period  of  from 
three  to  four  days  without  the  variation  between  morning  and  evening 
temperature  which  we  have  in  pneumonia  or  other  serious  diseases  of 
the  lungs.  At  the  termination  of  the  specific  course  of  the  disease, 
which  is  generally  close  to  eighty  six  hours,  the  fever  abates  almost  as 
rapidly  as  it  commenced,  the  swelling  of  legs  and  under  surface  of  belly 
diminishes,  the  appetite  returns,  the  strength  is  rapidly  regained,  the 
mucous  membranes  lose  their  yellowish  color,  which  they  attain  so  raj)- 
idly  at  the  commencement  of  the  disease,  and  the  animal  convalesces 
promptly  to  its  ordinary  good  condition  and  health,  and  rapidly  re- 
gains the  large  amount  of  weight  which  it  lost  in  the  early  part  of  the 
disease,  a  loss  which  frequently  reaches  30,  50,  or  even  75  pounds  each 


480 

9 

twenty-four  hours.  For  the  first  three  days  of  the  high  temperature 
there  is  a  great  tendency  to  constipation,  which  should  be  avoided  if 
possible,  for,  if  it  has  been  marked,  it  may  be  followed  by  a  trouble- 
some diarrhea. 

Terminations. — The  termination  of  simple  influenza  may  be  death  by 
extreme  fever,  with  failure  of  the  heart's  action;  from  excessive  coma, 
due  generally  to  a  rapid  congestion  of  the  brain;  to  the  poisonous 
effects  of  the  debris  of  the  disintegrated  blood  corpuscles ;  to  an  as- 
phyxia, following  congestion  of  the  lungs;  or  the  disease  terminates  by 
subsidence  of  the  fever,  return  of  the  appetite  and  nutritive  functions 
of  the  organs,  and  rapid  convalescence;  or,  in  an  unfortunately  large 
number  of  cases,  the  course  of  the  disease  is  complicated  by  local  in- 
flammatory troubles,  whose  gravity  is  greater  in  influenza  than  it  ia 
when  they  occur  as  sporadic  diseases. 

Complications. — The  complications  are  congestions,  followed  by  in- 
flammatory phenomena  in  the  various  organs  of  the  body,  but  they  are 
most  commonly  located  in  the  lungs,  intestines,  brain,  or  vascular  1am- 
iuie  of  the  feet.  Atmospheric  influence  or  other  surrounding  influences 
of  unknown  quality  seem  to  be  an  important  factor  in  the  determina- 
tion of  the  local  lesions.  At  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  and  in  certain 
epizootics,  we  find  40  and  50  per  cent,  or  even  a  greater  i)ercentage  of 
the  cases  rendered  more  serious  by  complication  of  the  intestines ;  at 
other  seasons  of  the  year,  or  in  other  epizootics,  we  find  the  same  per 
cent,  of  cases  complicated  by  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  while  at  the 
same  time  a  small  percentage  of  them  are  complicated  by  troubles  of 
the  other  organs ;  inflammatory  changes  of  the  brain,  of  the  laminae, 
more  rarely  commence  in  epizootic  form,  but  are  to  be  found  in  a  cer- 
tain small  i^ercentage  of  cases  in  all  epizootics. 

Exciting  causes  are  important  factors  in  complicating  individual  cases 
of  influenza,  or  in  localizing  special  lesions  either  during  enzootics  or 
epizootics.  These  exciting  or  determining  causes  act  much  as  they 
would  in  sporadic  inflammatory  diseases,  but  in  this  case  we  find  the 
animal  much  more  susceptible  and  predisposed  to  be  acted  upon  than 
ordinary  healthy  animals.  With  a  temperature  already  elevated,  with 
the  heart's  action  driving  the  blood  in  increased  quantity  into  the  dis- 
tended blood-vessels,  which  become  dilated  and  lose  their  contractility, 
with  a  congestion  of  all  of  the  vascular  organs  already  established,  it 
takes  but  little  additional  irritation  to  carry  the  congestion  one  step 
further  and  produce  inflammation. 

Complication  of  the  intestines. — When  any  cause  acts  as  an  irritant  to 
the  intestinal  tract  during  the  course  of  this  specific  fever  it  may  pro- 
duce inflammation  of  the  organs  belonging  to  it.  This  cause  maybe 
constipation,  which  can  only  find  relief  in  a  congestion  which  offers  to 
increase  the  function  of  the  glands  and  relieve  the  inertia  caused  by  a 
temporary  cessation  of  activity;  or  irritant  medicines,  especially  any 
incieased  use  of  antimony,  turpentine,  or  the  more  active  ri'medies;  the 


481 

taking  of  indigestible  food,  or  of  food  in  too  great  quantities,  or  food 
altered  in  any  way  by  fungus  or  other  injurious  alterations  ;  the  swal- 
lowing of  too  cold  water  5  or  any  other  irritant  may  cause  congestion. 
This  complication  is  ushered  in  by  colics.  The  animal  paws  with  the 
forefeet  and  evinces  a  great  sensibility  of  the  belly ;  it  looks  with  the 
head  from  side  to  side,  and  may  lie  down  and  get  up,  not  with  violence, 
but  with  care  for  itself,  perfectly  protecting  the  surface  of  the  belly 
from  any  violence.  At  first  we  find  a  decided  constipation  j  the  drop- 
pings if  passed  are  small  and  hard,  coated  with  a  viscous  varnish  or 
even  consisting  of  false  membranes.  In  from  36  to  40  hours  the  con- 
stipation is  followed  by  diarrhea.  The  alimentary  discharge  becomes 
mixed  with  a  sero-mucous  exudation,  which  is  followed  by  a  certain 
amount  of  suppurative  matter.  The  animal  becomes  rapidly  exhausted 
and  unstable,  staggers  on  movement,  losing  the  little  appetite  which 
may  have  remained,  and  has  exacerbations  of  fever.  The  pulse  becomes 
softer  and  weaker,  the  respiration  becomes  slowly  more  rapid,  the  tem- 
perature is  about  1°  to  1^°  F,,  higher.  If  a  fatal  result  is  not  produced 
by  the  extensive  diarrhea  the  discharge  becomes  arrested  in  from  five 
to  ten  days  and  a  rapid  recovery  takes  place.  While  the  diarrhea  com- 
plication is  a  serious  one,  and  may  greatly  weaken  the  animal,  it  rarely 
becomes  so  intense  as  to  assume  the  name  of  dysentery',  and  it  rarely 
becomes  hemorrhagic  ;  it  is  rather  a  diarrhea  of  antemia.  An  enteri- 
tis takes  place  in  an  animal  weakened  by  the  previous  action  of  the 
disease,  and  there  is  not  sufficient  vitality  of  the  organ  itself  to  resist 
the  inflammation,  but  this  is  a  superficial  inflammation,  with  destruction 
only  of  the  tissue  of  the  surface  of  the  intestines,  which  allows  a  rapid 
healing.  Rapid  recovery  takes  place,  and  the  promptitude  with  which 
the  intestines  can  commence  to  digest  and  assimilate  food  when  the 
diarrhea  is  checked  is  frequently  surprising. 

Complication  of  the  lungs. — If  at  any  time  during  the  course  of  the 
fever  the  animal  is  exposed  to  cold  or  draughts  of  air,  or  in  any  other 
way  to  the  causes  of  repercussion,  the  lungs  may  be  aff'ected.  In  the 
majority  of  cases,  however,  after  three,  four,  or  five  days  of  the  fever, 
the  congestion  of  the  lungs  commences  without  any  exposure  or  appa- 
rent exciting  cause.  This  is  due  to  the  alteration  of  the  blood,  which 
allows  a  more  easy  osmosis  of  the  blood  into  the  surrounding  tissues 
and  to  the  checking  of  the  capillary  blood  vessels,  produced  by  the  in- 
creased rapidity  and  force  of  the  circulation.  Unless  this  congestion 
of  the  lungs  is  relieved  at  once  it  is  followed  by  an  inflammatory  prod- 
uct, a  fibrinous  pneumonia.  This  pneumonia,  while  it  is  in  its  essence 
the  same,  differs  from  an  ordinary  pneumonia  at  the  commencement  by 
an  insidious  course.  The  animal  commences  to  breath  heavily,  which 
becomes  distinctly  visible  in  the  heaving  of  the  flanks,  the  dilation  of 
the  nostrils,  and  frequently  in  the  swaying  movement  of  the  unsteady 
body.  The  respirations  increase  in  number,  what  little  appetite  re- 
mained is  lost,  the  temperature  increases  one  to  two  degrees,  the  pulse 
11035 31 


482 

becomes  more  rapid,  and  at  times,  for  a  short  period,  more  tense  and 
full,  but  the  previous  poisoning  of  the  specific  disease  has  so  weakened 
the  tissues  that  it  never  becomes  the  characteristic  full,  tense  pulse  of 
a  simple  pneumonia. 

On  percussion  of  the  chest  dullness  is  found  over  the  inflamed  areas  ; 
on  auscultation  at  the  base  of  the  neck  over  the  trachea  a  tubular 
murmur  is  heard.  The  crepitant  rales  and  tubular  murmurs  of  pneu- 
monia are  heard  on  the  sides  of  the  chest  if  the  pneumonia  is  periph- 
eral, but  in  pneumonia  complicating  influenza  the  inflamed  portions 
are  frequently  disseminated  in  islands  of  variable  size  and  are  some- 
times deep  seated,  in  which  case  the  characteristic  auscultory  symptoms 
are  sometimes  wanting.  From  this  time  on  the  symptoms  of  the  ani- 
mal are  those  of  an  ordinary  grave  pneumonia,  rendered  more  severe 
by  occurring  in  a  debilitated  animal.  After  resolution,  however,  and 
absorption  into  the  lungs  convalesenco  is  rapid,  and  recovery  takes 
place  perhaps  more  quickly  than  it  does  in  the  simple  form  of  the  dis- 
ease. There  is  a  cough,  at  first  hacky  and  aborted,  later  more  full  and 
moist,  when  we  have  a  discharge  from  the  nostrils  which  ismuco  puru- 
lent, purulent,  or  hemorrhagic.  As  in  simple  pneumonia,  in  the  outset 
this  dischare  may  be  "  rusty,"  due  to  capillary  hemorrhages.  We  find 
that  the  blood  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  matter,  staining  it  evenly 
instead  of  being  mixed  with  it  in  the  form  of  clots.  At  the  commence- 
ment of  the  complication  the  animal  may  be  subject  to  chills,  which 
may  again  occur  in  the  course  of  the  disease,  in  which  case,  if  severe, 
an  unfavorable  termination  by  gangrene  may  be  looked  for.  If  gan- 
grene occurs,  ushered  in  by  severe  chills,  a  rapid  elevation  of  tempera- 
ture, a  tumultuous  heart,  a  flaky  discharge  from  the  nostrils,  and  a  fetid 
breatb,  the  symptoms  are  identical  with  those  which  occur  in  gangrene 
complicating  other  diseases. 

Com2)lication  of  the  hrahi.— At  any  time  during  the  course  of  the  dis- 
ease, at  an  early  period  if  the  fever  has  been  intense  from  the  outset, 
but  more  frequently  after  three  or  four  days  in  ordinary  cases,  a  con- 
gestion of  the  brain  may  occur.  The  animal,  which  has  been  stupid  and 
immobile,  becomes  suddenly  restless,  walks  forward  in  the  stall  until  it 
fastens  its  head  in  the  corner.  If  in  a  box  stall  and  it  becomes  dis- 
placed from  its  position,  it  follows  the  wall  with  the  nose  and  eyes,  rub- 
bingagainst  it  until  it  reaches  the  corner  and  again  fastens  itself.  It  may 
become  more  violent  and  rear  and  plunge.  If  disturbed  by  the  entrance 
of  the  attendant  or  any  loud  noise  or  bright  light,  it  will  stamp  with  its 
fore  feet  and  strike  with  its  hind  feet,  but  is  not  definite  in  fixing  the 
object  which  it  is  resisting,  which  is  a  diagnostic  point  between  menin- 
gitis and  rabies,  and  which  renders  the  animal  with  the  former  disease 
less  dangerous  to  handle.  If  fastened  by  a  rope  to  a  stake  or  post  the 
animal  will  wander  in  a  circle  at  the  end  of  the  rope.  It  wanders  al- 
most invariably  in  one  direction,  either  from  the  right  to  left  or  from 
left  to  right,  in  different  cases,  which  is  dependent  upon  a  greater  con- 


483 

gestion  of  ono  side  of  tlic  brain  tlian  the  otber.  The  inii)ils  may  bo 
dilated  or  contracted,  or  we  may  fiud  one  condition  in  one  eye  and  tlie 
opposite  in  the  other. 

The  period  of  excitement  is  followed  by  one  of  profonnd  coma,  in 
which  the  anijnal  is  immobile,  the  head  hanging  and  i)laced  against 
the  corner  of  the  stall,  the  body  limp,  and  the  motion,  if  demanded  of 
the  animal,  unsteady.  Little  or  no  attention  will  be  paid  to  the  sur- 
rounding noises,  the  crack  of  a  whip,  or  even  a  blow  on  the  surface  of 
the  body.  The  respiration  becomes  slower,  the  pulsations  are  dimin- 
ished, the  coma  lasts  for  variable  time,  to  be  followed  by  excesses  of 
violence,  after  which  the  two  alternate,  but  if  severe  the  period  of  coma 
becomes  longer  and  longer  until  the  animal  dies  of  spasms  of  the  lungs 
or  of  heart  failure.  It  may  die  from  injuries  which  occur  in  the  ungov- 
ernable attacks  of  violence. 

Complication  of  the  feet. — The  feet  are  the  organs  which  are  next  in 
frequency  predisposed  to  congestion.  This  congestion  takes  place  in 
the  laminae  (podophyllous  structures)  of  the  feet.  The  stupefied  animal 
is  roused  from  its  condition  by  the  excessive  pain  produced  in  the  feet, 
and  assumes  the  position  of  a  foundered  horse:  that  is,  if  the  fore  feet 
alone  are  aflected  they  are  carried  forward  until  they  rest  on  the  heels, 
and  if  the  hind  feet  are  affected  all  of  the  feet  are  carried  forward  rest- 
ing on  their  heels,  the  hind  ones  as  near  the  center  of  gravity  as  possi- 
ble. In  some  cases  the  stupor  of  the  animal  is  so  great  that  the  pain 
is  not  felt,  and  little  or  no  alternation  of  the  position  of  th'^  animal  is 
noticeable.  The  foot  is  found  hot  to  the  touch,  and  after  a  given  time 
the  depressed  convex  sole  of  the  typical  founder  is  recognized.  Other 
complications  may  occur,  due  to  the  action  of  exciting  causes,  and  we 
may  have  a  severe  corysa,  laryngitis,  pharyngitis  or  even  congestion  of 
the  kidneys,  followed  by  nephritis,  congestion  of  the  spleen  or  of  any 
other  organ. 

Pleurisy. — This  is  a  rare  complication,  but  when  it  does  occur  it  is 
ushered  in  by  the  usual  symptoms  of  depression,  rapid  pulse,  small 
respiration,  elevation  of  the  temperature,  subcutaneoas  cedema  of  the 
legs  and  under  surface  of  the  belly,  and  we  find  a  line  of  dullness  on 
either  side  of  the  chest  and  an  absence  of  respiratory  murmur  at  the 
lower  part.  It  is  usually  severe,  and  we  find  an  effusion  filling  one- 
fourth  to  one  third  of  the  thoracic  cavity  in  from  thirty-six  to  forty-eight 
hours. 

The  laryngo- bronchitis  is  not  a  frequent  complication  nor  a  very 
serious  one.  It  is  ushered  in  by  a  cough,  which  is  rough  and  fatty,  a 
purulent  discharge  from  the  nostrils  and  an  enlargement  of  the  sur- 
rounding lymphatic  ganglia. 

Pericarditis  is  an  occasional  compliention  of  influenza,  never  occurring 
alone  or  in  connection  with  other  organs  in  the  chest  cavity.  It  is 
ushered  in  by  chills,  elevation  of  the  temperature;  the  pulse  becomes 
rapid,  thready,  and  imperceptible.     The  heart  murmurs  become  indis- 


484 

tinct  or  can  not  be  lieard.  A  venous  pulse  is  seen  on  tlie  line  of  the 
jugular  veins  along  the  neck.  Eespiration  becomes  more  difficult  and 
rapid.  If  the  animal  is  moved  the  symptoms  become  more  marked,  or 
it  may  drop  suddenly  dead  from  heart  failure. 

Peritonitis,  or  inflammation  of  the  membranes  lining  the  belly  and 
covering  the  organs  contained  in  it,  sometimes  takes  place.  The  general 
symptoms  are  similar  to  those  of  a  commencing  pericarditis.  The  local 
symptoms  are  those  of  paio,  especially  to  pressure  on  side  of  the  flanks 
and  belly ;  distension  of  the  latter,  and  sometimes  the  formation  of  flatus 
or  gas,  and  constipation. 

.Diagnosis.— The  diagnosis  of  influenza  is  based  upon  a  continued  fever, 
with  great  depression  and  symptoms  of  stupor  and  coma ;  the  rapid, 
dark  saffron,  ocher,  yellowish  discoloration  of  the  mucous  membranes, 
swelling  of  the  legs  and  soft  tissues  of  the  genitals.  When  these  symp- 
toms have  lasted  for  a  greater  or  less  time,  the  diagnosis  of  the  locali- 
zation of  the  fever  or  complication  is  based  upon  the  same  symptoms 
that  are  produced  in  the  more  local  diseases  from  other  causes,  but  in 
influenza  the  local  symptoms  are  frequently  masked  or  even  entirely 
hidden  by  the  intense  stupor  of  the  animal,  which  renders  it  insensible 
to  pain.  The  evidence  of  colic  and  congestion,  which  is  followed  by 
diarrhea,  fills  the  symptoms  for  the  diagnosis  of  enteritis.  The  rapid 
breathing  or  difficulty  of  respiration  forms  the  suspicion  at  once  of  com- 
plication of  the  lungs,  but  as  we  have  seen  in  the  study  of  the  symptoms 
the  local  evidences  of  lung  lesions  are  frequently  hidden.  Again,  we 
have  seen  that  inflammation  of  the  feet  or  founder  complicating  influ- 
enza is  frequently  not  shown  on  account  of  the  insensibility  to  pain  on 
the  part  of  the  animal,  which  indicates  the  importance  of  running  the 
hand  daily  over  the  hoofs  to  detect  any  sudden  elevation  of  temperature 
on  their  surface. 

The  diagnosis  of  brain  trouble  is  based  upon  the  excessive  violence 
which  occurs  in  the  course  of  the  dis  ease,  for  during  the  intervening 
period  or  coma  there  is  no  means  of  determining  that  it  is  due  to  this 
complication.  Severe  cases  of  influenza  may  simulate  anthrax  in  the 
horse.  In  both  we  have  stupor,  the  intense  coloration  of  the  mucous 
membranes  of  the  eyes  and  and  a  certain  amount  of  swelling  of  the 
legs  and  under  surface  of  the  belly.  The  diagnosis  here  can  only  be 
made  by  microscopic  examination  of  the  blood.  In  strangles,  equine 
variola,  and  scalma  we  have  an  intense  red,  rosy  coloration  of  the  mu- 
cous membranes,  full,  tense  pulse,  and  although  in  these  diseases  we 
may  have  depression,  we  do  not  have  the  stupor  and  coma,  except  in 
severe  cases  which  have  lasted  for  some  days.  In  influenza  we  have 
no  evidence  of  the  formation  of  pus  on  the  mucous  membranes  as  we 
did  in  the  other  diseases,  except  in  the  conjunctiva  of  the  eyes,  where, 
however,  we  have  had  a  profuse  serous  discharge,  producing  the  con- 
junctivitis. 

In  severe  pneumonia  (lung  fever)  we  may  have  profound  coma,  dark 


485 

yellowish  coloration  of  the  mucous  membranes,  and  swelling  of  the 
under  surface  of  the  belly  and  legs,  but  in  pneumonia  we  have  the  his- 
tory of  the  diflliculty  of  breathing  and  an  acute  fever  of  a  sthenic  type 
from  the  outset,  and  the  other  symptoms  do  not  occur  for  several  days; 
while  in  influenza  we  have  the  history  of  characteristic  symjitoms  for 
several  days  before  the  raj^id  breathing  and  difSculty  of  respiration  in- 
dicate the  appearance  of  the  complication.  Without  the  history  it  is 
frequently  difficult  to  diagnose  a  case  of  influenza  of  several  days' 
standing  complicated  hj  pneumonia  from  a  case  of  severe  pneumonia 
of  five  to  six  days'  standing,  but  from  a  prognostic  point  of  view  it  is 
immaterial,  as  the  treatment  of  both  are  identical. 

Prognosis. — Influenza  is  an  excessively  serious  disease  for  many  rea- 
sons. We  find  the  majority  of  horses  susceptible  to  this  virus  when 
exposed  to  it.  It  is  fatal  to  a  large  number  of  animals  even  with  the 
best  treatment,  and  is  especially  fatal  to  the  young  and  to  those  ani- 
mals which  are  more  valuable  from  their  fine  breeding,  as  the  disease 
occurs  in  a  more  serious  form  in  well-bred  animals  than  it  does  in  the 
lymphatic  and  more  common  ones.  It  is  more  severe  than  the  other 
epizootic  diseases,  as  its  contagiousness  is  much  greater  than  in  the 
others. 

The  fatal  issue  of  influenza  varies  in  different  epizootics ;  where  the 
disease  is  occurring  only  in  scattered  cases  through  a  large  town  or 
country  locality,  and  in  some  epizootics,  the  majority  of  the  cases  run  a 
mild  form  without  complications;  at  other  times,  where  the  disease 
occurs  in  enzootic  and  epizootic  form,  we  find  over  50  j^er  cent,  of  the 
cases  complicated  by  disease  of  the  lungs ;  in  others  a  large  number  of 
cases  are  complicated  by  trouble  of  the  intestines. 

Alterations. — The  alteration  of  influenza  occurs  in  the  blood,  and  con- 
sists of  a  rapid  destruction  of  the  red  blood  corpuscles,  which  are  the 
carriers  of  oxygen  from  the  lungs  to  all  jiarts  of  the  body.  The  animal 
is  always  fonnd  emaciated.  The  tissues  throughout  the  body  are  found 
stained,  and  of  a  more  or  less  yellowish  hue,  due  to  the  disintegrated 
blood  corpuscles  which  were  at  first  the  cause  of  the  characterized  dis- 
coloration of  the  mucous  membranes  in  the  living  animal.  There  is 
;always  found  a  congested  condition  of  all  the  organs,  muscles,  and  in- 
terstitial tissues  of  the  body.  The  coverings  of  the  brain  and  spinal 
cord  partake  in  the  congested  and  discolored  condition  of  the  rest  of  the 
tissues. 

Other  alterations  are  dependent  entirely  upon  the  complications.  If 
the  lungs  have  been  affected,  we  find  effusions  identical  in  their  intimate 
nature  with  those  of  simple  pneumonia,  but  they  differ  somewhat  in 
their  general  appearance  in  not  being  so  circumscribed  in  their  area  of 
invasion.  Complication  of  the  intestines  offers  the  red,  puffy,  swelling 
or  coug^ted  appearance  which  we  have  in  an  ordinary  enteritis,  with 
peeling  from  the  surface  of  the  membranes  of  the  intestinal  tube.  The 
alterations  of  meningitis  and  lamiuitis  are  identical  with  those  of 
sporadic  cases  of  founder  and  inflammation  of  the  brain. 


486 

Trcaimenf.—V^hWG  the  appetite  remains  the  i^atient  should  have  a 
moderate  quautity  of  £ound  hay,  good  oats,  and  brau ;  or  even  a  little 
fresh  clover,  if  obtainable,  can  be  given  in  small  quantities.  With  the 
first  decided  symptoms  of  fever  the  antipyretics  are  indicated,  of  which 
we  have  a  variable  choice.  Bleeding  in  this  disease  is  a  questionable 
treatment,  and  is  only  to  be  employed  at  the  very  outset  of  the  disease. 
In  largo,  strong  horses  of  a  sanguinary  temperament  an  abstraction  of  a 
few  quarts  of  blood  will  frequently  diminish  the  stupefaction,  lower  the 
temperature,  slow  the  i)ulse  and  respiration  and,  render  the  course  of 
the  disease  shorter  b}'  twelve  or  twenty-four  hours.  In  some  cases,  how- 
ever, bleeding  seems  to  increase  the  amount  of  depression,  and  it  should 
never  be  used  after  the  deep  ocher  color  of  the  mucous  membranes  show 
that  an  extensive  disintegration  of  the  blood  corpuscles  has  taheu  place. 
Derivatives  in  the  form  of  essential  oils  and  mustard  poultices,  baths 
of  alcohol,  turpentine  and  hot  water,  after  which  the  animal  must  be 
immediately  dried  and  blanketed,  serve  to  waken  the  animal  up  from 
the  stupor  and  relieve  the  congestion  of  the  internal  organs.  This 
treatment  is  especially  indicated  when  complication  by  congestion  of 
the  lungs,  intestines,  or  of  the  brain  is  threatened.  Quinine  and  sali- 
cylic acid  in  dram  doses  will  lower  the  temperature,  but  too  continuous 
use  of  quinine  in  some  cases  increases  the  after  depression.  Aconite  is 
especially  indicated,  as  in  addition  to  its  action  on  the  circulation  it 
seems  to  be  almost  a  specific  in  certain  cases  in  relieviug  the  congestion 
of  the  brain  and  the  nervous  symptoms  produced  by  the  latter.  Iodide 
of  potash  reduces  the  excessive  nutrition  of  the  congested  organs  and 
thereby  reduces  the  temperaturej  again,  this  drug  in  moderate  quanti- 
ties is  a  stimulant  to  the  digestive  tract  and  acts  as  a  diuretic,  causing 
the  elimination  of  waste  matter  by  the  kidneys.  Antimony,  in  guarded 
doses  of  one-half  dram  to  1  dram,  repeated  not  more  than  two  or  three 
times,  will  reduce  excessive  fever,  and  can  be  used  with  special  advan- 
tage at  the  first  appearance  of  complications,  but  it  must  be  used  with 
care,  as  it  is  an  irritant  to  the  digestive  tract  and  may  produce  intestinal 
complication,  causing  a  severe  diarrhea.  Small  does  of  Glauber  salts 
and  bicarbonate  of  soila,  used  from  the  outset,  stimulate  the  digestive 
tract  and  prevent  constipation  and  its  evil  results. 

In  cases  of  severe  depression  and  weakness  of  the  heart,  digitalis  can 
be  used  with  advantage.  At  the  end  of  the  fever,  and  when  convales- 
cence is  established,  alcohol  in  one-half  pint  doses  and  good  ale  in  pint 
doses  may  be  given  as  stimulants  ;  to  these  may  be  added  dram  doses 
of  turpentine. 

In  comi^lication  of  the  intestines  camphor  and  asafetida  are  most 
frequently  used  to  relieve  the  pain  causing  the  colics  ;  diarrhea  is  also 
relieved  by  the  use  of  bicarbonate  of  soda,  nitrate  of  potash,  and 
drinks  made  from  boiled  rice  or  starch,  to  which  may  be  add* d  small 
doses  of  laudanum. 

In  complication  of  the  lungs  iodide  of  potash  and  digitalis  arc  most 


487 

frequently  indicated,  in  addition  to  the  remedies  used  for  the  disease 
itself. 

Founder  occurring  as  a  complication  of  fever  is  difficult  to  treat.  It 
is,  unfortunately,  frequently  not  recognized  until  inflammatory  changes 
have  gone  on  for  some  days.  If  recognized  at  once,  local  bleeding  and 
the  use  of  hot  or  cold  water,  as  the  condition  of  the  animal  will  permit, 
are  most  useful,  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  stupefied  animal  is  un. 
able  to  be  moved  satisfactorily  or  to  have  one  foot  lifted  for  local  treat- 
ment, and  the  only  treatment  consists  in  local  bleeding  above  the  cor- 
onary bands  and  the  ai^plication  of  poultices. 

For  congestion  of  the  brain  large  doses  of  aconite  and  small  repeated 
doses  of  mercury  form  the  ordinary  mode  of  treatment.  During  con- 
valescence small  doses  of  alkalines  may  be  kept  up  for  some  little  time, 
but  the  greatest  care  must  be  used,  while  furnishing  the  animal  vrith 
plenty  of  nutritious,  easily  digested  food,  not  to  overload  the  intestinal 
tract,  causing  constipation  and  consecutive  diarrhea.  Special  care  must 
be  taken  for  some  weeks  not  to  esposo  the  animal  to  cold. 

SEQUELS   OF   INFLUENZA. 

Anasarca. — A  previous  attack  of  influenza  is  the  most  common  pre- 
disposing cause  of  a  serious  disease  of  the  nervous  system  ;  paralysis 
of  the  vaso-motor  nerves  which  govern  the  circulation  in  the  smaller 
blood  vessels  and  capillaries.  This  trouble,  which  is  also  known  as 
purpura  hemorrhagia  and  as  scarlatina,  appears  most  frequently  a  few 
weeks  after  convalesceuco  is  established.  It  occurs  more  frequently  in 
those  animals  which  have  made  a  rapid  convalescence  and  are  appar- 
ently perfectly  well,  and  in  those  which  have  evidently  periectly 
regained  their  health,  than  it  does  in  those  which  have  made  a  slower 
recovery.  The  exciting  cause  of  this  trouble  is  usuallj*  exposure  to 
cold ;  and  again,  exposure  to  cold  draughts  of  air  on  the  heated  but  not 
necessarily  sweating  animal  is  more  apt  to  cause  the  trouble  than  ex- 
posure to  rain  or  wet.  This  latter  will  more  frequently  cause  complica- 
tion of  the  internal  organs,  such  as  pneumonia,  pleurisy,  etc. 

Anasarca  commences  by  symptoms  which  are  excessively  variable. 
The  local  lesions  may  be  couliued  to  a  small  portion  of  the  animal's  body 
and  the  constitutional  phenomena  be  nul.  The  appearance  and  gravity 
of  the  local  lesions  may  be  so  unlike,  from  difference  of  location,  that 
they  seem  to  belong  to  a  separate  disease,  and  complications  may  com- 
pletely mask  the  original  trouble. 

In  the  simplest  form  the  first  symptom  noticed  is  a  swelling,  or  sev- 
eral swellings  occurring  on  the  surface  of  the  body,  on  the  forearm,  the 
leg,  the  under  surface  of  the  belly,  or  on  the  side  of  the  head.  The  tu- 
mefaction is  at  first  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg ;  not  hot,  little  sensitive,  and 
distinctly  circumscribed  by  a  marked  line  from  the  surrounding  healthy 
tissue.  These  tumors  gradually  extend  until  they  coalesce,  and  in  a 
few  hours  we  have  swelling  up  of  the  legs,  legs  and  belly,  or  the  head, 


488 

to  an  enormous  size;  they  have  always  the  characteristic  constricted 
border,  which  looks  as  if  it  had  been  tied  with  a  cord.  In  the  nostrils 
are  found  small  reddish  spots  or  petechise,  which  gradually  assume  a 
brownish  and  frequently  a  black  color.  Examination  of  the  mouth  will 
frequently  reveal  similar  lesions  on  the  surface  of  the  tongue,  along  the 
lingual  gutter  and  on  the  frcenum.  If  the  external  swelling  has  been 
on  the  head  the  petechise  of  the  mucous  membranes  are  apt  to  be  more 
numerous  and  to  coalesce  into  patches  of  larger  size  than  when  the 
dropsy  is  confined  to  the  legs.  The  animals  may  be  rendered  stiff  by 
the  swelling  of  the  legs,  or  be  annoyed  by  the  awkward  swollen  head, 
which  at  times  may  be  so  enormous  as  to  resemble  that  of  a  hippopot- 
amus rather  than  that  of  a  horse.  During  this  period  the  temperature 
remains  normal,  the  pulse,  if  altered  at  all,  is  ouly  a  little  weaker,  the 
respiration  is  only  hurried  if  the  swelling  of  the  head  infringes  on  the 
caliber  of  the  nostrils.  The  appetite  remains  normal.  The  animal  is 
attentive  to  all  that  is  going  on,  and,  except  for  the  swelling,  appar- 
ently in  perfect  health. 

In  from  two  to  four  days  the  tissues  can  no  longer  resist  the  pressure 
of  the  exuded  fluid.  Over  the  surface  of  the  skin  which  covers  the  dropsy 
we  find  a  slight  serous  sweating,  which  loosens  the  epidermis  and  dries 
so  as  to  simulate  the  eruption  of  some  cutaneous  disease.  If  this  is  ex- 
cessive we  may  see  irritated  spots  which  are  suppurating.  In  the  nasal 
fossse  the  hemorrhagic  spots  have  acted  as  irritants,  and,  inviting  an 
increased  amount  of  blood  to  the  Schneideriau  membrane,  produce  a 
coryza  or  even  a  catarrh.  We  may  now  find  some  enlargement  and 
peripheral  cedema  of  the  lymphatic  glands,  which  are  fed  from  the  af- 
fected part.  The  thermometer  indicates  a  slight  rise  in  the  body  tem- 
perature, while  the  pulse  and  respiration  are  somewhat  accelerated. 
The  appetite  usually  remains  good.  In  the  course  of  a  few  days  the 
temperature  may  have  reached  102°,  103°,  or  lOi^  F. 

Fever  is  established,  not  an  essential  or  specific  fever  in  any  way,  but 
a  simple  secondary  fever  produced  by  the  dead  material  from  the  sur- 
face or  superficial  suppuration,  and  by  the  oxidization  and  absorption 
of  the  colloid  mass  contained  in  the  tissues.  Just  such  a  fever  as  would 
be  produced  by  an  excoriation  of  a  considerable  surface  of  the  skin  in 
an  animal,  otherwise  sound,  or  by  the  absorption  of  the  cedema  result- 
ing from  a  blow. 

Suppuration  may  become  excessive  from  the  great  distension  and  loss 
of  vitality  of  the  skin.  Here  the  lesion  is  visible  and  the  constitutional 
phenomena  are  marked. 

Lymphangitis  may  be  established  from  the  large  amount  of  irritating 
material  which  the  ducts  and  glands  of  the  lymphatic  system  are  forced 
to  carry  from  the  affected  part. 

Gangrene  may  be  developed  in  spots  from  the  size  of  a  xiea  to  that  of 
a  hen's  egg.  The  great  distension  of  the  subcutaneous  layer  of  con- 
nective tissue  or  the  excessive  hemorrhage  in  the  submucous  layer  may 


489 

completely  destroy  tlie  vitality  of  the  part,  and  brown  and  then  black 
masses  of  slough  appear,  to  be  eliminated  and  leave  a  deep  rosy  ulcer 
in  their  place.     This  is  more  common  in  the  nose  and  under  the  tongue. 

Excessive  swelling  of  the  head. — The  swelling  of  the  head  may  increase 
and  extend  outside  to  the  throat  or  to  the  nostrils  until  the  latter  are 
closed,  or  to  the  larynx,  which  is  so  pressed  upon  as  to  render  respira- 
tion difficult  or  impossible.  The  same  complication  renders  mastication 
'and  deglutition  equally  difficult. 

Metastasis. — This  is  a  frequently  dreaded  complication.  If  the  trouble 
has  originally  been  in  the  legs  and  belly  it  may  suddenly  commence  to 
appear  in  the  head,  and  disappear  from  the  part  first  affected,  or  the 
opposite  more  favorable  change  sometimes  occurs,  the  dangerous  swell- 
ing of  the  head  disappearing  to  attack  the  belly  or  legs. 

Enteric  oedema. — The  effusion  on  the  exterior  may  take  another  course 
and  pass  to  the  intestine,  causing  symptoms  of  colic,  which  either  ends 
fatally  or  more  rarely  terminates  by  a  profuse  diarrhoea,  which  is  some- 
times hemorrhagic  in  character. 

Pulmonary  oedema. — Marked  dyspnoea,  without  swelling  of  the  head, 
is  indicative  of  metastasis  into  the  parenchyma  of  the  lungs,  which  will 
rapidly  show  dullness  on  percussion  and  tubular  murmurs  on  ausculta- 
tion. The  tumefaction  leaves  the  exterior  and  attacks  the  lungs,  and 
the  animal  dies  of  asjihyxia. 

Septicaemia. -Th^vQ  is  certainly  no  disease  in  veterinary  practice 
which  offers  a  more  favorable  field  for  the  development  of  septicaemia. 
The  large  mass  of  colloid  matter  held  at  the  temperature  of  the  animal 
body  could  not  be  surpassed  in  the  gelatine  tube  of  bacteriological  lab- 
oratory as  a  nutriment  for  the  putrefactive  ferments.  Septicaemia  is 
ushered  in  by  general  rigor,  sudden  elevation  of  temperature,  and 
marked  symptoms  of  coma. 

TERMINATIONS. 

Resolution. — The  simple  form  of  the  disease  most  frequently  termi- 
nates favorably  on  the  eighth  or  tenth  day  by  absorption  of  the  effusion, 
with  usually  a  profuse  diuresis,  and  with  or  without  diarrhea.  The  ap- 
petite remains  good  or  is  at  times  capricious.  The  surface  of  the  body 
is  dirty  from  desquamated  epithelium,  and  at  times  there  is  a  complete 
loss  of  hair,  giving  the  appearance  of  a  bad  case  of  sarcoptic  mange.  At 
other  times  the  absorption  is  slow,  lasting  for  some  weeks  with  tendency 
to  relapses.  Again  there  may  be  left  some  permanent  induration,  the 
result  of  embryonic  growth. 

Death. — Death  may  occur  from  mechanical  asphyxia,  produced  by 
closure  of  the  nostrils  or  closure  of  the  glottis.  Metastasis  to  the  lungs 
is  almost  invariably  fatal,  causing  death  by  asphyxia.  Metastatis  to 
the  intestines  may  cause  death  from  pain,  enteritis,  or  hemorrhage. 

Excessive  suppuration^  lymphangitis,  and  gangrene  are  causes  of  a  fatal 
termination  by  exhaustion.  Mortal  exhaustion  is  again  produced  by 
inability  to  swallow  in  cases  of  excessive  swelling  of  the  head. 


490 

Peritonitis  may  arise  secondary  to  the  enteric  CEclema,  or  by  perfora- 
tion of  the  stomach  or  intestines  by  a  gangrenons  spot. 

Scpticcvmia  terminates  fatally  with  its  usual  train  of  symptoms. 
The  essential  alterations  of  anasarca  are  exceedingly  simple;  the 
capillaries  are  dilated,  the  lymphatic  spaces  between  the  fibers  of  the 
connective  tissue  are  filled  with  serum,  and  the  coagulable  portion  of 
the  blood  presents  a  yellowish  or  citrine  mass,  jelly-like  in  cousisteucj-, 
which  has  stretched  out  the  tissue  like  the  meshes  of  a  sponge.     Where' 
the  cfl'usiou  has  occurred  between  the  muscles,  as  in  the  bead,  these  are 
found  dissected  and  separated  from  each  other  like  those  of  a  hog's  head 
by  the  masses  of  fat.     The  surface  of  the  skin  is  desquamated  and  fre- 
quently denuded  of  the  hair.   Frequently  there  are  traces  of  suppuration 
and  of  ulceration.    The  mucous  membrane  of  the  nose  is  found  studded 
with  small,  hemorrhagic  spots,  sometimes  red,  more  frequently  brown  or 
black,  often  coalesced  with  each  other  in  irregular  sized  patches  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  reddish  zone,  the  product  of  irritation.    If  oedema  of  the  in- 
testines has  occurred  the  membrane  is  found  four  or  five  times  its  normal 
thickness,  reddish  in  color  with  hemorrhages  on  the  free  surface,  ffidema 
of  the  lungs  leaves  these  organs  distended.    On  section  a  yellowish  fluid 
runs  out,  like  the  fluid  does  from  lungs  which  have  been  filled  with  water 
in  the  dissecting  room.     The  secondary  alterations  vary  according  to  the 
complications.    There  are  frequently  the  lesions  of  asphyxia;  externally 
we  find  ulcers,  abscesses,  and  gangrenous  spots  and  the  deep  ulcers 
resulting  from  the  latter.     The  lymphatic  cords  and  glands  are  found, 
with  all  the  lesions  of  lymphangitis.     Again  are  found  the  traces  of  ex- 
cessive emaciation,  or  the  lesions  of  septicaemia.     Except  from  the  com- 
plications the  blood  is  not  altered  in  anasarca.     If  previous  to  the 
attack  the  animal  had  oenemia  the  tissues  will  be  infiltrated  and  the 
pallor  and  other  appearances  of  cenemia  will  be  found.     If  prior  to  the 
attack  the  animal  is  in  moderate  health,  with  unaltered  blood,  the  blood 
will  be  found  to  clot  with  the  typical  change  of  the  buffy  coat  of  the 
horse.     In  death  by  asphyxia  the  blood  will  be  found  fluid,  black  in 
color,  but  gradually  turns  red,  and  clots  on  exposure  to  the  air.     Dick- 
erhoff  mentions  fibrinous  pneumonia  among  the  alterations.     I  myself 
Lave  never  seen  it  occur. 

The  diagnosis  of  anasarca  must  principally  be  made  from  farcy  or 
glanders.  In  anasarca  the  swelling  is  nonsensitive,  while  sensitive  in 
the  acute  swelling  of  farcy.  The  nodes  of  farcy  are  distinct  and  hard 
and  never  circumscribed,  as  in  the  other  disease.  The  erui)tion  of 
glanders  on  the  mucuous  membranes  is  nodular,  hard,  and  pellet-like. 
The  redness  disappears  on  pressure.  In  case  of  excessive  swelling  of 
the  head,  in  anasarca,  there  may  occur  an  extensive  sero-fibriuous  exu- 
dation from  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  nose,  poured  out  as  a  semi- 
fluid mass  or  as  a  cast  of  the  nasal  fossre,  never  having  the  appearance 
or  typical  oily  character,  which  it  has  in  glanders.  The  inflammation 
of  the  lymphatic  cords  and  glands  in  anasarca  does  not  produco  the 
hard,  indurated  character  which  is  found  in  farcy. 


491 

Septicemia  may  bavo  occurred  primarily,  or  as  a  complication  of  ana- 
sarca. The  diagnosis  must  be  from  the  history,  and  the  prognosis  is 
of  little  import. 

While  this  is  not  an  excessively  fatal  di.^ease  the  prognosis  must  al- 
ways be  guarded.  The  majority  of  cases  run  a  simple  course  and  ter- 
minate favorably  at  the  end  of  eight  or  ten  days,  or  possibly  after  one 
to  two  relapses,  requiring  several  weeks  for  complete  recovery.  Effu- 
sion into  the  head  renders  the  prognosis  much  more  grave  from  the  pos- 
sible danger  of  mechanical  asphyxia.  Threatened  mechanical  asphyxia 
is  especially  dangerous  on  account  of  the  risk  of  blood-poisoning  after 
an  operation  of  tracheotomy. 

Metastasis  to  the  viscera,  or  from. the  legs  to  the  head,  is  a  most  seri- 
ous complication,  while  metastasis  from  the  head  or  other  portions  to 
the  belly  and  legs  is  ftivorable,  as  removing,  for  a  moment  at  least,  all 
danger  of  immediate  death.  The  prognosis  is  otherwise  based  on  the 
complications,  their  extent  and  their  individual  gravity,  existing,  as 
they  do  here,  in  an  already  debilitated  subject. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  anasarca  may  have  been  as  variable  as 
are  the  lesions.  The  indicatioue  are  at  once  shown  by  the  alterations 
and  mechanism  of  the  disease,  which  we  have  just  studied.     These  are; 

(1)  Eegulation  of  the  disordered  circulation  of  the  blood  and 
strengtheniug  of  the  vasomotor  system. 

(2)  Promotion  of  absorption  of  the  colloid  mass,  which  has  infiltrated 
the  tissues.  This,  of  course,  is  based  upon  oxidization  in  order  to  meta- 
morphose the  exudation  into  absorbable  crystalloids. 

(3)  Prevention  of  metastasis,  which  is  the  most  frequent  fatal  termi- 
nation of  this  trouble,  if  not  directly  by  oedema  of  the  lung  or  enteritis, 
indirectly  by  further  weakening  the  already  debilitated  system. 

(4)  The  immediate  treatment  of  the  complications,  each,  perse,  as- 
phyxia and  gangrene,  being  the  two  which  most  frequently  call  for  ac- 
tive interference. 

These  indications  call  for  constitutional  and  local  remedies. 

Blood-letting  would  at  first  seem  totally  contra-indicated,  but  in  cer- 
tain cases  it  acts  like  a  charm.  Debilitated,  as  an  animal  usually  is 
when  attacked  by  anasarca,  we  have  yet  seen  that  one  of  the  great  pre- 
disposing causes  is  the  plethoric  habit.  The  current  of  blood,  like  a 
swollen  river  after  a  spring  storm,  can  be  thrown  from  its  usual  course 
by  the  slightest  side  channel.  The  use  of  bleeding  requires  the  acute 
perception  of  the  practitioner  to  be  put  upon  the  alert  to  regulate  it. 
Not  only  the  present  condition,  but  the  previous  state  of  health,  and  the 
probable  future  hygienic  and  medical  care  must  be  taken  into  consider- 
ation. Given  a  case  that  will  admit  of  bleeding,  the  quantity  to  be 
taken  is  always  a  minimum  one,  and  it  is  to  be  regulatedby  the  effect 
upon  the  pulse  during  the  bleeding. 

With  the  weakened  walls  of  the  vessels  but  a  little  lessening  of  the 
pressure  will  produce  a  vacuum,  when  compared  with   the   condition 


492 

found  in  an  ordinary  blood-vessel  system,  Tvitli  normal  elastic  walls. 
Bleeding  is  only  permissible  at  the  outset  of  the  disease  when  the 
tumors  are  still  isolated.  When  the  tumefaction  has  coalesced  all  the 
blood  is  required  to  oxidize  the  mass  of  effused  colloid  matter. 

Hygiene  now  comes  into  play  as  the  most  important  factor.  Oats, 
oat  and  liay  tea,  milk,  eggs,  anything  which  the  stomach  or  rectum  can 
be  coaxed  to  take  care  of,  must  be  employed  to  give  the  nutriment 
which  is  the  only  thing  that  will  permanently  strengthen  the  tissues, 
and  they  must  be  strengthened  in  order  to  keep  the  capillaries  at  their 
proper  caliber. 

Laxatives,  diaphoretics,  and  diuretics  must  be  used  to  stimulate  the 
emunctories  so  that  they  shall  carry  off  the  large  amount  of  the  prod- 
ucts of  decomposition,  which  result  from  the  stagnated  effusions  of 
anasarca.  Of  these  the  sulphate  of  soda  in  small  repeated  doses,  and 
the  nitrate  of  potash  and  bicarbonate  of  soda  in  small  quantity,  and 
the  chlorate  of  potash  in  single  large  doses,  will  be  found  useful. 
Williams  cites  the  chlorate  of  potash  as  an  antiputrid ;  it  is  useful,  I 
believe,  because  it  frees  oxygen,  and  oxygen  is  a  chemical  purifier. 

Stimulants  and  astringents  are  directly  indicated.  The  animal  wants 
wakening  up,  everything  in  it  wants  a  shock,  and  a  belt  to  hold  it  in 
place.  Spirits  of  turpentine  serves  the  double  purpose  of  a  cardiac 
stimulant  and  a  powerful  warm  diuretic,  for  the  kidneys  in  this  disease 
will  stand  a  wonderful  amount  of  work.  Camphor  can  be  used  with 
advantage.  Coffee  and  tea  are  two  of  the  diffusible  stimulants  which 
are  too  much  neglected  in  veterinary  medicine ;  both  are  valuable  ad- 
juncts in  treatment  in  anasarca,  as  they  are  during  convalescence  at 
the  end  of  any  grave  disease  which  has  tended  to  render  the  patient 
anfemic.  Dilute  sulphuric  acid  and  hydrochloric  acid  are  perhaps  the 
best  examples  of  a  combination  of  stimulant,  astringent,  and  tonic 
which  can  be  employed.  The  simple  astringents  of  mineral  origin,  sul- 
phates of  iron,  copper,  etc.,  are  useful  as  digestive  tonics ;  I  doubt  if 
they  have  any  constitutional  effect.  The  vegetable  astringents,  tannic 
acid,  etc.,  have  not  proved  efficacious  in  my  hands.  Iodide  of  potash 
in  small  doses  serves  the  triple  purpose  of  digestive  tonic,  denutritive 
for  inflammation,  and  diuretic. 

^.rfenia//]/.— Sponging  the  swollen  parts,  especially  the  head,  when 
the  swelling  occurs  here,  is  most  useful.  The  bath  should  be  at  an  ex- 
treme of  temperature — either  ice-cold  to  constrict  the  tissues,  or  hot 
water  to  act  as  an  emollient  and  to  favor  circulation.  Vinegar  may  be 
added  as  an  astringent.  When  we  have  excessively  denuded  surfaces^ 
suppuration,  or  open  wounds,  disinfectants  should  be  added  to  the 
wash. 

In  cases  of  excessive  swelling,  especially  of  the  head,  mechanical  re- 
lief may  be  required.  Punctures  of  the  part  should  be  made  with  the 
hot  iron  even  in  country  practice,  as  no  other  disease  so  predisposes  to 
septic  contamination.     When  mechanical  asphyxia  is  threatened  tra- 


493 

cheotomy  may  be  demanded.  Here,  again,  the  hot  iron  should  be  used, 
and  disinfectant  applications  should  be  constantly  applied.  "With  the 
first  evidence  of  dyspnoea,  not  duo  to  closing  of  the  nostrils  or  glottis, 
or  with  the  first  pawing  which  gives  rise  to  a  suspicion  of  colic,  a 
mustard  plaster  should  be  applied  over  the  whole  belly  and  chest.  The 
sinapism  will  draw  the  current  of  the  circulation  to  the  exterior,  the 
metastasis  to  the  lungs  or  intestines  is  prevented,  and  the  enfeebled, 
nervous  system  is  stimulated  to  renewed  vigor  by  the  peripheral  irrita- 
tion. The  organs  are  encouraged  by  it  to  renewed  functional  activity  j 
the  local  inflammation  produced  by  it  favors  absorption  of  the  exuda- 
tion. The  objection  to  the  use  of  blisters  is  their  more  severe  action 
and  the  danger  of  mortification.  Septicaemia,  when  occurring  as  a 
complication,  requires  the  ordinary  treatment  for  the  putrid  diseases, 
with  little  hope  of  a  good  result. 

After  recovery  the  animal  regains  its  ordinary  health,  and  in  my  own 
experience  there  has  been  no  predisposition  to  a  return  of  the  disease. 

STRANGLES. 

Synonyms:  Distemper,  colt-ill,  catarrhal  fever,  one  form  of  ship- 
ping fever,  Febris  pyogenwa. 

Definition. — Strangles  is  an  infectious  disease  of  the  horse,  mule,  and 
ass;  seen  most  frequently  in  young  animals,  and  usually  leaving  an 
animal  which  has  had  one  attack  protected  from  future  trouble  of  the 
same  kind.  It  appears  as  a  fever,  lasting  for  a  few  days,  with  forma- 
tion of  matter  or  pus  in  the  air  tubes  and  lungs,  and  frequently  the 
formation  of  abscesses  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  both  near  the  sur- 
face and  in  the  internal  organs.  It  usually  leaves  the  animal  after  con- 
valescence perfectly  healthy  and  as  good  as  it  was  before,  but  some- 
times leaves  it  a  roarer,  or  is  followed  by  the  development  of  deep- 
seated  abscesses  which  may  prove  fatal. 

Causes. — The  cause  of  strangles  is  infection  by  direct  contact  with 
an  animal  suffering  from  the  disease,  or  indirectly  through  contact  with 
the  discharges  from  an  infected  animal,  or  by  means  of  the  atmosphere 
in  which  an  infected  animal  has  been.  There  are  many  predisposing 
causes  which  render  some  animals  much  more  subject  to  contract  the 
disease  than  others.  Early  age,  which  has  given  it  the  popular  name 
of  colt-ill,  offers  many  more  subjects  than  the  later  periods  of  life  do, 
for  the  animal  can  contract  the  disease  but  once,  and  the  large  majority 
of  adult  and  old  animals  have  derived  an  immunity  from  previous  at- 
tacks. At  three,  four,  or  five  years  of  age  the  colt,  which  has  been  at 
home,  safe  on  a  meadow  or  in  a  cozy  barnyard,  far  from  all  intercourse 
with  other  animals  or  sources  of  contagion,  is  first  put  to  work  and 
driven  to  the  market  town  or  county  fairs  to  be  exposed  to  an  atmos- 
phere or  to  stables  contaminated  by  other  horses  sufiering  from  disease 
and  serving  as  infecting  agents.  If  it  fails  to  contract  it  there,  it  ia 
sold  and  shipped  in  foul,  undisiufected  railway  oars,  to  dealers'  stables, 


494 

equally  unclean,  where  it  meets  many  opportunities  of  infection.  If  it 
escapes  so  far,  it  reaches  the  time  for  heavier  work  and  daily  contact 
on  the  streets  of  towns  or  large  cities,  with  numerous  other  horses  and 
mules,  some  of  which  are  sure  to  be  the  bearers  of  the  germs  of  this  or 
some  other  infectious  disease,  and  at  last  it  succumbs. 

The  period  of  the  erui)tion  of  the  last  permanent  teeth,  or  the  end  of 
the  period  of  development  from  the  colt  to  an  adult  horse,  at  which  time 
the  animals  usually  have  a  tendency  to  fatten  and  be  excessively  full- 
blood-  d,  also  seems  to  be  a  predisposing  periotl  for  the  contraction  of  this 
as  well  as  of  the  other  infectious  diseases.  Thoroughbred  colts  are  very 
susceptible,  and  frequently  contract  strangles  at  a  somewhat  earlier  age 
than  those  of  more  humble  origin.  Mules  and  asses  are  much  less  sus- 
ceptible and  are  but  rarely  affected.  Other  animals  are  not  subject  to 
this  disease,  but  there  is  a  certain  analogy  between  it  and  distemper  in 
dogs.  After  exposure  to  infection  there  is  a  period  of  incubation  of  the 
disease,  lasting  from  two  to  four  days,  during  which  the  animal  enjoys 
its  ordinary  health. 

Symptoms. — The  horse  at  first  is  a  little  sluggish  if  used,  or  when 
jjlaced  in  its  stable,  is  somewhat  dejected,  paying  but  moderate  atten- 
tion to  the  various  disturbing  surroundings.  Its  appetite  is  somewhat 
diminished  in  many  cases,  while  in  some  cases  the  animal  eats  well 
throughout.  Thirst  is  increased,  but  not  a  great  deal  of  water  is  taken 
at  one  time.  If  a  bucket  of  water  is  placed  in  the  manger,  before  the 
patient,  it  will  dip  its  nose  into  it  and  swallow  a  few  mouthfuls,  allow- 
ing some  of  it  to  drip  back,  and  then  stop,  to  return  to  it  in  a  short 
time.  The  coat  becomes  dry  and  the  hairs  stand  on  end.  At  times  the 
horse  will  have  chills  of  one  or  the  other  leg,  the  fore  quarters  or  hind 
quarters,  or  in  severe  cases  of  the  whole  body,  with  trembling  of  the 
muscles,  dryness  of  the  skin,  and  its  hairs  standing  on  end. 

If  the  eyes  and  mouth  are  examined  the  membranes  are  found  red- 
dened to  a  bright  rosy  color.  The  pulse  is  quickened  and  the  breathing 
may  be  slightly  accelerated.  At  the  end  of  a  couple  of  days  a  cough  is 
heard  and  a  discharge  begins  to  come  from  the  nostrils.  This  discharge 
is  at  first  watery ;  it  then  becomes  thicker,  somewhat  bluish  in  color, 
and  sticky,  and  finally  it  assumes  the  yellowish  color  of  matter  and 
increases  greatly  in  quantity. 

At  the  outset  the  colt  may  sneeze  occasionally  and  a  cough  is  heard. 
The  cough  is  at  first  repeated  and  harsh,  but  soon  becomes  softer  and 
moist  as  the  discharge  increases.  Again  the  cough  varies  according  to 
the  source  of  the  discharge,  for  in  light  cases  this  may  be  only  a 
catarrh  of  the  nasal  canals,  or  it  may  be  from  the  throat,  the  windpipe, 
or  the  air-tubes  of  the  lungs,  or  even  from  the  lungs  themselves.  Ac- 
cording to  the  organ  affected  the  symptoms  and  character  of  cough 
will  be  similar  to  those  of  a  laryngitis,  bronchitis,  or  lung  fever  caused 
by  ordinary  cold. 

Shortly  after  the  discharge  is  seen  a  swelling  takes  place  under  the 


495 

jaw,  or  in  tlie  iutcrinaxillary  space.  This  is  at  first  pufTy,  swollen, 
somewhat  hot  and  teiuler,  and  finally  becomes  dirstinclly  so,  and  an 
abscess  is  felt,  or  having  broken  itself  the  discharge  is  seen  dripping 
from  a  small  opening.  When  the  discharge  from  the  nostrils  lias  fully 
developed  the  fever  nsually  disappears  and  the  animal  regains  its  appe- 
tite, unless  the  swelling  is  sufQcieut  to  interfere  with  the  function  of 
the  throat,  causing  -pain  on  any  attempt  to  swallow.  At  the  end  of 
four  or  six  days  the  discharge  lessens,  the  soreness  around  the  throat 
diminishes,  the  horse  regains  its  appetite,  and  in  two  weeks  has  re- 
gained its  usual  condition.  Old  and  strong  horses  may  have  the  disease 
in  so  light  a  form  that  the  fever  is  not  noticeable  ;  they  may  continue 
to  eat  and  i^erform  their  ordinary  work  as  usual  and  no  symptom  may 
be  seen  beyond  a  slight  discharge  from  the  nose  and  a  rare  cough, 
which  is  not  sufficient  to  worry  any  but  the  most  particular  owner. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  disease  may  assume  a  malignant  form  or 
become  complicated  so  as  to  become  a  most  serious  disease,  and  even 
prove  fatal  in  many  cases.  Inflammation  of  the  larynx  and  bronchi,  if 
excessive,  will  {produce  violent,  harsh  coughing,  which  may  almost 
asphyxiate  the  animal.  The  large  amount  of  discharge  may  be  mixed 
with  air  by  the  difficult  breathing,  and  the  nostrils,  the  front  of  the 
animal,  manger  and  surrounding  objects  become  covered  with  a  white 
foam.  The  inflammation  may  be  in  the  lung  itself  (lobular  pneumonia) 
and  cause  the  animal  to  breathe  heavily,  heave  at  the  flanks,  and  show 
great  distress.  In  this  condition  marked  symptoms  of  fever  are  seen; 
the  appetite  is  lost,  the  coat  is  dry,  the  horse  stands  back  in  its  stall  at 
the  end  of  the  halter  strap  with  his  neck  extended  and  his  legs  propped 
apnrt  to  favor  its  breathing.  This  condition  may  end  by  resolution, 
leaving  the  horse  for  some  time  with  a  severe  cough,  or  the  animal  may 
die  from  choking  up  of  the  lungs  (asphyxia). 

The  swelling  under  the  jaw  may  be  excessive,  and  if  the  abscess  is  not 
opened  it  burrows  toward  the  throat  or  to  the  side  and  causes  inflam- 
mation of  the  parotid  glands  and  breaks  in  annoying  fistulas  at  the 
sides  of  the  throat  and  even  up  as  high  as  the  ears.  Eoaring  may  occur 
either  during  a  moderately  severe  attack  from  inflammation  of  the  throat 
(larynx),  or  at  a  later  period  as  the  result  of  continued  lung  trouble. 
Abscesses  may  develop  in  other  parts  of  the  body,  in  the  poll,  in  the 
withers,  or  in  the  spaces  of  loose  tissue  under  the  arms,  in  the  fold  of 
the  thigh,  and,  in  entire  horses,  in  the  testicles. 

Daring  the  course  of  the  disease  or  later,  when  the  animal  seems  to 
be  on  the  road  to  perfect  recovery,  abscesses  may  form  in  the  internal 
organs  and  i)roduce  symptoms  characteristic  of  disease  of  those  i)arts. 

Delirium. — Roaring,  plunging,  wandering  in  a  circle,  or  standing  with 
the  head  wedged  in  a  corner  of  the  stall,  indicates  the  collection  of 
matter  in  the  brain.  Sudden  and  severe  lung  symptoms,  without  pre- 
vious discharge,  point  to  on  abscess  between  the  lungs,  in  the  medias- 
tinum; colic,  which  is  often  continuous  for  days,  is  the  result  of  the 


496 

formation  of  an  abscess  in  some  part  of  tlie  abdominal  cavity,  usually 
in  the  mesentery. 

Pathology. — The  lesions  of  strangles  are  found  on  the  surface  of  the 
mucous  membranes,  essentially  of  the  respiratory  system  and  in  the 
loose  connective  tissue  libers  of  the  internal  organs  and  glands,  and 
consist  of  acute  inflammatory  changes,  tending  to  the  formation  of 
matter.  The  blood  is  unaltered,  though  it  is  rich  in  fibrine,  and  if  the 
animal  has  died  of  asphyxia  it  is  found  dark  colored  and  uncoagulated 
when  the  body  is  first  opened.  If  the  animal  has  died  while  suffering 
from  high  fever  the  ordinary  alterations  throughout  the  body,  which 
are  produced  by  any  fever  not  attended  by  alteration  of  blood,  are 
found. 

Treatment. — Ordinary  light  cases  require  but  little  treatment  beyond 
diet,  warm  washes,  moistened  hay,  warm  coverings,  and  protection  from 
exposure  to  cold.  The  latter  is  urgently  called  for,  as  lung  complica- 
tions, severe  bronchitis,  and  laryngitis  are  often  the  results  of  neglect 
of  this  precaution.  If  the  fever  is  excessive  the  horse  may  receive  small 
quantities  of  Glauber  salts  (handful  three  times  a  day),  as  a  laxative, 
bicarbonate  of  soda  or  niter  in  dram  doses  every  few  hours,  and  small 
doses  of  antimony,  iodide  of  potash,  aconite,  or  quinine.  Steaming  the 
head  with  the  vapor  of  warm  water  poured  over  a  bucket  of  bran  and 
hay,  in  which  belladonna  leaves  or  tar  have  been  placed,  will  allay  the 
inflammation  of  the  raucous  membranes  and  greatly  ease  the  cough. 

The  swelling  of  the  glands  should  be  promptly  treated  by  bathing 
with  warm  water  and  flaxseed  poultices,  and  as  soon  as  there  is  any 
evidence  of  the  formation  of  matter  it  should  be  opened.  Prompt  action 
in  this  will  often  save  serious  complications.  Blisters  and  irritating 
liniments  should  not  be  applied  to  the  throat.  When  lung  complica- 
tions show  themselves  the  horse  should  have  mustard  applied  to  the 
belly  and  to  the  sides  of  the  chest.  When  convalescence  begins  great 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  expose  the  animal  to  cold,  which  may  bring 
on  relapses,  and  while  exercise  is  of  great  advantage  it  must  not  be 
turned  into  work  until  the  animal  has  entirely  regained  its  strength. 

SCALMA. 

The  differentiation  of  the  various  diseases  which  have  popularly  been 
included  under  the  terms  of  distemper  and  influenza  up  to  a  comparatively 
recent  date,  has  been  so  slow  and  so  tardily  accepted  by  the  majority 
of  practitioners  that  we  have  been  subjected  to  constantly  seeing  an- 
nounced and  heralded  as  news  in  the  daily  papers  the  appearance  of 
some  new  disease.  These  new  diseases  of  the  populace  and  of  the  em- 
piric are  to  us  but  the  epizootic  outbreak  or  the  more  severely  mani- 
fested form  of  some  ordinary  contagious  disease.  We  treat  several 
cases  of  different  troubles  in  the  same  stable  without  having  the  time 
or  seeing  the  necessity  of  explaining  them  to  the  owner,  when  suddenly 
one  of  them  spreads  to  the  rest  of  the  stable  in  an  epizootic  form,  and 


497 

our  clients  will  not  understand  tbat  all  of  the  animals  have  not  sufiFered 
from  the  same  illness. 

There  is,  however,  one  of  the  contagions  fevers  of  the  horse  which  has 
constantly-  been  confounded  with  other  diseases,  and  which  has  not  been 
separated  from  them  in  our  English  text-books.  As  this  disease  has  re- 
ceived no  proper  name  in  English,  I  shall  use  for  it  the  name  given  by- 
Professor  Dieckerhoff,  of  Berlin,  who  first  described  it  in  the  Adams 
Wochenschrift,  XXIX,  in  1885. 

Etymology. — The  term  "  scalma  "  is  derived  from  the  old  German  word 
scalmo,  scelmo,  schehn,  which  indicates  roguishness  or  knavishuess,  as 
great  nervous  irritability,  especially  of  the  temper,  is  one  of  the  charac- 
teristics, almost  diagnostic,  symptoms  of  this  disease.  The  term 
"  HeimtucMsche  Krankheit,^^  signifying  malicious,  treacherous,  or  mis- 
chievous, is  also  employed  in  German  for  the  same  trouble.  I  am  not 
aware  of  any  name  in  English  or  French  which  has  been  applied  to  it. 

As  I  am  opposed  to  employing  in  veterinary  medicine  any  of  the 
nomenclature  of  human  medicine,  except  for  identical,  simple,  and  in- 
flammatory diseases,  or  for  intercommuuicable  contagious  diseases,  I 
■will  not  offer  the  term  "  whooping  cough"  as  a  name,  but  I  will  suggest 
a  certain  similarity  between  the  latter  disease  in  man  and  scalma  in  the 
horse. 

Definition. — Scalma  is  a  contagious  and  infectious  febrile  disease  or 
the  horse,  with  local  lesions  of  the  bronchi,  trachea,  and  larynx,  wbich 
is  evidenced  by  cough.  It  is  further  characterized  by  great  irritability 
of  temper.  It  occurs  as  a  stable  plague;  that  is,  in  enzootic  form,  with, 
however,  great  variations  in  the  susceptibility  of  the  animals  to  con- 
tract it.     It  is  rarely  fatal  except  from  complications. 

Incubation. — The  period  of  incubation  is  from  six  to  seven  days,  but 
the  disease  may  develop  in  two  days  after  exposure  or  it  may  delay  its 
appearance  for  ten  days.  It  spreads  through  a  stable  slowly,  develop- 
ing at  times  in  a  horse  placed  in  a  stall  where  the  previously  sick  one 
had  stood,  or  it  may  pass  next  to  an  animal  several  stalls  away.  One 
attack  is  usually  i)rotective. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  ushered  in  by  fever,  in  which  the  ac- 
celeration of  the  pulse  and  respiration  is  in  no  way  in  accord  with  the 
great  elevation  of  temperature.  With  the  appearance  of  the  fever  is 
developed  a  diffuse  bronchitis,  which  is,  however,  subacute  both  in  its 
character  and  in  its  course.  At  times  the  trouble  of  the  bronchi  may 
extend  to  the  trachea,  larynx,  pharynx,  or  even  to  the  nasal  fossae. 

In  two  or  three  days  a  trifling  grayish,  albuminous  discharge  from 
the  nostrils  occurs,  which  continues,  variable  in  quantity,  for  eight  to 
fourteen  days,  or  may  even  last  for  three  weeks.  The  cough  is  short, 
rough,  and  painful,  spasmodic  in  its  occurrence  and  in  character.  The 
slight  watery  or  slimy  discharge  may  become  more  profuse,  purulent, 
or  even  "rusty,"  if  the  bronchitis  has  extended  to  the  neighboring 
structures.  Pharyngeal  discharge  may  take  place.  The  respiration  is 
11035 32 


498 

moderate  and  only  affected  during  an  excess  of  coughing,  or  in  compli- 
cated cases.  The  i)ulse  undergoes  but  little  quickening.  The  tempera- 
ture rises  rapidly  to  39^,  40°,  and  in  some  cases  even  to  41.5°  C  (107^°  F). 
The  latter  temperature  usually,  but  not  always,  indicates  complication 
by  pleurisy.  In  ordinary  cases  the  temperature  drops  in  two  or  three 
days  after  the  appearance  of  the  cough.  The  hide  is  dry  and  rough, 
with  the  hairs  on  end,  but  the  horse  appears  rather  as  an  animal  out  of 
condition,  than  a  sick  one.  Emaciation  may  be  rapid.  The  mucous 
membranes  are  moderately  reddened.  The  appetite  is  diminished,  but 
the  animal  chews  constantly.  Deglutition,  either  of  food  or  water,  is 
frequently  the  cause  of  spasms  of  coughing,  and  these  in  turn  seem  to 
warn  the  animal  against  attempts  at  swallowing.  On  percussion  no 
alteration  of  resonance  is  to  be  detected.  On  auscultation  of  the  lungs 
mucous  rales  are  heard,  with  at  times  tubular  breathing  j  the  latter, 
however,  we  will  study  under  the  complications,  as  also  the  friction 
warning  of  pleurisy.  Throughout  the  course  of  the  disease  we  have 
still  one  constant  and  characteristic  symi^tom — nervous  irritability. 
With  temperature  of  104°  to  107°F.,  the  horse  still  flinches  to  the  touch 
on  the  loins ;  it  stands  frequently  with  the  head  up,  and  it  is  on  the 
alert  for  the  entrance  of  any  one  to  the  stall.  The  previously  good  tem- 
pered and  quiet  horse  will  turn  and  bite,  will  strike  with  the  hind  legs, 
or  at  the  first  touch  to  the  side,  head,  or  throat  will  half  rear  and  back 
into  the  corner  of  the  box,  or  breaking  the  halter  turn  backward  out 
of  the  stall. 

The  course  of  the  disease  is  from  five  to  eight  days,  but  the  cough 
maj"  continue  for  two  or  three  weeks  with  variable  elevation  of  tempera- 
ture. As  a  stable  plague  the  course  is  from  two  to  three  mouths,  as 
the  contagion  is  much  more  uncertain  than  in  strangles  or  influenza. 
The  termination  is  by  resolution  and  recovery,  or  by  complications.  In 
resolution  the  temperature  drops,  the  cough  becomes  less  frequent  and 
less  spasmodic  in  character,  the  appetite  returns,  and  no  sign  is  left  of 
the  disease  except  the  fever  mark  on  the  hoof. 

The  complications  are  excessive  spasms  and  pleurisy.  In  the  former 
the  cough  may  be  so  violent  as  to  convulse  the  whole  animal,  the  legs 
arc  spread  and  fixed,  with  the  hind  ones  drawn  slightly  under  the  body. 
The  head  and  neck  are  extended,  with  the  muscles  tense.  The  cough 
comes  out  by  rapidly  succeeding  efforts,  or  with  the  first  sound  the 
larynx  seems  to  close  for  a  moment  before  the  rest  can  follow.  In  two 
cases  of  my  own  the  spasm  has  been  so  great  that  the  animal  has  fallen 
to  the  ground.  During  these  accesses  the  respiration  bccomos  acceler- 
ated, and  on  auscultation  of  the  trachea  and  lungs  the  tubular  murmur 
of  an  apparent  pneumonia  can  be  heard.  This  false  murmur,  however, 
disappears  at  the  end  of  the  attack.  In  the  case  which  fell  to  the  ground 
the  horse  would  lie  for  a  moment  or  two  absolutely  motionless.  (In  the 
first  I  believed  that  he  had  broken  his  neck.)  The  rapid  respiration  was 
then  followed  by  a  long  inspiration,  the  animal  regained  his  feet,  the 


499 

respiration  became  almost  normal  and  the  tabular  murmur  had  dis- 
appeared. 1  have  seen  no  fatal  termination  from  this  spasm  of  the 
pneumo-gastric,  but  can  readily  believe  that  traumatisms  resulting  from 
such  attacks  might  prove  fatal,  or  that  the  spasm  might  continue  long 
enough  to  produce  asphyxia.  The  fatal  complication  is  pleurisy.  This 
occurs  when  the  horse  has  been  kept  at  work  after  the  development  of 
the  disease  while  suffering  from  a  high  fever,  and  is  probably  in  no  way 
specific,  but  the  result  of  work  on  an  animal  with  high  temperature. 
The  additional  symptoms  are  those  of  an  ordinary  pleurisy. 

Diagnosis. — The  diagnosis  is  based  upon  the  elevation  of  the  tempera- 
ture without  corresponding  acceleration  of  the  pulse  and  of  the  respira- 
tions ;  upon  the  retention  of  appetite  and  spinal  reflex,  with  the  great 
irritability  of  temper  in  the  presence  of  a  high  temperature,  and  upon 
the  spasmodic  cough  and  auscultatory  sounds  of  bronchitis  with  but 
trifling  discharge. 

The  diagnosis  is  made  from  cedematous  pneumonia  by  the  absence  of 
the  yellow  colorations,  the  absence  of  pneumonia,  and  the  less  continu- 
ous high  temperature  ;  from  influenza  by  the  absence  of  oedema,  of  the 
ochre  coloration,  and  of  the  typhoid  symptoms ;  from  strangles  by  want 
of  enlargement  of  the  lymphatics,  absence  of  purulent  discharge  and  ab- 
scesses ;  from  variola  by  the  nonappearance  of  pustules  and  enlarged 
lymphatics;  from  simi)le  bronchitis,  as  the  latter  is  sporadic,  and  in  it 
great  fever  is  accompanied  by  profuse  discharge;  from  rheumatic  pleu- 
risy and  pleurodynia,  by  the  history  in  these  of  repeated  attacks  and 
great  temporary  pain  ;  from  surgical  fever  by  the  absence  of  cause. 

Prognosis. — The  prognosis  is  usually  favorable.  This  disease  entails 
only  the  loss  of  ten  days  to  three  weeks'  use  of  the  animal,  and  leaves 
the  subject  with  no  complicating  sequence.  In  some  cases  I  have  seen 
the  irritable  disposition  remain  for  a  length  of  time,  but  in  every  case 
it  has  finally  disappeared.  As  I  have  suggested,  violent  spasms  might 
prove  fatal.  Pleurisy  would  render  the  prognosis  serious,  as  the  same 
disease  would  when  occurring  from  simple  causes. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  a  stable  should  be  at  once  prophylactic. 
Tlie  infected  animals  should  be  removed,  and  complete  disinfection  of 
the  stalls  and  area  should  be  made.  The  individual  treatment  is  sim- 
ple. The  hygienic  measures  of  cleanliness,  fresh  air  without  drafts, 
frequent  rubbing  and  tempting  food  should  be  thorough.  The  diges- 
tive tract  is  to  be  regulated  by  small  doses  of  bicarbonate  of  soda, 
sulphate  of  soda,  gentian  and  tannic  acid.  The  appetite  is  to  be  stimu- 
lated by  drinks  of  cold  breakfast  tea  and  cow's  milk.  Antispasmodics 
are  to  be  used  when  the  cough  is  excessive.  The  best  of  these  are 
camphor,  belladonna,  stramonium,  and  steaming  with  turx)entiue.  (Tur- 
pentine 1  ounce,  water  half  bucket.)  External  frictions  of  alcohol  and 
turpentine,  with  hot  packs  to  the  loins,  will  also  afford  relief.  Quinine 
and  salicylic  acid  may  be  used  during  the  elevation  of  temperature. 
Professor  Dieckerhofif  recommends  tracheal  injections  in  ounce  doses  of 


500 

the  following  solution:  Acetate  of  aluminium,  1  per  cent.;  alum,  one- 
half  to  1  per  cent.;  bromide  of  potash,  1  to  2  per  cent.;  water,  100. 

CEDEMATOUS  PNEUMONIA. 

Synonyms:  Adynamic  i^neumonia;  hospital  or  stable  pneumonia; 
influenza;  Pectoralis  equorum;  'pleuropneumonia;  Contagiosa  equorum; 
Brustseuche,  German. 

Definition. — This  disease  is  the  adynamic  pneumonia  of  the  older  vet- 
erinarians who  did  not  recognize  any  essential  difference  in  its  nature 
from  an  ordinary  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  except  in  the  profound 
sedation  of  the  force  of  the  animal  affected  with  it,  which  is  a  promi- 
nent symptom  from  the  outset  of  the  disease.  Again,  this  same  pros- 
tration of  the  vital  force  of  the  animal,  combined  with  the  staggering 
movement  and  want  of  coordination  of  the  muscles  of  the  animal, 
caused  it  for  a  long  time  to  be  confounded  with  influenza,  with  which 
at  certain  periods  it  certainly  has  a  strong  analogy  of  symptoms,  but 
from  which,  as  from  sporadic  pneumonia,  it  can  be  separated  very  read- 
ily if  a  case  can  be  followed  throughout  its  wbole  course. 

OLdematous  pneumonia  is  a  specific  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  pro- 
ducing an  interstitial  cedema  and  inflammation  of  the  tissues  of  these 
organs,  and  a  constitutional  disturbance  or  fever  of  a  low  or  adynamic 
type.  It  causes  a  profound  sedation  of  the  nervous  system  which  may 
be  so  great  as  to  cause  death.  It  is  sometimes  attended  by  pleurisy, 
inflammatiou  of  the  heart,  or  septic  complications  which  also  prove 
fatal. 

Etiology. — While,  as  an  infectious  disease,  its  original  cause  is  due  to 
a  specific  virus,  there  are  many  predisposing  causes  which  act  as  impor- 
tant factors  in  aiding  in  its  development.  Old  horses,  especially  those 
which  have  been  rendered  anoemic  or  debilitated  by  hard  use  or  by  di- 
minished quantities  of  food,  and  those  which  are  obliged  to  work  con- 
stantly in  water  or  are  exposed  to  continual  cold  and  wet,  as  in  the  case 
of  canal  horses,  old  hack  horses  and  their  congeners,  and  those  younger 
animals  which  have  a  sudden  weakened  vitality  produced  by  being  put 
too  rapidly  to  work,  or  to  too  hard  work  before  their  muscles  are  har- 
dened and  their  organs  have  been  accustomed  to  the  unusual  demands 
placed  upon  them  by  want  of  training,  are  much  more  susceptible  to 
the  contagion  than  adult  animals  in  a  good  condition  of  health.  Lym- 
phatic, narrow-chested,  thick-hided  and  big-hoofed  animals  will  contract 
the  disease  much  more  easily  than  the  finer-skinned,  richer-muscled 
animal  of  a  sanguinary  temperament, and  robust  ccustitution. 

Old,  cold,  damp,  foul,  unclean,  and  badly  drained  and  ventilated  stables 
allow  rapid  dissemination  of  the  disease  to  other  horses  in  the  same 
stable,  and  act  as  rich  reservoirs  for  preserving  the  contagion  which, 
in  one  of  these  cases,  the  writer  knew  to  be  retained  for  over  a  year. 
Every  few  weeks  during  this  time,  in  the  corner  of  a  large  livery  stable, 
one  or  more  cases  of  (edematous  pneumonia  broke  out,  usually  in  one  of 


501 

two  stalls,  but  sometimes  several  stables  away.  When  the  stable  was 
remodeled  and  new  woodwork  was  placed  in  for  mangers  and  floors  the 
disease  disappeared.  The  virus  is  but  moderately  volatile,  and  in  a 
stable  seems  rather  to  follow  the  lines  of  the  walls  and  irregular  courses 
than  the  direct  currents  of  air  and  the  tracts  of  ventilation.  Professor 
Dieckerhoff  found  that  the  contagion  of  influenza  was  readily  diffusi- 
ble throughout  an  entire  stable  and  through  any  opening  to  other  build- 
ings, and  substantiates  the  writer's  experience  that  it  will  pass  through 
solid  walls  of  considerable  thickness ;  but  he  also  found  that  the  con- 
tagion of  cedemateous  i)neumonia  is  not  transmissible  at  any  great  dis- 
tance, nor  is  it  very  diffusible  in  the  atmosphere.  A  brick  wall  8  feet  in 
height  served  to  prevent  the  infection  of  other  animals  placed  on  that 
side  of  a  horse  ill  with  the  disease,  while  others  placed  on  the  opposite 
side  and  separated  from  the  focus  of  contagion  only  by  open  bars  in 
the  stall,  were  infected  and  developed  the  disease  in  its  typical  form. 

Symptoms.— The  symptoms  differ  slightly  from  those  of  a  frank,  flbri- 
nous  pneumonia,  but  not  so  much  by  the  introduction  of  new  symptoms 
as  by  the  want  of  or  absence  of  the  distinct  evidences  of  local  lesions 
which  are  found  in  the  latter  disease.  All  of  the  pneumonias  through- 
out the  whole  course  of  the  trouble  are  less  marked  and  less  clearly 

deiined, 

At  first  the  symptoms  are  latent;   the  animal  gives  a  rare  cough 

which  resembles  that  of  a  heavy  horse  affected  with  a  slight  chronic 
bronchitis;  it  becomes  somewhat  dejected  and  dull,  at  times  somnolent, 
and  has  a  diminished  appetite.     This  condition  lasts  for  several  days. 
No  history  can  be  obtained  of  causes  for  symptoms  of  acute  troul)le, 
and  the  absence  of  organic  lesions  to  account  for  the  general  condition 
leaves  the  attendant,  however  expert  he  may  be,  in  much  doubt  as  to 
the  nature  of  the  trouble  unless  previous  cases  in  the  same  stable,  or 
special  tact  on  the  part  of  the  veterinarian,  aids  in  foreseeing  the  prob- 
able termination  of  the  slight  local  trouble  and  commencing  adynamic 
changes  in  the  organic  functions  of  the  animal.     No  crepitant  rale  is 
heard  as  in  fibrinous  pneumonia,  as  in  this   disease  the  local  trouble 
commences  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  large  air  tubes  and  not  on  the 
periphery  of  the  lungs.     During  several  days  these  symptoms  increase 
and  a  fever  of  a  low  type  gradually  develops.     The  respiration  in- 
creases to  twenty-four,  thirty,  or  thirty-six  to  the  minute,  and  a  small, 
running,  soft  pulse,  indicating  great  exhaustion  of  the  capillaries  and 
their  surrounding  tissues,  attains  a  rhythm  of  fifty,  seventy,  or  even  more 
beats  in  the  sixty  seconds.     The  heart,  however,  contrary  to  the  debil- 
itated condition  of  the  pulse,  is  found  beating  violently  and  tumultu- 
ously,  like  it  does  in  anthrax  and  septic  intoxication.     The  mucous 
membranes  of  the  eyes  and  mouth  and  of  the  genital  organs  are  found 
somewhat  oedematous,  and  they  rapidly  assume  a  dirty,  saffron  color, 
at  times  approaching  an  ocher,  but  distinguishable  from  the  similar 
coloration  in  influenza  by  the  want  of  the  luster  belonging  to  the  latter 


502 

and  by  the  uindcly,  dull  tiut  wliicli  is  characteristic  throughout  the  dis- 
ease. 

Suddenly,  without  the  preliminary  rides  which  precede  grave  lesion 
of  the  lungs  in  other  diseases,  the  blowing  murmur  of  pneumonia  is 
heard  over  a  variable  area  of  the  chest,  usually",  however,  much  more 
distinctly  over  the  trachea  at  the  base  of  the  neck  and  directly  behind 
the  shoulder  on  either  side  of  the  chest.  In  some  cases  the  evidence 
of  lung  lesion  can  only  be  detected  over  the  trachea.  The  body  tem- 
perature has  now  reached  101°,  105°,  F.  or  in  extreme  cases  even  a  de- 
gree higher.  The  debility  of  the  animal  is  great  witlioutthe  stupefac- 
tion or  evidence  of  cerebral  trouble,  which  is  constant  with  such  grave 
constitutional  j)heuomeua  iu  influenza  or  severe  pueumouias.  The  ani- 
mal is  subject  to  occasional  chills,  and  on  movement  staggers  in  its  gait. 
The  yellow  coloration  of  the  visible  mucous  membrane  is  rendered  pale 
by  infiltration  of  the  liquid  of  the  blood  into  the  tissues ;  the  pulse  may 
become  so  soft  as  to  be  almost  imperceptible,  the  heart  movement  aud 
sounds  being  at  the  same  time  exaggerated.  The  animal  loses  flesh 
rapidly,  aud  dropsies  of  the  extremities,  of  the  under  surface  of  the 
belly,  or  of  the  internal  organs  may  show  themselves.  We  then  have 
all  the  general  phenomena  of  a  jirofound  anaemia. 

Terminations. — These  symptoms  may  gradually  subside;  with  an 
improved  appetite  the  inanition  may  cease  and  the  animal  com- 
mence to  nourish  its  impoverished  blood  and  tissues;  the  pulse  be- 
comes stronger,  the  heart  more  regular  and  less  tumultuous;  the  mu- 
cous membranes  assume  a  brighter  and  more  distinct  color;  the  diffi- 
culty of  respiration  is  removed,  and  the  animal  may  make  a  recovery, 
but  at  best  the  convalescence  is  a  long  one,  and  in  many  cases  it  is 
questionable  if  it  is  an  economical  proceeding  to  carry  the  animal 
through  it.  More  frequently  the  disease  terminates  by  death.  This  is 
usually  directly  due  to  heart  failure;  in  some  cases  it  is  caused  by 
asphyxia,  owing  to  the  great  amount  of  exudation  into  the  lung  tissue, 
rendering  its  further  function  impossible;  inmost  cases  the  anaemia 
and  marasmus  debilitate  the  animal  until  it  dies  as  it  would  from  the 
same  condition  i^roduced  by  any  other  cause. 

Complications.— T\\Q  complications  of  cederaatous  pneumonia  are  in- 
flammatory or  necrotic  changes  in  the  lungs  themselves.  Suppuration 
at  times  takes  place  in  the  bronchi  and  may  extend  to  the  lung  tissue. 
In  this  case  we  may  find  the  mucous  rales  of  a  bronchitis  appearing 
where  there  were  only  negative  signs  of  pulmonary  trouble,  or  we  may 
find  them  grafted  upon  the  tubular  murmur  of  the  pneumonia  if  the 
latter  had  been  detected  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  disease.  Tiicse  are 
mostly  distinctly  heard  over  the  trachea  and  on  the  sides  of  the  chest 
directly  behind  the  shoulders.  With  the  development  of  the  mucous 
rales,  to  be  heard  on  auscultation,  we  have  a  more  purulent  discharge 
from  the  nostrils,  similar  to  that  of  a  chronic  or  subacute  bronchitis. 
If  the  iuflammation  has  been  of  some  standing,  cavernous  rales  may  be 


503 

heard  indicating  the  destruction  of  a  considerable  portion  of  lung  tis- 
sue and  the  formation  of  a  cavity.  Tlie  eiiects  of  this  more  acute  inflain- 
matory  process  are  not  appreciable  iu  the  general  condition  of  the  ani- 
mal, except  to  still  further  weaken  it  and  add  to  its  debilitated  and  ema- 
ciated cachexia.  Gangrene  frequently  occurs.  A  sudden  rise  of  the 
body  temperature  one  or  two  degrees,  with  a  more  enfeebled  pulse  and 
a  stdl  more  tumultuous  heart,  develop  simultaneously  with  the  appear- 
ance of  a  discharge  from  the  nostrils.  This  discharge  is  gray  in  color, 
serous  or  watery  in  consistency,  mixed  with  the  detritus  of  broken- 
down  lung  tissue,  and  sometimes  contains  clots  of  blood,  or  in  more 
serions  cases  may  bo  marked  by  a  quantity  of  fluid  blood  from  a  hem- 
orrhage, which  proves  fatal.  Tlie  discharge  is  fetid  to  the  smell.  The 
animal  emaciates  rapidly.  On  examination  of  the  lungs  mucous  rales 
are  heard  in  the  larger  bronchi,  cavities  may  be  found  at  any  part  of 
these  organs,  and  points  of  lobular  pneumonia  may  be  detected. 

Diagnosis. — The  diagnosis  of  cedematous  pneumonia  at  the  outset  is 
aided  greatly  by  a  rigid  examination  of  the  surroundings,  and  still 
more  so  by  the  history  or  knowledge  of  previous  cases  in  the  same  sta- 
ble. The  cough  and  commencing  fever  of  the  first  few  days  have  noth- 
ing diagnostic  in  them,  but  when  combined  with  repeated  chills,  a  soft 
l)ulso,  a  tumultuous  heart,  the  rapidly  staiued  dull  yellow  mucous  mem- 
branes, and  the  staggering  gait  of  the  animal  without  marked  brain 
trouble,  the  diagnosis  becomes  more  easy.  In  pneumonia  the  fever  is 
always  of  a  more  sthenic  character,  the  fever  is  concomitant,  or  pre- 
cedes the  marked  lung  trouble;  the  yellowish  discoloration  is  a  phe- 
nomenon of  the  later  stages  of  the  disease;  the  debility  of  the  muscles 
is  simple  weakness,  or,  if  complicated  by  want  of  coordination,  it  ac- 
companies an  evident  brain  trouble  and  loss  of  consciousness.  In  pneu- 
monia there  has  alwaj^s  been  in  the  kings  the  regular  series  of  absence 
of  vesicular  murmur,  crepitant  rales,  and  then  tubular  murmur.  While 
the  pulse  in  a  simple  pneumonia  may  in  the  later  stages  become  very  soft 
and  weak,  it  commences  as  a  tense  and  full  one.  The  heart  only  becomes 
irregular  as  the  result  of  cardial  complication,  and  never  assumes  the 
tumultuous  character  of  the  septic  diseases  unless  gangrene  occurs,  in 
which  case  the  animal  is  only  of  value  as  a  scientific  study  to  the  vet- 
erinary atteudaiit.  In  influenza  the  symptoms  of  fever  develop  before 
any  local  lesions  are  noticed.  The  feebleness  of  the  muscles  and  want 
of  coordination  are  from  the  outset  the  evident  result  of  a  poisoned 
condition  of  the  brain,  as  shown  by  the  stupor  of  the  animal;  the  saf- 
fron or  ochre  coloration  of  the  visible  mucous  membrane  is  of  a  decided 
tint,  and  while  these  membranes  may  be  cedematous,  they  become  so  as 
the  result  of  an  increase  in  the  quantity  of  blood  iu  their  capillaries,  or 
by  congestion,  and  not  from  the  cedematous  infiltration  of  the  watery 
portion  of  the  blood  as  in  the  disease  in  question. 

Prognosis.— CEdematoviS  pneumonia  is  an  excessively  fatal  disease. 
We  have  seen  that  it  usually  attacks  animals  which  are  already  in  more 


504 

or  less  of  a  depraved  condition  or  weakened  in  tbeir  vital  forces  by  the 
bad  hygienic  surroundings  to  which  they  have  been  subjected.  Eapid 
increase  in  the  area  of  infiltration  in  the  lungs,  as  shown  by  dullness  on 
percussion  and  the  extent  of  the  tubular  murmur,  is  an  unfavorable 
symptom.  Increased  prostration  in  the  early  part  of  the  disease  augurs 
badly  for  the  chances  of  future  resistance  to  the  effects  of  the  local 
lesions.  Suppuration  with  the  formation  of  abscesses  and  gangrene  in 
the  lungs  are  even  more  serious  in  this  disease  than  as  a  complication 
of  other  diseases,  on  account  of  the  debilitating  character  of  the  original 
trouble. 

Alterations. — At  the  time  of  death  from  oedematous  pneumonia  we 
frequently  find  septic  changes  and  the  evidences  of  putrefaction.  The 
Bolidification  of  the  lung  tissue  is  found  irregular  in  shape  and  high  up 
around  the  root  of  the  lungs  and  around  the  large  bronchi,  and  is  gen- 
erally covered  by  sound  lung  tissue.  The  anterior  lobes  of  the  lungs 
are  usually  entirely  affected.  The  diseased  portion  appears  of  a  gray- 
yellowish  color,  somewhat  watery,  and  tears  readily.  Matter  is  found 
in  the  air  tubes  which  form  gutters  through  the  jelly-like  mass  of  the 
diseased  lung.  Abscesses,  from  the  size  of  a  nut  to  larger  masses,  may 
be  found  disseminated  through  the  lungs.  The  blood  is  dark  in  color, 
fluid,  or  only  clotted  into  soft,  jelly  like  masses.  Masses  of  gangrenous 
or  dead  black  tissue  may  be  present. 

Treatment. — A  study  of  the  symptoms  will  indicate  at  once  that  the 
antiphlogistics,  or  those  remedies  which  we  employ  in  such  sthenic  dis- 
eases as  fibrinous  pneumonia,  strangles,  etc.,  are  not  to  be  employed  in 
this  disease.  Bleeding  would  only  still  further  weaken  an  already  en- 
feebled animal ;  antimony  or  the  alterants  would  increase  the  depression 
of  a  too  depraved  constitution.  There  is  in  this  disease  no  acute  con- 
gestion of  a  particular  organ  to  draw  off  by  depletive  measures,  nor 
any  violent  blood  current  to  be  retarded,  for  fear  of  hyper-nutrition  of 
any  special  i)art. 

Eevulsives  do  good,  as  they  excite  the  nervous  system  and  awaken 
the  tori^ur  of  the  weakened  blood  vessels,  which  aid  in  the  reestablish- 
ment  of  the  functions.  Mustard  poultices  may  be  applied  over  the  belly 
and  sides  of  the  chest,  as  in  other  diseases,  but  caution  must  be  used  in 
the  employment  of  blisters,  as  ugly  ulcers  may  result  from  their  action 
on  a  tissue  of  weakened  vitality.  Setons  are  dangerous  from  the  great 
tendency  in  this  disease  to  septic  complications.  Repeated  friction  of 
the  legs  by  hand-rubbing  and  warmth  by  bandaging  and  by  rubbing 
the  surface  of  the  body  with  turpentine  and  alcohol,  which  is  imme- 
diately to  be  dried  by  rough  towels,  will  excite  the  circulation  and 
stimulate  the  emuuctories  of  the  skin. 

Stimulants  are  given  internally  from  the  outset  of  the  disease.  Tur- 
pentine in  dram  doses  regulates  the  heart  and  excites  the  kidneys  to 
carry  off  waste  matter,  but  if  repeated  too  frequently  may  disturb  the 
already  delicate  digestive  system.    Alcohol  rectifies  the  latter  danger, 


505 

• 
and  is  a  useful  stimulant  to  the  heart  and  digestive  system,  if  given 
■with  care  in  small  doses.  It  must  be  remembered  that  this  remedy  is 
not  a  food.  It  is  a  hydrocarbon  which  is  not  burnt,  but  is  eliminated 
in  the  urine  and  in  the  expired  air.  If  given  in  too  large  quantities  it 
becomes  a  depressant,  and  lowers  the  vitality  of  all  of  the  tissues  of  the 
body,  as  can  too  frequently  be  seen  in  the  mental  and  physical  condi- 
tion of  the  drunkard.  It  is  an  antiputrid,  and  is  especially  indicated  when 
septic  complications  and  gangrene  are  present.  The  aromatics  and  bit- 
ter tonics  are  useful;  gentian,  tannin,  and  English  breakfast  tea  in 
warm  decoction  from  a  useful  menstruum  for  other  remedies.  The  vari- 
ous preparations  of  iron  are  astringents  and  excitants  to  the  digestive 
system.  Carbolic  acid  is  an  antiputrid,  which  is  of  marked  benefit  in 
(edematous  pneumonia;  it  should  be  given  iu  small  doses  diluted  in 
alcohol. 

Salicylic  acid  may  be  given  in  1  or  2  dram  doses  every  few  hours.  It 
is  a  specific  for  troubles  of  the  serous  membranes,  lowers  the  tempera- 
ture, and  is  of  value  in  this  disease  in  preventing  the  exudation  into 
the  tissue  of  the  lungs.  The  alkalines,  as  the  sulphate  and  bicarbonate 
of  soda,  the  nitrate  of  potash,  and  very  small  doses  of  the  iodide  of  pot- 
ash should  be  employed  to  regulate  the  digestive  tract,  the  kidneys, 
and  the  other  excreting  glands,  and  to  stimulate  absorption  of  the  waste 

matter. 

The  diet  demands  the  strictest  attention  from  the  outset.  In  many 
of  the  fevers  the  food  has  to  be  diminished  in  quantity  and  regulated  in 
the  quality  of  its  heat-producing  components  during-the  acute  part  of 
the  disease,  so  as  to  lessen  the  material  for  combustion  in  the  inflamed 
organs.  In  (Edematous  pneumonia,  on  the  contrary,  all  the  food  that 
can  possibly  be  digested  and  assimilated  must  be  given.  Choice  must 
be  made  of  the  richest  material  which  can  be  handled  by  the  weakened 
stomach  and  intestines  without  fatiguing  them.  Good,  sound  hay 
should  be  chopped  short  and  dampened  or  partly  boiled ;  in  the  latter 
case  the  hay  tea  can  be  reserved  to  use  as  a  drink.  Oats  may  be  pre- 
ferred dry  or  in  other  cases  will  be  taken  better  scalded  ;  in  most  cases, 
however,  it  is  better  to  give  slops  of  oatmeal,  to  which  can  be  added  a 
little  bran,  barley  flour,  or  boiled  milk  and  wheat  flour.  Pure  cow's 
milk,  not  too  rich  in  fatty  matter,  can  be  given  alone  or  with  beaten 
eggs ;  frequently  the  horse  will  have  to  be  coaxed  with  the  milk  diluted 
with  several  parts  of  water  at  first,  but  will  soon  learn  to  drink  the  pure 
milk.  Apples  and  carrots  cut  up  raw  or  boiled  are  useful,  and  fresh 
clover  in  small  quantities  will  frequently  stimulate  the  appetite. 
Throughout  the  course  of  the  disease  and  during  convalescence  the 
greatest  attention  must  be  taken  to  cleaning  the  coat  thoroughly  so  as 
to  keep  the  glands  of  the  skin  in  working  order,  and  light,  warm  cov- 
ering must  be  used  to  protect  the  animal  from  cold  or  draughts  of  air. 


506 

nORSEPOX — EQUINE   VARIOLA. 

Synonyms:  Variola  equina — Pustular  Grease— PJily ctenoid Rerpes. 

Bejinition. — The  liorsepox  is  a  specific  infectious  fever  of  the  liorse 
attended  by  an  eruption  of  pustules  or  pocks  over  any  part  of  the  sliin 
or  on  the  mucous  membraues  lining  the  various  cavities  in  the  body. 
When  the  eruption  takes  place  on  the  mucous  membrane  of  th.e  re- 
spiratory tract  it  produces  an  irritation  and  discharge  of  matter  which 
greatly  resembles  that  of  strangles.  This  disease  was  for  a  long  time 
confounded  with  the  latter  disease,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  many 
light  cases  in  which  the  eruption  is  not  well  marked  are  still  mistaken 
for  distemper. 

The  horsepox  was  described  by  the  early  Eoman  agricultural  writers 
and  by  the  veterinarians  of  the  last  century.  It  received  its  first  im- 
portant notice  from  the  great  Jenuer,  who  confounded  it  with  grease  in 
horses,  as  animals  with  this  disease  are  very  apt  to  have  the  eruption 
of  variola  appear  on  the  inflamed  fetlocks  if  they  are  affected  with 
grease  at  the  same  time.  He  saw  these  cases  transmit  the  disease  to 
cattle  in  the  byres  and  to  the  stablemen  and  milkmaids  who  attended 
them,  and  furnish. the  latter  with  immunity  from  smallpox,  which  led 
to  the  discovery  of  vaccination.  The  horsepox  is  again  frequently 
mistaken  for  the  exanthemata  attending  some  forms  of  venereal  disease 
in  horses. 

Variola  in  the  horse,  while  it  is  identical  in  principle,  general  course, 
complications,  and  lesions  with  variola  in  other  animals,  is  a  disease  of 
the  horse  itself,  and  is  not  transmissible  in  the  form  of  variola  to  any 
other  animal;  nor  is  the  variola  of  an^'  other  animal  transmissible  to 
the  horse.  Cattle  and  men,  if  inoculated  from  a  case  of  horsepox,  de- 
velop vaccinia,  but  vaccinia  from  the  latter  animals  is  not  so  readily 
reinoculated  into  the  horse  with  success.  If  it  does  develop,  it  pro- 
duces the  original  disease. 

Etiology. — The  direct  cause  of  the  horsepox  is  infection.  A  large 
number  of  predisposing  causes  favor  the  development  of  the  disease 
as  in  the  case  of  strangles,  for  this  trouble,  like  almost  all  contagious 
diseases,  renders  the  anima^l  which  has  had  one  attack  immune  from 
future  ones.  The  causes  are,  young  age,  for  then  the  animal  is  still 
susceptible  to  contract  the  disease,  but  old  horses  which  have  not  been 
affected  are  less  apt  to  become  infected  when  exposed  than  younger 
ones.  The  exposure  incident  to  shi])ment  through  public  stables,  cars, 
etc.,  again  acts  as  a  i^redisposing  cause  as  in  the  other  infectious  dis- 
eases. The  period  of  final  dentition  is  a  moment  of  the  animal's  life 
which  renders  it  peculiarly  susceptible. 

Dupaul  states  that  the  infection  is  transmissible  through  the  atmos- 
phere for  several  hundred  yards.  The  more  common  means  of  conta- 
gion is  by  direct  contact  or  by  means  of  fomites.  Feed  boxes  and 
bridles  previously  used  by  horses  affected  with  variola  are  probably  the 


607 

most  frequent  carriers  of  the  virus,  and  we  find  the  lesions  in  tlie  ma- 
jority of  cases  developed  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  lips  and  nostrils. 
Coition  is  a  frequent  cause.  A  stallion  suffering  from  this  disease  may 
be  the  cause  of  a  considerable  epizootic,  as  he  transmits  it  to  a  number 
of  brood  mares  and  they  in  turn  return  to  the  farms  where  they  are 
surrounded  by  young  animals  to  whom  they  convey  the  contagion. 
Th3  saddle  of  the  harness  and  croup  straps  are  frequent  agents  of  in- 
fection. The  presence  of  a  wound  greatly  favors  the  inoculation  of  the 
disease,  which  is  also  sometimes  carried  by  surgical  instruments  or 
sponges.  Trasbot  recites  a  case,  in  which  a  set  of  hobbles,  which  had 
been  used  on  an  animal  suffering  from  variola,  were  used  on  ahorse  for 
a  quittor  operation  and  transmitted  the  disease  which  developed  on  the 
edges  of  the  wound.  There  is  no  elective  point  for  the  first  development 
of  the  disease,  but  it  commences  most  frequently  around  the  natural 
openings,  as  these  are  the  points  which  are  most  exposed  to  inoculation. 

Sijmj>to)ns. — There  is  a  period  of  incubation,  after  an  animal  has  been 
exposed,  of  from  five  to  eight  days,  during  which  there  is  no  appreciable 
alteration  in  the  health.  This  period  is  shorter  in  summer  and  longer 
in  winter.  At  the  end  of  this  time,  small  nodes  develop  at  the  point  of 
inoculation  and  the  animal  becomes  feverish.  The  nodes,  which  feel 
like  small  shot  under  the  skin,  soften  into  small  pustules  and  break 
into  little,  shallow,  superficial  ulcers,  exuding  a  creamy,  thick  matter, 
which  rapidly  dries  and  forms  scabs.  The  horse  is  dull  and  dejected, 
loses  its  appetite,  and  has  a  rough  dry  coat  with  the  hairs  on  end. 
There  is  moderate  thirst.  The  respirations  are  somewhat  quickened 
and  the  pulse  becomes  rapid  and  full.  The  body  temperature  is  ele- 
vated, frequently  reaching  lO-i^  or  105°  F.,  within  thirty  six  or  forty- 
eight  hours  from  the  appearance  of  the  first  symptoms. 

The  visible  mucous  membranes,  especially  the  conjunctivae,  are  of  a 
bright  rosy  red.  In  the  lymphatic,  cold-blooded,  and  more  common 
horses  these  symptoms  of  fever  are  less  marked;  even  with  a  compara- 
tively high  temperature  the  animal  may  retain  its  appetite  and  even 
work  comparatively  well,  but  these  cases,  if  worked  and  overheated, 
are  apt  to  develop  serious  complications. 

At  the  end  of  from  three  and  a  half  to  four  days  the  eruption  breaks 
out,  the  fever  abates,  and  the  general  symptoms  improve.  The  eruption 
in  severe  cases  may  be  generalized  ;  it  may  be  confined  to  the  softer 
skin  of  the  nose  and  lips,  the  genital  organs,  and  the  inside  of  the  thighs, 
or  it  may  be  localized  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  wound  or  in  the  irri- 
tated skin  of  a  pair  of  greasy  heels.  It  consists  of  a  greater  or  less 
number  of  little  nodes  which,  on  a  mucous  membrane,  as  in  the  nostrils 
or  vagina,  or  on  soft  unpigmented  skin,  appear  red  and  feel  at  first  like 
shot  under  the  epidermis.  These  nodes  soften  and  show  a  yellowish 
spot  in  the  center  when  they  become  pustules.  The  epidermis  is  dis- 
solved and  the  matter  escapes  as  a  viscid  fluid  at  first  citrine  and  later 
cloudy  and  purulent,  which  dries  rapidly,  forming  scabs;  if  these  fall 


508 

off  or  are  removed  they  leave  a  little  shallow  concave  ulcer  which  heals 
in  the  course  of  five  or  six  days.  In  the  softer  skin  if  pigmented  the 
cicatrices  are  white  and  frequently  remain  so  for  about  a  year,  when 
the  pigment  returns.  The  lips  or  genital  organs  of  a  colored  horse,  if 
covered  with  a  number  of  small  white  spots  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  will 
usually  indicate  that  the  animal  has  been  affected  with  the  horsepox. 

At  times  the  pustules  may  become  confluent  and  produce  large  super- 
ficial serpentine  ulcers  on  the  membrane  of  the  nostrils,  around  the 
lips  or  eyelids,  or  on  the  borders  of  wounds  and  in  greasy  heels ;  in 
this  case  the  part  becomes  swollen,  hot,  painful,  and  is  covered  with 
a  profuse  discharge  of  matter.  In  this  form  there  is  frequently  a  sec- 
ondary fever  lasting  for  a  day  or  two. 

In  severe  cases  there  may  be  a  suppurative  adenitis  or  inflammation 
of  the  lymphatic  glands  which  are  fed  from  the  affected  part.  If  the 
eruption  is  around  the  nostrils  and  lips,  the  glands  between  the  jaw3 
(submaxillary)  form  abscesses,  as  in  a  caseof  strangles ;  if  the  eruption 
is  in  a  pair  of  greasy  heels  abscesses  may  form  in  the  fold  of  the  groin 
(inguinal).  There  may  be  so  much  tumefaction  of  the  nostrils  as  to 
produce  difficulty  in  breathing. 

Complications. — A  case  of  horsepox  may  be  attended  with  various 
complications  of  greater  or  less  importance.  Adenitis  or  suppuration 
of  the  glands  has  just  been  mentioned.  Confluent  eruptions  irritate 
the  part  and  induce  the  animal  to  rub  the  inflamed  part  against  the 
manger  or  scratch  it  in  other  ways,  and  produce  troublesome  ulcers, 
which  may  leave  ugly  scars.  Irritation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
nose  causes  severe  coryza  with  purulent  discharge. 

The  eruption  may  occur  in  the  throat  or  in  the  air  tubesto  the  lungs, 
developing  an  acute  laryngitis  or  bronchitis.  These  commence  with  a 
harsh  cough,  which  becomes  moister  and  more  fatty  as  the  discharge 
increases,  and  is  followed  for  several  days  by  a  fever,  which  is  often 
severe.  If  the  larynx  is  affected  it  becomes  inflamed  and  swollen,  caus- 
ing the  animal  to  roar  and  discharge  quantities  of  foamy  mucous  and 
matter  from  the  nostrils,  as  in  troubles  of  the  same  organ  from  other 
causes.  If  the  animal  is  exposed  to  cold,  or  worked  so  as  to  engorge 
the  lungs  with  blood  at  the  termination  of  the  specific  fever,  just  when 
the  eruiJtion  is  about  to  localize,  it  may  be  determined  to  the  lungs.  In 
this  case  we  have  a  short  dry  cough,  labored  breathing,  the  develop- 
ment of  a  secondary  fever  of  some  gravity,  and  all  of  the  external 
symptoms  of  a  pneumonia.  This  pneumonia  differs,  however,  from  an 
ordinary  pneumonia  in  the  symptoms  furnished  by  the  examination  of 
the  lungs  themselves.  In  place  of  a  large  mass  of  the  lung  tissue  be- 
ing affected  the  inflammation  is  disseminated  in  smaller  spots  over  the 
entire  lung.  The  total  of  these  areas  may  be  equal,  however,  to  the 
half  or  more  of  the  lungs  and  i^rove  fatal.  The  crepitant  rales  and 
tubular  murmur  of  pneumonia  is  absent,  and  is  replaced  by  sibilant 
and  small  mucous  rales.     When   the   fever  has  been  intense  and  the 


509 

animal  is  unduly  exposed  or  worked,  it  may  be  attacked  with  a  conges- 
tion of  the  lungs,  which  will  prove  fatal  within  a  few  hours,  aud  no 
localization  be  developed ;  or,  if  in  this  case  relief  is  afforded,  it  may 
be  followed  by  a  lobar  pneumonia,  showing  itself  with  all  the  symptoms 
of  this  disease  when  it  is  produced  by  ordinary  causes. 

Diagnosis. — The  diagnosis  of  the  horsepox  is  to  be  based  on  the  pres- 
ence of  a  continuous  fever,  with  rosy  mucous  membranes,  for  several 
days,  and  the  appearance  of  the  characteristic  eruption.  If  the  erup- 
tion is  in  the  nasal  cavities,  marked  by  a  considerable  discharge  and  at- 
tended by  submaxillary  abscesses,  it  may  be  confounded  with  strangles. 
If  the  throat  is  affected  it  may  be  confounded  with  an  angina  (laryngitis 
or  pharyngitis),  but  in  the  latter  the  local  trouble  precedes  or  is  concomi- 
tant with  the  fever,  while  in  the  former  the  fever  precedes  the  local 
trouble  by  several  days.  Variola  may  be  confounded  with  bronchitis 
or  pneumonia  if  complicated  with  these  troubles  and  the  eruplion  is 
absent  from  the  exterior,  but  it  is  of  little  moment,  as  the  treatment  for 
both  will  be  much  the  same.  When  the  eruptiou  is  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  genital  organs  this  disease  has  been  mistaken  for  the  dou- 
rine.  In  variola  the  eruption  is  a  temporary  one;  the  nodes  and  pus- 
tules are  followed  by  shallow  ulcers  and  rapid  cicatrization,  unless  con- 
tinued in  the  vagina  or  on  the  penis  by  the  rubbing  of  the  wuMs  and 
filth  which  accumulates;  there  are  apt  to  be  pustules  at  other  parts  of 
the  body.  In  the  venereal  disease  the  local  trouble  commences  as  a 
papule  and  breaks  into  an  ulcer  without  having  formed  a  pustule.  The 
ulcer  has  not  the  convex  rosy  appearance  of  that  of  the  less  serious  dis- 
charge; the  symptoms  last  for  a  longer  period,  by  which  time  others 
aid  in  differentiating  the  two.  In  glanders  the  tubercle  is  hard,  and, 
after  breaking  into  an  ulcer,  the  indurated  bottom  remains,  grayish  or 
dirty-white  in  color,  ragged  and  exuding  a  viscous,  oily  discharge. 
There  is  no  disposition  to  suppuration  of  the  neighboring  glands.  In 
variola  the  rosy  shallow  ulcer  and  healthy  laudable  pus,  with  the 
acutely  tumified  glands,  should  not  be  mistaken,  at  least  after  a  day. 
I  have  seen  acute  glanders  in  mules  which  required  a  day's  delay  to 
differentiate  from  strangles ;  at  that  time  the  farcy  buds  appeared. 

Prognosis. — The  average  case  of  the  horsepox  runs  a  course  of  dejec- 
tion, loss  of  appetite,  and  more  or  less  fever  for  about  four  days,  followed 
by  a  rapid  convalescence,  and  leaves  the  animal  as  well  and  as  sound 
as  before.  If  the  eruption  has  been  excessive  or  confluent,  the  ulcera- 
tions may  act  as  irritants  and  render  the  animal  unfit  for  use  for  several 
weeks.  Laryngitis,  pharyngitis,  bronchitis,  and  pneumonia  in  this  dis- 
ease are  not  of  greater  gravity  than  they  are  when  occurring  from  other 
causes.  The  spots  denuded  of  pigment  left  by  the  pustules  on  the  lips 
and  genitals  may  temporarily  depreciate  the  value  of  the  animal  to  a 
slight  degree. 

Treatment.— As  this  is  a  disease  unattended  by  alterations  of  the 
blood  itself,  although  a  specific  fever,  and  is  of  a  sthenic  type,  active 


510 

remedies  are  admissible  and  indicated.  The  horse  should  bo  placed  on 
alow  diet — little  or  no  oats — bran  mashes,  a  moderate  quantity  of  good 
sound  ha^',  a  few  carrots  or  apples,  which  will  act  as  laxatives,  and  slop 
feed.  Barley  flour  is  more  cooling  for  mashes  than  bran  or  oat  meal. 
Water  may  be  given  as  the  animal  desires  it,  but  it  should  not  be  cold  ; 
if  a  half  bucketful  of  water  is  kept  in  the  manger  the  horse  will  take 
but  a  few  swallows  at  a  time.  Dram  doses  of  nitrate  of  potash,  or 
ounce  doses  of  sweet  spirits  of  niter  are  useful  in  the  drinking  water. 
If  the  fever  is  high  the  antipyretics  are  indicated:  Tincture  of  aconite 
in  fifteen  to  twenty  drop  doses ;  sul])hate  of  quinine  in  dram  doses ; 
iodide  of  potash  in  dram  doses  ;  two  or  three  half-dram  doses  of  tartar 
emetic  or  Kermes  mineral  are  often  useful ;  bleeding  will  often  reduce 
the  temperature  at  once  and  prevent  complications,  but  is  sometimes 
the  cause  of  an  ugly  inflammation  surrounded  by  an  eruption  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  wound  ;  infusion  of  pine  tops,  of  juniper  leaves, 
of  the  aromatic  herbs,  or  of  English  breakfast  tea  are  useful  in  the  later 
stages.  If  complications  of  the  air  passages  or  lungs  are  threatened  a 
large  mustard  poultice  should  be  applied  to  the  belly  and  sides  of  the 
chest.  Oxide  of  zinc  ointment  should  be  used  on  confluent  erui)tions, 
and  if  the  ulceration  is  excessive  it  may  have  to  be  touched  with  caustic. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  animal  protected  from  cold 
draughts  of  air  or  other  exposure.  Blankets  or  sheets  should  be  used 
on  the  body  and  bandages  on  the  legs.  After  convalescence  is  estab- 
lished nutritious  food  of  easy  digestion  and  walking  exercise  are  all 
that  is  needed,  except  perhaps  a  little  Glauber's  salts,  to  prevent  con- 
stipation. 

Proplnjlactic  treatment. — When  the  horsepox  breaks  out  amongst  a 
large  number  of  horses,  especially  on  a  farm  where  there  are  a  number 
of  colts,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  greater  majority  will  contract  the 
disease,  and  it  is  more  economical  that  they  should  have  it  and  be 
through  with  it  at  once.  If  the  weather  is  moderate  all  the  animals 
which  have  not  been  affected  can  be  inoculated,  which  will  produce  the 
disease  in  a  mild  form,  with  the  eruption  at  a  point  of  election,  and 
render  the  danger  of  complication  a  minimum  one.  For  inoculation  the 
discharge  from  the  pustules  of  a  mild  case  should  be  selected  and  inoc- 
ulated by  scarification  on  the  belly  or  the  under  surface  of  the  neck. 

ANTHRAX. 

Synonyms.— >S'acer  ignis^  Pustula  maligna,  Antlirax,  Latin  ;  Cliarhon, 
Sang  de Bate,  FrenGh ;  Miltzhrand,  German;  Carhone,  Carhonchio,  Fuoco 
de  St.  Antonio,  Italian ;  Jasica,  Sibc7-skaji  Jastva,  Eussiau ;  Carbuncle, 
Splenic  Fever,  Splenic  Apojylexy,  Braxy  (in  sheep),  etc. 

Anthrax  is  a  severe  and  usually  fatal  contagious  disease,  charac- 
terized by  chills,  great  depression  and  stupor  of  the  animal,  and  a 
profound  alteration  of  the  blood,  due  to  destruction  of  the  red  blood 
corpuscles.     It  is  caused  by  the  admission  into  the  animal  body  of  bac- 


511 

teria,  or  low  order  of  living  organisms,  or  their  spores,  known  as  the 
^^ bacillus  of  Davaine'"'  ov  '■'•  bacillus  anthracls.'" 

It  affects  all  animals  exposed  to  its  contagion.  The  herbivora  are 
especially  susceptible  in  the  following  order  :  the  sheep,  the  ox,  and  the 
horse.  The  Guinea  pig,  the  hog,  the  rabbit,  mice,  and  other  animals 
die  quickly  from  its  effects.  Man,  the  dog,  and  other  omnivora  and 
carnivora  may  be  attacked  by  it  in  a  constitutional  form  as  fatal  as  in 
the  herbivora,  but  fortunately,  in  some  cases,  develop  from  it  only  local 
trouble,  followed  by  recovery.  Fowls  may  be  inoculated  and  develop 
the  disease  if  they  are  partially  immersed  in  cold  water,  to  reduce  their 
natural  body  temperature  from  101°  to  about  100°  F.  Frogs  may  be  in- 
oculated successfully  if  kept  in  warm  water,  which  will  elevate  their  body 
temperature  to  one  approximating  that  of  the  warm-blooded  animal, 
9GO-9SO  F. 

Anthrax  has  been  a  scourge  of  the  animals  of  the  civilized  world  since 
the  first  written  history  we  have  of  any  of  their  diseases.  It  existed  in 
Asia  Minor  at  the  time  of  the  siege  of  Troy ;  it  was  a  plague  of  the 
cattle  of  Egypt  during  the  time  of  Moses.  It  was  a  severe  pest  among 
the  agricultural  animals  in  the  early  Greek  and  Eomau  days,  and  we 
have  very  accurate  accounts  of  its  symptoms  from  the  writings  of 
Columella,  Varro,  Virgil,  and  others.  By  the  writers  of  the  Middle 
Ages  it  was  frequently  confounded  with  the  rinderpest,  but  is  described 
with  sufficient  j)recision  to  identify  outbreaks  of  it  in  epizootic  form  in 
99G  A.  D,  and  1090  A.  D.  in  France ;  in  1552  at  Lucca,  Italy  :  in  1617 
at  !N"aples,  where  numbers  of  human  beings  died  from  eating  the  flesh 
of  animals  which  were  affected  with  the  disease. 

In  1593  the  senate  of  Venice  interdicted  the  sale  of  meat,  butter,  or 
cheese  coming  from  animals  affected  with  anthrax.  In  1709-1712  A. 
D,  extensive  outbreaks  of  anthrax  occurred  in  Germany,  Hungary,  and 
Poland.  In  the  first  half  of  the  present  century  it  had  become  an  ex- 
tensively spread  disease  in  Russia,  Holland,  and  England,  and  for  the 
last  century  has  been  gradually  spreading  in  the  Americas  ;  more  so  in 
South  America.  In  ISGl,  in  the  five  governments  of  Petersburg,  Nov- 
gorod, Olonetz,  Twer,  and  Jaroslaw,  in  Russia,  over  ten  thousand 
horses  and  nearly  one  thousand  persons  perished  from  the  disease. 

The  causes  of  anthrax  were  for  a  long  time  attributed  entirely  to 
climatic  influence,  soil,  and  atmospheric  temperature,  and  they  are 
still  recognized  as  most  important  iiredisposing  factors  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  disease,  for  it  is  usually  found,  especially  when  outbreaks 
over  any  number  of  animals  occur,  in  low,  damp,  marshy  countries 
during  the  warm  seasons.  It  is  more  frequent  in  districts  where  marshy 
lands  dry  out  during  the  heat  of  summer  and  are  then  covered  with 
light  rains.  Decaying  vegetable  matter  seems  most  favorable  for  nour- 
ishing and  preserving  the  virus. 

The  direct  cause  of  anthrax  is  always  contagion  or  infection  of  a  pre- 
viously sound  animal,  either  directly  from  a  diseased  animal  or  through 


512 

various  media  which  contain  excretions  or  the  debris  from  the  body  of 
a  previously  infected  animal.  The  specific  virusof  anthrax  was  first  dis- 
covered by  Davaine  in  1851.  He  recognized  in  the  blood  of  animals  suf- 
fering from  anthrax  microscopic  bodies  in  the  form  of  little  rods  with 
bright  spots  at  their  extremities.  It  was  not,  however,  till  a  quarter  of  a 
century  later  that  Pasteur  defined  the  exact  nature  of  the  bacillus,  the 
mode  of  its  propagation,  and  its  exact  relationship  to  anthrax  as  the  sole 
cause  of  the  disease.  The  bacillus  of  Davaine,  or  the  virus  of  anthrax,  is 
a  low  organism,  in  the  form  of  a  rod  with  a  bright  spot  or  spore  at  either 
end,  which  develops  in  the  blood  of  an  animal,  or  in  other  favorable 
media,  as  chicken  broth  or  meat  jellies  kept  at  the  temperature  of  the  ani- 
mal body.  In  the  animal  body  the  bacilli  have  a  tendency  to  be  filtered 
from  the  blood  by  the  tissues  of  the  organs  through  which  the  fluid 
passes,  and  to  accumulate  in  the  spleen,  liver,  and  elsewhere,  so  that 
these  organs  are  much  more  virulent  than  the  muscles  or  less  vascular 
tissues.  When  eliminated  from  the  animal  in  the  excretions,  or  when 
exposed  to  outside  influences  by  the  death  of  the  animal  and  the  disinte- 
gration of  the  tissues,  the  body  of  the  rod  is  destro^'ed  and  the  spores 
only  remain.  These  spores,  which  are  the  germs  of  the  virus,  retain 
their  vitality  for  a  long  period ;  they  resist  ordinary  i^utrefaction  ;  they 
are  unchanged  by  moisture,  and  they  are  not  affected  by  moderate  heat. 
If  scattered  with  the  d6bris  of  a  dead  animal  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  they  may  remain  around  the  roots  of  the  grass  in  a  i^asture,  or 
may  be  washed  to  the  nearest  low-lying  ground  or  marsh.  If  buried  in 
the  body  of  an  animal  dead  from  anthrax,  they  may  be  washed  deep  in 
the  ground,  and  in  later  years  (in  one  proven  case  seventeen  years)  be 
brought  to  the  surface  and  infect  other  animals.  They  are  frequently 
brought  to  the  surface  of  the  earth,  having  been  swallowed  by  earth- 
worms, in  the  bodies  of  which  they  have  been  found. 

This  accounts  for  the  outbreaks  at  the  time  of  the  first  rains  after  a 
dry  season.  During  the  latter  the  earthworm  goes  deep  in  the  ground 
in  search  of  moisture ;  it  finds  the  spore  which  has  been  washed  there 
in  past  years,  swallows  it,  and  brings  it  to  the  surface,  when  the  rain 
furnishes  the  moisture  which  drives  the  worm  itself  from  its  deeper 
home.  The  virus  is  carried  with  the  wool  from  infected  sheep  and  re- 
mains in  it  through  the  process  of  manufacture  into  cloth.  The  spores 
remain  in  the  hides  of  animals  which  have  died  of  anthrax  and  retain 
their  vitality  throughout  months  of  soaking  in  the  tanners'  pits,  the 
working  of  the  harness-maker  or  the  cobbler  and  after  the  oiling  of  the 
completed  leather.  The  dried  spores  in  the  dust  from  any  of  these  prod- 
ucts may  be  carried  by  the  atmosphere. 

Infection  of  an  animal  takes  place  through  inoculation  or  contact  of 
the-bacillus  or  its  spores  with  an  abraded  surface  or  mucous  membrane 
on  a  sound  animal.  In  an  infected  district  "horses  may  eat  the  rich 
pasturage  of  spring  and  early  summer  with  impunity,  but  when  grass 
becomes  low  they  croi)  it  close  to  the  ground,  pull  up  the  roots  around 


513 

which  the  virus  may  be  lodged,  and.  under  these  conditions  the  animals 
are  more  apt  to  have  abrasions  of  the  lips  or  tongue  by  contact  with 
dried  stubble  and  the  dirt  on  the  roots,  which  favors  the  introduction 
of  the  germs  into  the  system.  The  virus  may  be  introduced  with  food 
and  enter  the  blood-vessel  system  from  the  stomach  and  intestines.  If 
contained  in  the  dust,  dried  hay,  or  on  the  parched  pasture  of  late  sum- 
mer, the  virus  may  be  inhaled  and  be  absorbed  from  the  lining  of  the 
lungs.  If  contained  in  harness  leather,  it  needs  but  an  abrasion  of  the 
skin,  as  the  harness  rubs  it,  to  transfer  the  spore  from  the  leather  to 
the  circulation  of  the  animal. 

The  writer  saw  a  case  of  anthrax  occur  in  a  groom  from  the  use  of  a 
new  horse  brush.  The  strap  which  passes  over  the  back  of  the  hand 
inoculated  an  abrasion  ou  the  knuckle  of  the  first  finger,  and  in  twelve 
hours  a  "  pustule  "  had  formed  and  the  arm  had  become  affected. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  anthrax  develop  with  extreme  rapid- 
ity ;  they  are  frequently  so  sudden  that  it  appears  but  a  few  minutes 
for  the  animals  to  have  passed  from  a  condition  of  perfect  health  to  a 
dangerously  diseased  one.  The  horse  is  dejected  and  falls  into  a  state 
of  profound  stupor,  attended  by  great  muscular  weakness.  The  feeble, 
indolent  animal,  if  forced  to  move,  drags  its  legs.  There  are  severe 
chills,  agitation  of  the  muscles,  symptoms  of  vertigo,  and  at  times  colicky 
pains.  The  mucous  membranes  turn  a  deep  ochre  or  bluish-red  color. 
The  body  temperature  is  rapidly  elevated  to  104°  and  105°  F.  The 
breathing  is  increased  to  thirty  or  forty  respirations  in  the  minute  and 
the  pulse  is  greatly  accelerated,  but  the  arteries  are  soft  and  almost  im- 
perceptible, while  the  heart-beats  can  be  felt  and  heard,  violent  and 
tumultuous.  In  other  words,  it  resembles  a  very  severe  case  of  in- 
fluenza, except  in  regard  to  the  heart's  action.  The  symptoms  last  but 
two,  three,  or  four  days,  at  most,  when  the  case  usually  terminates 
fatally.  An  examination  of  the  blood  shows  a  dark  fluid  Avhich  is  not 
clot,  and  which  remains  black  after  exposure  to  the  air.  After  death 
the  bodies  putrify  rapidly  and  bloat  up;  the  tissues  are  filled  with  gases 
and  a  bloody  foam  exudes  from  the  mouth,  nostrils,  and  anus,  and  fre- 
quently the  mucous  membranes  of  the  rectum  protrude  from  the  latter. 
The  hairs  detach  from  the  skin.  Congestion  of  all  the  organs  and  tis- 
sues is  found,  with  interstitial  hemorrhages.  The  muscles  are  friable 
and  are  covered  with  ecchymotic  spots.  This  is  specially  marked  in 
the  licart. 

The  black,  uncoagulated  and  incoaguable  blood  shows  an  iridescent 
scum  on  its  surface,  which  is  due  to  the  fat  of  the  animal  dissolved  by 
the  ammonia,  produced  by  the  decomposed  tissues.  The  serum  oozes 
out  of  every  tissue  and  contains  broken-down  blood,  which,  when  ex- 
amined microscopically,  is  found  to  have  the  red  globules  crenated  and 
the  leucocytes  granular.  A  high  power  of  the  microscope  also  reveals 
the  bacteria  in  the  shape  of  lictle  rod-like  bodies  of  homogeneous  tex- 
ture with  their  brilliant  spores. 
11035 33 


514 

The  lymphatic  ganglia  are  increased  four,  five,  six,  or  ten  times  their 
natural  size,  enlarged  by  the  engorgement  of  blood.  The  spleen  shows 
nodulated  black  spots  containing  a  nmdtly  blood,  which  is  found  teem- 
ing with  the  virus.  The  mucous  membranes  of  the  intestines  are  con- 
gested and  brown  ;  the  surface  of  the  intestines  is  in  many  places  de- 
nuded of  its  lining  membrane,  showing  fissures  and  hemorrhagic  spots. 
The  liver  has  a  cooked  appearance;  the  kidneys  are  congested  and 
friable;  the  urine  is  red ;  the  pleura,  lungs,  and  the  meninges  are  con- 
gested and  the  bronchi  of  the  lungs  contain  a  bloody  foam. 

Un  resinr,e :  The  symptoms  rre  those  -which  are  found  in  any  disease 
with  a  rapidly  decomposing  blood. 

The  treatment  cf  anthrax  was  entirely  useless  and  ineffectual  until 
within  a  comparatively  few  years.  The  curative  treatment,  for  which 
almost  every  drug  in  the  pharmacopoeia  has  been  used,  was  without 
avail,  except,  perhaps,  the  use  of  iodine,  injected  in  the  circulation  in 
as  large  quantities  as  could  be  tolerated  by  the  system.  This  treatment 
gives  good  results  in  the  human  being,  but  requires  too  much  personal 
attention  to  be  economical  in  animals  when  the  disease  occurs  in  epi- 
demic form,  although  it  may  be  used  iu  the  horse  when  occurring  in  an 
animal  of  great  value. 

The  prophylactic  treatment  formerly  consisted  in  the  avoidance  of 
certain  fields  and  marshes  which  were  recognized  as  contaminated  dur- 
ing tlie  months  of  August  and  September  and  had  been  occupied  the 
years  in  which  the  outbreaks  usually  occurred.  It  underwent,  however, 
a  revolution  after  the  discovery  by  Pasteur  of  the  possibility  of  a  pro- 
phylactic inoculation  which  granted  immunity  from  future  attacks  of 
the  disease  equal  to  that  granted  by  the  recovery  of  an  animal  from  an 
ordinary  attack  of  the  disease. 

This  treatment  consists  in  an  artificial  cultivation  of  the  virus  of  an- 
thrax in  broths,  jellies,  or  other  media,  and  in  the  treatment  of  it  by 
means  of  continued  exposure  to  the  atmosphere  or  to  a  high  tempera- 
ture for  a  certain  length  of  time,  which  weakens  the  virus  to  such  an 
extent  that  it  is  only  capable  of  producing  an  ephemeral  fever  in  the 
animal  in  which  it  is  inoculated,  and  which  yet  has  retained  a  sufficient 
amount  of  its  power  to  protect  the  animal  from  inoculation  of  a  stronger 
virus.  The  production  of  this  virus,  which  is  carried  on  in  some  coun- 
tries at  the  expense  of  the  government  and  is  furnished  at  a  small  cost 
to  the  farmers  in  regions  where  the  disease  prevails,  in  this  country  is 
made  only  in  private  laboratories. 

GLANDERS, 

Synonyms  :  Glanders,  Farcy,  One  form  of  I\^a$al  Gleet,  English ; 
Malleus  huinidus,  Equina  nasalis.  Equina  aposicviatos,  Latin ;  liotz, 
Botzkrankhcit,  German ;  Snot,  VerroUng,  Dutch ;  Moccio,  Cia^^orrOf 
Italian;  Muenno,  Spanish;  Jlorve,  Farcin,  Freucii. 


515 

Definition.— het  it  be  understood  at  the  outset  that  glanders  and  farcy- 
arc  one  and  the  same  disease,  dilieriug  only  in  that  the  first  term  is 
applied  to  the  disease  -when  the  local  lesions  predominate  in  the  internal 
organs,  especially  in  the  lungs  and  the  air  tubes  ;  and  that  the  second 
term  is  applied  to  it  when  the  principal  manifestation  is  an  outbreak  of 
the  lesions  on  the  exterior  or  skin  of  the  animal.  The  term  glanders 
applies  to  the  disease  in  both  forms,  while  the  term  farcy  is  limited  to  the 
visible  appearance  of  external  trouble  only ;  but  in  the  latter  case 
internal  lesions  always  exist,  although  they  may  not  be  evident. 

Glanders  is  a  contagious  constitutional  disease  of  the  genus  cquus 
(the  horse,  ass,  and  mule),  readily  communicable  to  man,  sheep,  goats, 
to  dog,  the  cat,  the  rabbit,  and  Guinea  pig.  It  runs  a  variable  course 
until  it  produces  the  death  of  the  animal  affected  with  it.  It  is 
characterized  by  the  formation  of  neoplasms  of  connective  tissue,  or 
tubercles  which  degenerate  into  ulcers  from  which  exudes  a  peculiar 
discharge.  It  is  accompanied  by  a  variable  amouut  of  fever  according 
to  the  rapidity  of  its  course.  It  is  subject  to  various  complications  of 
the  lymphatic  glands,  of  the  hmgs,  of  the  testicles,  of  the  internal 
organs,  and  of  the  subcutaneous  connective  tissue. 

History. — Glanders  is  one  of  the  oldest  diseases  of  which  we  have 
definite  knowledge  in  the  history  of  medicine.  Absyrtus,  the  Greek 
veterinarian  in  the  army  of  Coustantinc  the  Great,  described  this  dis- 
ease with  considerable  accuracy^  and  recognized  the  contagiousness  of 
its  character.  Another  Greek  veteriuarian,  Yegetius  Eenatus,  who 
lived  in  the  time  of  Theodosius  (3S1  A.  D.),  described  under  the  name 
of  malleus  humidus,  a  disease  of  the  horse  characterized  by  a  nasal  dis- 
charge and  accompanied  by  superficial  ulcers.  He  recognized  the  con- 
tagious properties  of  the  discharge  of  the  external  ulcers,  and  recom- 
mended that  all  animals  sick  with  the  disease  should  be  separated  at 
once  with  the  greatest  care  from  the  others,  and  should  bo  pastured  in 
separate  fields  for  fear  the  other  animals  should  become  affected. 

In  1GS2  Sollysel,  the  stable  mas:er  of  Louis  XIV,  i>ublished  an  ac- 
count of  glanders  and  farcy,  which  he  considered  closely  related  to 
each  other,  although  he  did  not  recognize  them  as  identical.  He  ad- 
mitted the  existence  of  a  virus  which  communicated  the  disease  from 
an  infected  animal  to  a  sound  one.  lie  called  special  attention  to  the 
fe;  d-troughs  and  water-buckets  as  being  the  medium  of  contagion.  He 
divided  glanders  into  two  forms,  one  malignant  and  contagious,  and  the 
other  benign,  and  he  stated  that  there  was  always  danger  of  infection. 

Garsault,  in  1740,  said  "  that  as  this  disease  is  communicated  very 
easily,  and  can  infect  in  a  very  short  time  a  prodigious  number  of  horses 
by  means  of  the  discharges  which  may  be  licked  up,  animals  infected 
with  glanders  should  be  destroyed." 

Bourgelat,  the  founder  of  veterinary  schools,  in  his  "  Elements  of  Hip- 
piatary,"  published  in  1755,  establishes  glanders  as  a  virulent  disease. 
Extensive  outbreaks  of  glanders  are  described  as  prevailing  in  the 


516 

great  armies  of  continental  Europe  and  England  from  time  to  time  dur- 
ing the  periods  of  all  the  wars  of  the  last  few  centuries. 

Glanders  was  imported  into  America  at  the  close  of  the  last  century, 
antl  before  the  end  of  the  first  half  of  the  present  century  had  spread  to 
a  considerable  degree  among  the  horses  of  the  Middle  and  immediately 
a-ljoining  Southern  States.  This  disease  was  unknown  in  Mexico  until 
carried  there  during  the  Mexican  war  by  the  badly  diseased  horses  of 
the  United  States  Army.  During  the  first  half  of  the  present  century 
a  large  school  of  veterinarians  and  medical  men  protested  against  the 
contagious  character  of  this  disease,  and  prevailed  by  their  opinion  to 
such  an  extent  against  the  common  opinion  that  several  of  the  govern- 
ments of  Europe  undertook  a  series  of  experiments  to  determine  the 
right  between  the  contesting  j^arties. 

At  the  veterinary  school  at  Alfort,  and  at  the  farm  of  Lamirault  in 
France,  several  hundred  horses  which  had  passedexaminatiou  as  sound 
had  placed  among  them  glandered  horses  under  various  conditions. 
The  results  of  these  experiments  proved  conclusively  the  contagions 
character  of  the  disease. 

In  188L  Professor  Bouchard,  of  the  faculty  of  medicine  in  Paris,  as- 
sisted by  Drs.  Capitau  and  Charrin,  undertook  a  series  of  experiments 
with  matter  taken  from  the  farcy  ulcer  of  a  human  being.  They  after- 
ward continueil  their  experiments  with  matter  taken  from  animals  of 
the  equine  genus.  In  1883  these  gentlemen  presented  the  results  of 
their  researches  to  the  Academy,  through  Professors  Bouley  and  Vul- 
piam,  conclusively  demonstrating  that  the  disease  was  caused  by  a  bacte- 
rium or  low  order  of  parasitic  organism,  which  is  capable  of  propagation 
and  reproduction  of  others  of  its  own  kind  if  placed  in  the  proper  media. 

When  we  come  to  study  the  etiology  of  glanders,  the  difference  of  sus- 
ceptibility on  the  part  of  different  species  of  animals,  or  even  on  the  part 
of  individuals  of  the  same  species,  and  when  we  come  to  find  proof  of 
the  slow  incubation  and  latent  character  of  the  disease  as  it  exists  in 
certain  individuals,  we  will  understand  how  in  a  section  of  country 
containing  a  number  of  glandered  animals  others  can  seem  to  contract 
sind  develop  the  disease  without  having  apparently  been  exposed  to 
contagion. 

Etiology. — The  contagious  nature  of  glanders,  in  no  matter  what  form 
it  appears,  being  to-day  definitely  demonstrated,  we  can  recognize  but 
one  cause  for  all  cases,  and  that  is  contagion  by  means  of  the  specific 
virus  of  the  disease. 

In  studying  the  writings  of  the  older  authors  on  glanders,  and  the 
works  of  those  authors  who  contested  the  contagious  nature  of  the  dis- 
ease, we  find  a  large  number  of  predisposing  causes  assigned  as  factors 
in  the  development  of  the  malady. 

While  a  virus  from  a  case  of  glanders  if  inoculated  into  an  animal  of 
the  genus  equus  will  inevitably  produce  the  disease,  we  find  a  vast 
difference  in  the  contagious  activity  of  the  products  of  different  cases 


517 

of  glanders.  We  flud  a  great  variation  in  the  manner  and  rapidity  of 
the  development  of  the  disi-ase  in  different  individuals,  and  we  find 
that  the  contagion  is  much  more  apt  to  be  carried  to  sound  animals 
under  certain  circumstances  than  it  is  under  others.  Only  certain 
species  of  animals  are  susceptible  of  contracting  the  disease,  and  while 
some  of  these  contract  it  as  a  general  constitutional  malady,  in  others 
it  only  develops  as  a  local  sore. 

In  acute  glanders  the  contagion  is  found  in  its  most  virulent  form,  as 
is  shown  by  the  inevitable  infection  of  susceptible  animals  inoculated 
with  the  disease,  while  the  discharge  from  chronic  semilatent  glanders 
and  farcy  may  at  times  be  inoculated  with  a  negative  result;  agaiu,  in 
acute  glanders,  as  we  have  a  free  discharge,  a  much  greater  quantity 
of  virus  coutainiug  matter  is  scattered  in  the  neighborhood  of  an  in- 
fected horse  to  serve  as  a  contagion  to  others  than  is  found  in  the  suiall 
amount  of  discharge  of  the  chronic  cases. 

The  chances  of  contagion  are  much  greater  when  sound  horses,  asses, 
or  mules  are  placed  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  glandered  horses, 
drink  from  the  same  bucket,  stand  in  the  next  stall  or  work  in  the  same 
wagon,  or  are  fed  from  the  same  bales  of  hay  or  straw  which  have 
been  impreguated  by  the  saliva  and  soiled  by  the  discharge  of  sick  ani- 
mals. The  contagion  must  terminate  by  direct  contact  of  the  discharges 
of  a  glandered  animal  with  the  tissues  of  a  sound  one,  either  on  the 
exterior  or  when  swallowed  mixed  with  food  into  the  digestive  tract. 

Glanders  is  not  infectious  in  the  old  acceptation  of  the  word.  Renault 
made  a  large  numberof  experiments,  forcing  sound  horses  to  breathe  the 
expired  air  of  glandered  horses  for  an  hour  and  a  half  a  day  for  seven 
days,  by  means  of  a  tube  of  canvas,  and  was  unable  to  produce  the 
disease  in  any  case. 

The  stable  attendants  serve  as  one  of  the  most  common  carriers  of 
the  virus.  Dried  or  fresh  discharges  are  collected  from  the  infected 
animal  in  cleaniug,  harnessing,  feeding,  and  by  means  of  the  hands, 
clothing,  the  teeth  of  the  currycomb,  the  sponge,  the  bridle,  and  halter, 
and  are  carried  to  other  animals. 

An  animal  affected  with  chronic  glanders  in  a  latent  form  is  moved 
from  one  part  of  the  stable  to  another,  or  works  hitched  with  one  horse 
and  then  with  another,  and  may  be  an  active  agent  in  the  provocation 
of  the  disease  without  the  cause  being  recognized. 

Glanders  is  found  frequently  in  the  most  iusidious  forms,  and  we  rec- 
ognize that  it  can  exist  without  being  apparent ;  that  is,  it  may  affifct 
a  horse  for  a  long  period  withOnt  showing  any  symptoms  that  will  allow 
even  the  most  experienced  veterinarian  to  make  a  diagnosis.  An  old 
gray  mare  belonging  to  a  tavern  keeper  was  reserved  for  family  use 
with  good  care  and  light  work  for  a  period  of  eight  years,  during  which 
time  other  horses  in  the  tavern  stable  were  from  time  to  time  affected 
with  glanders  without  an  apparent  cause.  The  mare,  whose  only 
trouble  was  an  apparent  attack  of  heaves,  was  sold  to  a  huckster,  who 


518 

placed  Ler  at  hard  work.  "Want  of  feed  and  overwork  and  exposure 
rapidly  developed  a  ease  of  acute  glanders,  from  which  the  animal 
died,  and  at  the  autopsy  were  found  the  lesions  of  an  acute  pneumonia 
of  glanders  grafted  on  chronic  lesions,  consisting  of  old  tubercles,  \^hich 
had  undoubtedly  existed  for  years. 

In  a  recent  case  under  the  care  of  the  writer  a  coach  horse  was  ex- 
amined for  soundness  and  passed  as  sound  by  a  prominent  veterinarian, 
who  a  few  montlis  afterwards  treated  the  horse  for  a  skin  eruption 
from  which  it  recovered.  Twelve  months  afterwards  it  came  into  the 
hands  of  the  writer,  hidebound,  with  a  slight  cough  and  a  slight 
eruption  of  the  skin,  which  was  attiibuted  to  clipping  and  the  rubbing 
of  the  harness,  but  which  had  nothing  suspicious  in  its  character.  The 
horse  was  placed  on  tonics  and  put  to  regular  light  driving.  In  six 
weeks  it  developed  a  bronchitis  without  having  been  specially  exposed, 
and  in  two  days  this  trouble  was  followed  by  a  lobular  imeunionia  and 
the  breaking  of  an  abscess  in  the  right  lung.  Farcy  buds  developed 
on  the  surface  of  the  body  and  the  animal  died.  The  autopsy-  showed 
the  existence  of  a  number  of  old  tubercles  in  the  lungs  which  must 
have  existed  previous  to  purchase,  more  than  a  year  before. 

Public  watering  troughs  and  the  feed  boxes  of  boarding  stables  and 
the  tavern  stables  of  market  towns  are  among  the  most  common  recip- 
ients forthevirus  of  glanders,  which  is  most  dangerous  in  its  fresh  state, 
but  cases  have  been  known  to  be  caused  by  feeding  animals  in  the  box 
or  stall  in  which  glanJered  animals  had  stood  more  than  a  year  before. 
While  the  discharge  from  a  case  of  chronic  glanders  is  much  less  apt 
to  contain  the  virus  than  that  from  a  case  of  acute  glanders,  the  former, 
if  it  infects  an  animal,  will  produce  the  same  disease  as  the  latter.  It 
may  assume  from  the  outset  an  acute  or  chronic  form  according  to  the 
susceptibility  of  the  animal  infected,  and  this  does  not  depend  upon  the 
character  of  the  disease  from  which  the  virus  was  derived. 

The  genus  equus,  the  horse,  the  ass,  and  the  mule,  are  the  animals 
which  are  the  most  susceptible  to  contract  glanders,  but  in  these  we 
find  a  much  greater  receptivity  in  the  ass  and  mule  than  we  do  in  the 
horse.  In  the  ass  and  mule  in  almost  all  cases  the  period  of  incubation 
is  short  and  the  disease  develops  in  an  acute  form.  We  find  that  the 
race  of  horse  infected  influences  the  character  of  the  disease;  in  full- 
blooded,  fat  horses,  of  a  sanguinary  temperament,  the  disease  usually 
develops  in  an  acute  form,  while  in  the  lymphatic,  cold-blooded,  more 
common  race  of  horses,  the  disease  usually  assumes  a  chronic  form.  If 
the  disease  develops  first  in  the  chronic  ffJVm  in  a  horse  in  fair  condition, 
starvation  and  overwork  are  apt  to  bring  on  an  acute  attack,  but  when 
the  disease  is  inoculated  into  a  debilitated  and  impoverished  animal  it 
is  apt  to  start  in  the  latent  form.  Inoculation  on  the  lips  or  the  ex- 
terior of  the  animal  is  frequently  followed  by  an  acute  attack,  while  in- 
fection by  ingestion  of  the  virus  and  inoculation  by  means  of  the  diges- 
tive tract  is  often  followed  by  the  trouble  in  the  chronic  latent  form. 


519 

In  the  dog  the  inoculation  of  glanders  may  develop  a  constitutioual 
disease  with  all  the  symptoms  which  are  found  in  the  horse,  but  more 
frequently  the  virus  pullulates  ouly  at  the  point  of  inoculation,  remain- 
ing for  some  time  as  a  local  sore,  which  may  then  heal,  leaving  a  per- 
fectly sound  animal ;  but  while  the  local  sore  is  continuiug  to  ulcerate, 
and  specific  virus  exists  in  it,  it  may  be  the  carrier  of  contagion  to  other 
animals.  In  man  we  find  a  greater  receptivity  to  glanders  than  in  the 
dog,  and  in  many  unfortunate  cases  the  virus  spreads  from  the  point 
of  moculation  to  the  entire  system  and  destroys  the  wretched  mortal 
by  extensive  ulcers  of  the  face  and  hemorrhage,  or  by  destruction  of 
the  luug  tissue;  in  other  cases,  however,  most  fortunately,  glanders 
may  develop  as  in  the  dog,  only  in  local  form,  not  infecting  the  consti- 
tution and  terminating  in  recovery,  while  the  specific  ulcer  by  proper 
treatment  is  turned  into  a  simple  one.  In  the  feline  species  glanders 
is  more  destructive  than  in  the  dog.  The  point  of  inoculation  ulcerates 
rapidly  and  the  entire  system  becomes  infected. 

While  a. student  the  writer  saw  a  lion  in  the  service  of  Prolessor 
Trasbot,  at  ^fort,  which  had  contracted  the  disease  by  eating  glaudeied 
meat  and  died  with  the  lung  farcied  with  tubercles.  A  litter  of  kittens 
lapped  at  the  blood  from  the  lungs  of  a  glandered  horse  on  which  an 
autopsy  was  being  made,  and  in  ftmr  days  almost  their  entire  faces,  in- 
cluding the  nasal  bones,  were  eaten  away  by  rapid  ulceration.  Tuber- 
cles were  found  in  the  lungs. 

A  pack  of  wolves  in  the  Philadelphia  Zoological  Garden  died  in  ten 
days  alter  being  fed  with  the  meat  of  a  glandered  horse.  The  rabbit, 
Guinea  pig,  and  mice  are  specially  susceptible  to  the  inoculation  of 
glanders,  and  the  recent  discoveries  in  regard  to  this  disease  have  made 
these  animals  most  convenient  witnesses  and  proofs  of  the  existence  of 
suspected  cases  of  the  glanders  in  other  animals  by  the  results  of  suc- 
cessful inoculations. 

The  sheep  and  the  goat  are  both  capable  of  developing  the  disease. 
The  goat  is  more  suscei)tible  and  frequently  develops  it  by  means  of 
the  digestive  tract,  from  its  habit  of  eating  droppings,  rags,  etc.,  which 
are  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  .stall.  The  pig  is  considered  not 
to  be  susceptible  to  glanders,  and  a  large  number  of  inoculations,  to- 
gether with  the  feeding  of  glandered  meat  to  a  pen  of  pigs  at  the  vet- 
erinary school  at  Alfort,  failed  to  give  these  animals  the  disease,  but 
Bollinger  reports  that  GerlacU  has  seen  glanders  in  the  i)ig  nine  months 
after  inoculation.  An  experiment  of  Spmola  has  also  produced  positive 
results,  so  that  we  should  consider  it  dangerous  to  allow  a  pig  the  use 
of  glandered  meat. 

Horned  cattle  and  barnyard  fowls  are  absolutely  exemi)t  from  attacks 
of  glanders,  whether  the  virus  is  given  to  them  by  the  digestive  tract 
or  inoculated  into  their  tissues. 

The  previous  reference  to  the  existence  of  glanders  under  the  two 
forms  more  commonly  difierentiated  as  glanders  and  as  farcy,  and  our 


520 

reference  to  the  various  conditions  in  wliich  it  may  exist  as  acute, 
chrome,  and  latent,  show  that  the  disease  may  assume  several  different 
phases.  Without  losing  sight  for  a  moment  of  the  fact  that  all  of  these 
varied  conditions  are  identical  in  their  origin  and  in  their  essence,  for 
convenience  of  study  we  may  divide  glanders  into  three  classes  :  Chronic 
farcy,  chronic  glanders,  and  acute  farcy  glanders. 

The  primary  lesions  in  any  form  is  a  local  point  of  eruption  in  which 
we  have  a  rapid  prolification  of  the  cell  elements  which  make  up  the 
animal  tissue  with  formation  of  new  connective  tissue,  with  a  crowd- 
ing together  of  the  elements  until  their  own  pressure  on  each  other 
cuts  off  the  circulation  and  nutrition,  and  death  takes  place  in  them  in 
the  form  of  ulceration  or  gangrene.  Following  this  primary  lesion  we 
have  an  extension  of  infection  by  means  of  those  tissues  immediately 
surrounding  the  first  infected  spot,  which  is  most  suitable  for  tlie  de- 
velopment of  simple  inflammatory  phenomena  or  the  specific  virus. 
The  primary  symptoms  are  the  result  of  inoculation  developed  at  the 
point  of  inoculation,  but  at  a  later  time  the  virus  is  carried  by  means 
of  the  blood  vessels  and  lymphatic  vessels  to  other  parts*  of  the  body 
and  becomes  lodged  at  different  places  and  develops  m  them ;  again, 
when  the  disease  has  existed  in  the  latent  form  in  the  lungs  of  the 
animal  and  the  virus  is  wakened  into  action  from  any  cause,  we  have 
it  carried  to  various  parts  of  the  body  and  developing  in  the  most 
favorable  localities.  The  points  of  develoijmeut  are  most  frequently 
determined  by  the  activity  of  the  circulation  and  the  effects  of  exterior 
irritants.  For  example,  if  a  horse  which  has  been  so  slightly  affected 
with  the  virus  of  glanders  that  no  symptoms  are  visible  is  exposed  to 
cold,  rain,  or  sleet,  or  by  the  rubbing  of  the  harness  on  the  body  and 
the  irritation  of  mud  in  the  legs,  the  disease  is  apt  to  develop  on  the 
exterior  in  the  form  of  farcy,  while  a  full-blooded  horse  which  is  em- 
ployed at  speed  and  has  its  lungs  and  respiratory  tract  gorged  with 
blood  from  the  extreme  use  of  these  organs  will  develop  glanders  as 
the  local  manifestation  of  the  disease  in  the  respiratory  tract. 

Chronic  farcy. — In  farcy  the  symptoms  commence  by  formation  of 
little  nodes  on  the  under  surface  of  the  skin,  which  rapidly  infringe  on 
the  tissues  of  the  skin  itself.  These  nodes,  which  are  known  as  farcy 
"buds"  and  farcy  "buttons,"  are  from  the  size  of  a  bullet  to  the  size 
of  a  walnut.  They  are  hot,  sensitive  to  the  touch,  at  first  elastic  and 
afterwards  become  soft ;  the  tissue  is  destroyed,  and  infringing  on  the 
substance  of  the  skin  the  disease  produces  an  ulcer,  which  is  known  as 
a  chancre.  This  ulcer  is  irregular  in  shape,  with  ragged  edges  which 
overhang  the  sore  j  it  has  a  gray,  dirty  bottom  and  the  discharge  is 
sometimes  thin  and  sometimes  purulent ;  in  either  case  it  is  mixed  with 
a  viscous,  sticky,  yellowish  material  like  the  white  of  an  eg^  in  con- 
sistency, and  like  oUve  oil  in  appearance.  The  discharge  is  almost  diag- 
nostic: it  resembles  somewhat  the  discharge  which  we  have  in  greasy 
heels  and  in  certain  attacks  of  lymphangitis,  but  to  the  expert  the 


521 

specific  discbarge  is  characteristic.  The  discharge  accumulates  on  the 
hair  surrouudiug  the  ulcer  and  over  its  surface  aud  dries,  forming 
scabs  which  become  thicker  by  successive  deposits  on  the  undersurface 
until  they  fall  off,  to  be  replaced  by  others  of  the  same  kind;  and  the 
excess  of  discharge  may  drop  on  the  hairs  below  and  form  similar 
brownish  yellow  crusts.  The  farcy  ulcers  may  retain  their  specific  form 
for  a  considerable  time — days  or  even  weeks ;  but  eventually  the  dis- 
charge becomes  purulent  in  character  and  assumes  the  appearance  of 
healthy  matter.  The  surface  of  the  gangrenous  bottom  of  the  ulcer  is 
replaced  by  rosy  granulations,  the  ragged  edges  beveled  off,  and  the 
chancre  is  turned  into  a  simple  ulcer  which  rapidly  heals. 

The  farcy  buttons  occur  most  frequently  on  the  sides  of  the  lips,  the 
sides  of  the  neck,  the  lower  part  of  the  shoulders,  the  inside  of  the 
thighs,  or  the  outside  of  the  legs,  but  may  occur  at  any  part  of  the  body. 

We  have  next  an  irritation  of  the  lymphatic  vessels  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  chancres.  These  become  swollen  and  then  indurated  and 
appear  like  great  ridges  underneath  the  skin  ;  they  are  hot  to  the  touch 
and  sensitive.  The  cords  may  remain  for  a  considerable  time  and  then 
gradually  disappear,  or  they  may  ulcerate  like  a  farcy  bud  itself,  form- 
ing elongated,  irregular,  serpentine  ulcers  with  a  characteristic,  dirty, 
gray  bottom  and  ragged  edges,  and  pour  out  a  viscous  oily  discharge 
like  the  chancres  themselves. 

The  essential  symptoms  of  farcy  are  the  above;  the  button^  the  chan- 
cre, the  cord,  and  the  discharge.  We  have  in  addition  to  these  symp- 
toms a  certain  number  of  accessory  symptoms,  which,  while  not  diag- 
nostic in  themselves,  are  of  great  service  in  aiding  the  diagnosis  in  cases 
where  the  eruption  takes  place  in  small  quantities,  and  when  the  ulcers 
are  not  characteristic. 

Epistaxis,  or  bleeding  from  the  nose  without  previous  work  or  other 
apparent  cause,  is  one  of  the  frequent  concomitant  symptoms  in  glan- 
ders, and  such  a  hemorrhage  from  the  nostrils  should  always  be  regarded 
with  suspicion.  The  animal  with  farcy  frequently  develops  a  cough, 
resembling  much  that  which  we  find  in  heaves — a  short,  dry,  aborted, 
hacking  cough,  with  little  or  no  discharge  from  the  nostrils.  With  this 
we  find  an  irregular  movement  of  the  flanks,  and  on  auscultation  of  the 
lungs  we  find  sibilant  or  at  times  a  few  mucous  rales.  Another  com- 
mon symptom  is  a  sudden  swelling  of  one  of  the  hind  legs;  it  is  suddenly 
found  swollen  in  the  region  of  the  cannon,  the  eulargemeut  extending 
below  to  the  pastern  and  above  as  high  as  the  stifle.  This  swelling  is 
hot  and  painful  to  the  touch,  and  renders  the  animal  stiff  and  lame. 
On  pressure  with  the  finger  the  swelling  can  be  indented,  but  the  pits 
so  formed  soon  fill  up  again  on  removal  of  the  pressure.  In  severe 
cases  we  may  have  ulceration  of  the  skin,  and  serum  pours  out  from  the 
surface,  resembling  the  oozing  which  we  have  after  a  blister  or  in  a 
case  of  grease.  This  swelling  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  stock- 
ing in  lymphatic  horses,  or  the  cedema  which  we  have  in  chronic  heart 


522 

or  in  kidney  trouble,  as  in  the  last  tlio  swelling  is  cool  and  not  painful 
and  tlie  pitting  ou  pressure  remains  for  some  lime  after  the  latter  is 
withdrawn.  It  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  greasy  heels.  In  these  the 
disease  commences  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  pastern  and  gradually 
extends  up  the  leg,  rarely  passing  beyond  the  neighborhood  of  the 
hock.  The  swollen  leg  in  glanders  almost  invariably-  swells  for  the  en- 
tire length  in  a  single  night,  or  within  a  very  sliort  period.  When 
greasy  heels  are  complicated  hy  Ij'mphangitis  we  have  a  condition 
very  much  resembling  that  of  farcy.  The  swelled  leg  in  fare}'  is  fre- 
quently followed  by  an  outbreak  of  farcy  buttons  and  ulcers  over  its 
surface.  In  the  entire  horse  the  testicles  are  frequently  swollen,  hot 
and  sensitive  to  the  touch,  but  they  have  no  tendency  to  suppuration. 
The  acute  inflammation  is  rapidly  followed  by  the  specific  induratloLi, 
which  corresponds  to  the  local  lesions  in  other  i)arts  of  the  body. 

Chronic  farcy  in  the  ass  and  mule  is  an  excessively  rare  condition, 
but  sometimes  occurs. 

ChroniG  glanders. — In  chronic  glanders  sve  have  the  same  train  of 
inflammatory  phenomena,  varying  in  appearance  from  those  of  chronic 
farcy  only  by  the  difference  of  the  tissues  in  which  they  are  located. 
In  chronic  glanders  we  have  first  the  tubercle,  which  is  a  small  node 
from  the  size  of  a  shot  to  that  of  a  small  pea,  which  forms  in  the  mucous 
membranes  of  the  respiratory  tract.  This  may  be  just  inside  of  the  wings 
of  the  nostrils  or  on  the  septum  which  divides  the  one  nasal  cavity 
from  the  other  and  be  easily  detected,  or  they  may  be  higher  in  the 
nasal  cavities  ou  the  turbinated  bones,  or  they  ma3-  form  in  the  larynx 
itself,  or  on  the  surface  of  the  trachea  or  deep  in  the  lungs. 

The  tubercles,  which  are  first  red  and  hard  and  consist  of  new  connect- 
ive tissue,  soon  soften  and  become  yellow;  the  yellow  spots  break  and 
we  have  a  small  ulcer  the  size  of  the  preceding  tubercle,  which  has  a 
gray,  dirtj^  bottom  and  ragged  edges  and  is  known  as  a  chancre.  This 
ulcer  pours  from  its  surface  a  viscous,  oily  discharge  similar  to  that 
which  we  have  seen  in  the  farcy  ulcer.«  The  iriitation  of  the  discharge 
may  ulcerate  the  lining  mucous  n:embrane  of  the  nose,  causing  serpen- 
tine gutters  with  bottoms  resembling  those  of  the  chancres  themselves. 
If  the  tubercles  have  formed  in  large  numbers  we  may  have  them  causing 
an  acute  inflammation  of  the  Schneiderian  membrane,  with  a  catarrhal 
discharge  which  may  mark  the  specific  discharge,  or  that  which  comes 
from  the  ulcers  and  resembles  the  discharge  of  strangles  or  simple  in- 
flammatory diseases. 

The  eruption  of  the  ulcers  and  discharge  soon  cause  an  irritation  of 
the  neighboring  lymphatics;  and  in  the  intermaxillary  space,  deep  inside 
of  the  jaws,  we  find  an  enlargement  of  the  glands,  which  for  the  first 
few  days  may  seem  soft  and  cedematous,  but  which  raiiidly  becomes 
confined  to  the  glands,  these  being  from  the  size  of  an  almond  to  that  of  a 
small  bunch  of  berries,  exceedingly  hard  ;iii(l  nodulated.  This  enlarge- 
ment of  the  glands  is  found  high  up  oa  the  inside  of  tlie  jaws,  firmly 


523 

adlierent  to  the  base  of  the  tongue.  It  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
swelling,  i)uffy,  oedeniatous,  and  not  to  be  separated  from  the  skin  and 
subcutaneous  connective  tissues,  which  we  fintl  in  strangles,  in  laryn- 
gitis, and  in  other  simple  inflammatory  troubles. 

These  glands  bear  a  great  resemblance  to  the  hard,  indurated  glands 
which  we  find  in  connection  with  the  collection  of  {)us  in  the  sinuses ; 
but  in  the  latter  disease  the  glands  have  not  the  nodulated  feel  which 
they  have  in  glanders.  With  the  glands  we  find  indurated  cords,  feel- 
ing like  balls  of  tangled  wire  or  twine,  fastening  the  glands  together. 
The  essential  symptoms  of  glanders  are  the  tubercle,  the  chancre,  the 
glands,  and  the  discharge.  With  the  development  of  the  tubercles  on 
the  respiratory  tract,  according  to  their  number  and  the  amount  of 
eruption  which  they  cause,  wo  may  have  a  cough  which  resembles 
that  of  a  coryza,  a  laryngitis,  a  bronchitis,  or  a  broncho-pneumonia, 
according  to  the  location  of  the  lesions.  In  chronic  glanders  we  have 
the  same  accessory  symptoms  which  we  have  in  chronic  farcy,  the  hem- 
orrhage of  the  nose,  the  swelling  of  the  legs,  the  chronic  cough,  and  in 
the  entire  horse  the  swelling  of  the  testicles. 

On  healing,  the  chancres  on  the  mucous  membranes  leave  small, 
whitish,  star-shaped  scars,  hard  and  indurated  to  the  touch,  and  which 
remain  for  almost  an  indefinite  time.  The  chancres  heal  and  the  other 
local  symptoms  disappear,  with  the  exception  of  the  enlargement  of 
the  glands,  and  we  find  these  so  diminished  in  size  that  they  are  scarcely 
perceptible  on  examination.  During  the  subacute  attacks,  with  a  uiini- 
muiJi  quantity  of  local  troubles,  in  chronic  glanders  and  in  chronic  farcy 
the  animal  rarely  shows  any  amount  of  fever,  but  does  have  a  general 
depraved  appearance;  it  loses  flesh  and  becomes  hide  bound;  the  skin 
becomes  dry  and  the  hairs  stand  on  end.  There  is  a  cachexia,  however, 
which  resembles  greatly  that  of  any  chronic,  organic  trouble,  but  is  not 
diagnostic,  although  it  has  in  it  certain  appearances  and  conditions 
which  often  render  the  animal  suspicious  to  the  eye  of  the  expert  veterin- 
arian, while  without  the  presence  of  local  lesions  he  would  be  unable  to 
state  on  what  he  has  based  his  opinion. 

Acute  glanders. — In  the  acute  form  of  glanders  we  have  the  symptoms 
which  we  have  just  studied  in  chronic  farcy  and  in  chronic  glanders  in 
a  more  acute  and  aggravated  form.  We  have  a  rapid  outbreak  of 
tubercles  in  the  respiratory  tract  which  rapidly  degenerate  into  chan- 
cres and  pour  out  a  considerable  discharge  from  the  nostrils.  We  have 
a  cough  of  more  or  less  severity  according  to  the  amount  and  site  of 
the  local  eruption.  We  have  over  the  surface  of  the  body  swellings 
which  arc  rapidly  followed  by  farcy  buttons,  which  break  into  ulcers; 
we  have  tlie  indurated  cords  and  enlargement  of  the  lymphatics. 

Bleeding  from  the  nose,  sudden  swelling  of  one  of  the  hind  legs,  and 
the  swelling  of  the  testicles  are  apt  to  precede  an  acute  eruption  of 
glanders.  As  the  s^'mptoms  become  more  marked  the  animal  lias  difia- 
culty  of  resi)iration,  the  flanks  heave,  the  resxjiratiou  becomes  rai)id, 


524 

tbe  pulse  becomes  quickened,  and  the  temperature  becomes  elevated  to 
103°,  1040,  or  105°  F. 

With  tbe  otlier  symptoms  of  an  acute  fever  tlie  general  appearance 
and  station  of  the  animal  is  that  of  one  suffering  from  an  acute  imeu 
monia,  but  upon  examination,  while  we  may  find  sibilant  and  mucous 
rales  over  the  side  of  the  chest,  and  may  possibly  hear  tubular  murmurs 
at  the  base  of  the  neck  over  the  trachea,  we  fail  to  find  the  tubular 
murmur  or  the  large  area  of  dullness  on  percussion  over  the  sides  of  the 
chest  which  belongs  to  simple  imeumonia. 

The  posf-mortem  examination  of  the  lungs  shows  that  the  pneumonia 
of  glanders  is  a  lobular,  V-shaped  pneumonia  scattered  through  the 
lungs  and  caused  by  the  specific  inflammatory  process  taking  place  at 
tbe  divergence  of  the  smaller  air  tubes  of  the  lungs.  In  some  cases  of 
acute  glanders  the  formation  of  tubercles  may  so  irritate  the  mucous 
membrane  of  tbe  respiratory  tract  and  cause  such  a  profuse  discharge 
of  muro-purulent,  or  purulent  matter  that  the  specific  character  of  tbe 
original  discharge  is  entirely  masked.  In  this  case,  too,  the  submaxil- 
lary space  may  for  a  few  days  so  swell  as  to  resemble  the  oedematous 
inflamed  glands  of  strangles,  equine  variola,  or  laryngitis.  This  condi- 
tion is  especially  apt  to  be  marked  in  an  acute  outbreak  of  glanders  in 
a  drove  of  mules. 

Cases  of  chronic  farcy  and  glanders,  if  not  destroyed,  may  live  in  a 
depraved  condition  uutil  the  animal  dies  from  general  emaciation  and 
anaemia,  but  in  the  majority  of  cases,  from  some  sudden  exposure  to 
cold,  it  develops  an  acute  pneumonia  or  other  simple  inflammatory 
trouble  which  starts  up  the  latent  disease  and  the  animal  bas  acute 
glanders. 

In  tbe  ass,  mule,  and  plethoric  horses,  acute  glanders  usually  termi- 
nates by  lobular  pneumonia.  In  other  cases  the  general  symptoms 
may  subside.  The  symptoms  of  pneumonia  gradually  disappear,  tbe 
temperature  lowers,  the  pulse  becomes  slower,  the  ulcers  heal,  leaving 
small  indurated  cicatrices,  and  the  animal  may  return  to  apparent 
health,  or  may  at  least  be  able  to  do  a  small  amount  of  work  with  but 
a  few  symptoms  of  the  disease  remaining  in  a  chronic  form.  During 
the  attack  of  acute  glanders  the  inflammation  of  tbe  nasal  cavities  fre- 
quently spreads  into  tbe  sinuses  or  air  cells,  which  are  found  in  tbe 
forehead  and  in  front  of  tbe  eyes  on  either  side  of  tbe  face,  and  cause 
abscesses  of  these  cavities,  which  may  remain  as  tbe  only  visible  symp- 
tom of  the  disease.  An  animal  which  has  recovered  from  a  case  of 
acute  glanders,  like  the  animals  which  are  affected  by  chronic  glanders 
and  chronic  farcy,  are  apt  to  be  affected  with  emphysema  of  tbe  lungs 
or  the  heaves,  and  to  have  a  chronic  cough.  In  this  condition  they 
may  continue  for  a  long  period,  serving  as  dangerous  sources  of  conta- 
gion, tbe  mofe  so  because  the  slight  amount  of  discharge  does  not 
serve  as  a  warning  to  the  owner  or  driver  as  profuse  discharge  does  in 
the  more  acute  cases. 


525 

With  good  care,  fjood  food,  and  good  surroundings  and  little  work, 
an  animal  affected  with  glanders  may  live  for  months  or  even  years  in 
an  apparent  state  of  perfect  health,  but  with  the  first  deprivation  of 
food,  with  a  few  days  of  severe  hard  work,  with  exposure  to  cold  or  with 
the  attack  of  a  simple  fever  or  inflammatory  trouble  from  other  causes, 
the  latent  seeds  of  the  disease  break  out  and  develop  the  trouble  again 
in  an  acute  form. 

At  the  post-mortem  examination  of  an  animal  which  has  been  de- 
stroyed or  has  died  of  glanders  we  find  evidences  of  the  various  lesions 
which  we  have  studied  in  the  symptoms.  In  addition  to  this,  wo  find 
tubercles  similar  to  those  which  we  have  seen  on  the  exterior  through- 
out the  various  organs  of  the  body.  Tubercles  may  be  found  in  the 
liver,  in  the  spleen,  and  in  the  kidneys.  We  may  have  inflammation  of 
the  periosteum  of  the  bones,  and  we  have  excessive  alterations  in  the 
marrow  in  the  interior  of  the  bones  themselves.  Both  of  these  con- 
ditions during  the  life  of  the  animal  may  have  been  the  cau.se  of  the 
lamenesses  which  were  difficult  to  diagnose. 

In  one  case  which  came  under  the  observation  of  the  writer,  a  lame 
horse  was  destroyed  and-  found  to  have  a  large  abscess  of  the  bone  of 
the  arm,  with  old  tubercles  of  the  lungs.  When  an  animal  has  died  im- 
mediately after  an  attack  of  a  primary  acute  case  of  glanders,  we  find 
small  V-shaped  spots  of  acute  pneumonia  in  the  lungs.  If  the  animal 
has  made  an  apparent  recovery  from  acute  glanders,  and  in  cases  of 
chronic  farcy  and  chronic  glanders  no  matter  how  few  the  external  and 
visible  symptoms  may  have  been,  there  is  a  deposit  of  tubercles- 
small,  hard,  indurated  nodes  of  new  connective  tissue  to  be  found  in  the 
lungs.  When  these  have  existed  for  some  time  we  may  find  a  deposit 
of  lime  salts  in  them.  These  indurated  tubercles  retain  the  virus  and 
their  power  to  give  out  contagion  for  almost  an  indefinite  time,  and  pre- 
dispose to  the  causes  which  we  have  studied  as  the  common  fiictors  in 
developing  a  chronic  case  into  an  acute  case;  that  is,  an  inflammatory 
process  wakwiis  up  their  vitality  and  produces  a  reinfection  of  the  en- 
tire animal.  The  blood  of  an  animal  suffering  from  chronic  glanders 
and  farcy  is  not  virulent  and  is  unaltered,  but  during  the  attack  of 
acute  glanders,  while  the  animal  has  fever,  the  blood  becomes  virulent 
and  remains  so  for  a  few  days. 

Treatme7it.—Fn\]y  the  entire  list  of  drugs  in  the  pharmacopoeia  have 
been  tested  in  the  treatment  of.glanders.  Good  hygienic  surroundings, 
good  food,  with  alteratives  and  tonics,  frequently  ameliorate  the  symp- 
toms and  often  do  so  to  such  an  extent  that  the  animal  would  pass  the 
examination  of  any  expert  as  a  perfectly  sound  animal.  But  while  in 
this  case  the  number  of  tubercles  of  the  lungs,  which  are  invariably 
there,  may  be  so  few  as  not  so  cause  sufQcient  disturbance  in  the  respi- 
ration as  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  examiner,  they  exist,  and  will 
remain  there  almost  indefinitely  with  the  constant  possibility  of  a  return 
of  acute  symptoms. 


526 

In  several  celebrated  cases  liorses  wliicli  Lave  been  affected  with 
glanders  have  been  kuowu  to  work  for  years  and  die  from  other  causes 
without  ever  having  had  the  return  of  symptoms  j  but,  allowing  that 
these  cases  may  occur,  they  are  so  few  and  far  between,  and  the  danger 
of  infection  of  glanders  to  other  horses  and  to  the  stable  attendants  is 
so  great,  that  no  animal  which  has  once  been  affected  with  the  disease 
should  be  allowed  to  live. 

In  all  civilized  countries,  with  the  exception  of  some  of  the  States 
in  the  United  States,  the  laws  are  most  stiiugent  regarding  the  prompt 
declaration  on  the  part  of  the  owner  and  attending  veterinarian  at  the 
first  suspicion  of  a  case  of  glanders,  and  they  allow  a  liberal  indemnity 
for  the  animal.  When  this  is  done,  in  all  cases  the  animal  is  destroyed 
and  the  articles  with  which  it  has  been  in  contact  are  thoroughly  dis- 
infected. When  the  attendants  have  attempted  to  hide  the  presence 
of  the  disease  in  a  community,  punishment  is  meted  to  the  owner,  at- 
tentling  veterinarian,  or  other  responsible  parties.  Several  States  have 
passed  excellent  laws  in  regard  to  glanders,  but  with  few  exceptions 
these  laws  are  not  carried  out  with  the  rigidity  with  which  they  sLould 
be.  In  other  States  where  an  indemnity  is  allowed  on  declaration  on 
the  partof  the  owner,  the  appraisement  of  the  animal  is  not  fairly  made. 
If  the  owners  of  infected  animals  are  to  be  encouraged  to  declare  the 
presence  of  the  disease  in  order  to  protect  their  neighbors  from  the  dan- 
ger of  contagion  they  should  be  paid,  not  what  the  animal  affected  with 
the  disease  is  considered  worth,  when  it  is  valueless,  but  the  one-half 
or  two-thirds  of  what  would  belts  market  value  without  the  disease, 
and  the  community"  should  share  the  loss  which  the  owner  should  make 
in  order  to  protect  others. 

RABIES  IN   THE   HORSE. 

Synonyms  :  Ilydropliobia,  madness,  lyssa,  rage,  Wiithlcranlcheit. 

Eabies  is  a  contagious  disease,  which  is  usually  transmitted  by  abito 
and  by  the  introduction  of  a  virus  contained  in  the  saliva«f  an  affected 
animal,  but  may  be  transmitted  in  other  ways.  It  is  characterized  by 
symptoms  of  aberration  of  the  nervous  system,  and  invariably  termi- 
nates fatally.  It  is  a  disease  essentially  of  the  dog,  but  is  transmitted 
to  the  horse,  either  from  dogs  or  from  any  other  animal  affected  with  it. 

As  a  disease  of  the  horse  it  is  useless  to  enter  into  the  etiology  far- 
ther than  to  assume  that  in  this  animal  it  is  invariably  the  result  of  the 
bite  of  a  rabid  animal,  usually  a  dog. 

Perhaps  no  disease  in  medicine  has  been  the  object  of  more  contro- 
versy than  rabies.  Certain  medical  men  of  prominence  have  even 
doubted  the  existence  of  the  disease.  Many  medical  men  have  claimed 
for  it  a  spontaneous  origin.  The  experience,  however,  of  ages  has 
shovrn  that  contagion  can  be  proved  in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  and 
by  analogy  with  other  contagious  diseases,  we  may  only  believe  that 
the  development  of  one  case  requires  the  prsesistence  of  a  previous 


527 

case  from  wliicli  tho  virus  has  been  transmitted.  M.  Pasteur  has  fur- 
ther added  to  our  knowledge  of  the  disease  by  showing  that  a  virus 
capable  of  cultiratiou  exists  iu  the  nervous  system,  especially  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  brain  (medulla  oblongata),  and  in  the  anterior  part  of 
the  spinal  column.  M.  Pasteur  has  farther  shown  that  that  portion 
of  the  nervous  system  which  contains  the  virus,  the  exact  nature  of 
which  has  not  yet  been  demonstrated,  will  retain  it  for  an  indefinite 
time  if  kept  at  a  very  low  temperature,  or  if  left  surrounded  by  car- 
bonic acid ;  but  if  the  nerve  matter,  which  is  virulent  at  first,  is  ex- 
l)0sed  to  the  air  and  by  substances  which  will  absorb  tho  surrounding 
moisture  is  kept  from  putrefaction,  it  will  gradually  lose  its  virulence 
and  become  inoffensive  in  about  fifteen  days.  He  has  further  shown 
that  the  action  of  a  weak  virus  on  an  animal  will  prevent  the  develop- 
ment of  a  stronger  virus,  and  from  this  he  has  formulated  his  method 
of  prophylactic  treatment.  This  treatment  consists  of  the  successive 
inoculation  of  portions  of  the  nerve  matter,  containing  the  virus  from 
a  rabid  animal,  which  has  been  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  for  thirteen 
days, -ten  days,  seven  days,  and  four  days,  until  the  virulent  matter 
which  will  produce  rabies  in  any  unprotected  animal  can  be  inoculated 
with  impunity.  A  curious  result  of  the  experiments  of  M.  Pasteur  is 
that  an  animal  which  has  first  been  inoculated  with  a  virus  of  full 
strength  can  be  protected  by  subsequent  inoculations  of  attenuated 
virus  repeated  in  doses  of  increasing  strength. 

In  the  horse  rabies  is  invariably  the  result  of  the  bite  of  a  rabid  dog 
or  other  rabjd  animal.  From  the  moment  of  inoculation  a  variable  time 
elapses  before  the  development  of  any'symptoms.  This  time  may  be 
eight  days,  or  it  may  be  several  months  ;  it  is  usually  about  four  weeks. 
The  first  symptom  is  an  irritation  of  the  original  wound.  This  wound, 
which  may  have  healed  completely,  commences  to  itch  until  the  horse 
rubs  or  bites  it  into  a  new  sore.  The  horse  then  becomes  irritable  and 
vicious.  It  is  especially  susceptible  to  surrounding  media;  excessive 
light,  noises,  the  entrance  of  an  attendant,  or  any  other  disturbance 
will  cause  the  patient  to  be  on  the  defensive.  It  apparently  sees  imag- 
inary objects;  the  slightest  noise  is  exaggers-ted  into  threatening  vio- 
lence ;  the  approach  of  an  attendant  or  another  animal,  especiall^^  a  dog, 
is  interpreted  as  an  assault  and  the  horse  will  strike  and  bite.  The 
violence  on  the  part  of  the  rabid  horse  is  not  for  a  moment  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  fury  of  the  same  animal  suffering  from  meningitis  or 
any  other  trouble  of  the  brain.  In  rabies  there  is  a  volition,  a  pre- 
meditated method,  in  the  attacks  which  the  animal  will  make,  which  is 
not  found  in  the  other  diseases.  Between  the  attacks  of  fury  the  animal 
may  become  calm  for  a  variable  period.  The  writer  attended  a  case  in 
which,  after  a  violent  attack  of  an  hour,  the  horse  was  sufficiently  calm 
to  bo  walked  10  miles  and  only  developed  violence  again  an  hour  after 
being  placed  in  the  new  stable.  In  the  period  of  fury  the  horse  will 
bite  at  the  reoijoned  original  wound;  it  will  rear  and  attempt  to  break 


528 

its  halter  and  fastenings ;  it  will  bite  at  the  woodwork  and  surrounding 
objects  in  the  stable.  If  the  animal  lives  long  enough  it  shows  paralytic 
symptoms  and  falls  to  the  ground,  unable  to  use  two  or  more  of  its 
extremities,  but  in  the  majority  of  cases,  in  its  excesses  of  violence,  it 
does  physical  injury  to  itself.  It  breaks  the  jaws  in  biting  at  the  man- 
ger, or  fractures  other  bones  in  throwing  itself  on  the  ground,  and  dies 
of  hemorrhage  or  internal  injuries.  At  times  throughout  the  course  of 
the  disease  there  is  an  excessive  sensibility  of  the  skin,  which,  if  irritated 
by  the  touch,  will  bring  on  attacks  of  violence.  The  animal  may  have 
appetite  and  desire  water  throughout  the  course  of  the  disease,  but  on 
attempting  to  swallow  has  a  spasm  of  the  throat,  which  renders  the  act 
impossible.  This  latter  condition,  which  is  common  in  all  rabid  animals, 
has  given  the  disease  the  name  of  hydropJiobia  (fear  of  water). 

In  a  case  recently  under  the  care  of  the  writer  a  horse,  four  weeks 
after  being  bitten  on  the  forearm  by  a  rabid  dog,  developed  local  irri- 
tation in  the  healed  wound  and  tore  it  with  its  teeth  into  a  large  ulcer. 
This  was  healed  by  local  treatment  in  ten  days  and  the  horse  was  kept 
under  surveillance  for  over  a  month.  On  the  advice  of  another  prac- 
titioner the  horse  was  taken  home  and  put  to  work,  and  within  three 
days  it  developed  violent  symptoms  and  had  to  be  destroyed. 

The  diagnosis  of  rabies  in  the  horse  is  to  be  made  from  the  various 
brain  troubles  to  which  the  animal  is  subject;  first,  by  the  history  of 
a  previous  bite  of  a  rabid  animal  or  inoculation  by  other  means;  sec- 
ondly, by  the  evident  volition  and  consciousness  on  the  part  of  the 
animal  in  its  attacks,  offensive  and  defensive,  on  persons,  animals,  or 
other  disturbing  surroundings.  The  irritation  and  reopening  of  the 
original  wound  or  point  of  inoculation  is  a  valuable  factor  in  diagnosis. 

Recov^ery  from  rabies  may  be  considered  as  a  question  of  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  original  diagnosis. 

No  remedial  treatment  has  ever  been  successful.  All  of  the  anodynes 
and  amcsthetics,  opium,  belladonna,  bromide  of  potash,  ether,  chlo- 
roform, etc.,  have  been  used  without  avail.  The  prophylactic  treat- 
ment of  successive  inoculations  is  being  used  on  human  beings,  and  has 
experimentally  proved  efiBcacious  in  dogs,  but  would  be  impracticable 
in  the  horse,  which  must  invariably  be  destroyed  or  be  so  guarded  as  to 
protect  the  surrounding  attendants  and  other  animals  in  the  same  sta- 
ble, when  it  will  die  iu  a  day  or  two  from  self- in  dieted  traumati:;m  or 
paralysis. 


PLATE  XXXVIL. 


l-Urtintlained  viing  of  the  bat. 


2-In.flcuned  wing  of  th-e  bat. 


Haines,  after  Agnew: 


I N  F  L  A  M  MAT  1  O  A^ 


PLA.TE  xxx\au. 


cL 


I    .\on-iii/7fuiicf/  mesfn/i'iv  of  Utt;  t'ro'/.40(}  ilia/nefer\s ,  reduced    'j.'i.a,  Ve/ii//i' 
ni/A  red  rrn//  white  corpusc/e.f;  0,L>^ Oflatifioiis  neT-\p  fihr'' ,■  rj'apil/a/y,-  d,d, 
/)(irJ,-hi)rtlered  nerve   fibre ,■  e.e,  fori /i erf ive    li.^stie   n-frA    roniiective   fissii^ 
cor/tiisrJes  (iitd  fei/eocvfes   scaffered    s/jaisrfy   throngli     it. 


2-/7if7a/ned    me^fenterv   or  the    frr\g,    -400  diameters,  reduced    ^.    a,b.VeTtuZe 
fil/ed   vfith   red  arid  iv/iife  corphscles;  f/te  red  in    t/>e  centre   and  tJie  whUe 
crowding  aioru/  the  wails,-  c,c,  CapiJlciry  distended   with  red.  and  whit^e   cor- 
jjiisriesyniiniher  of  the  white  naicfi  decreased,-  d,d.  Connective  tissue  betweeiu 
\enute  and  rapi/lar-y    fdied    wifAniigrcUed  leTicocyteS;  e  ,e.  Connective   ti^ssiie. 
with,  less  in tiJtration.,-  fyOarh-borde-red  nerve   fibre,;  ^,  Xuinber  of  rtixcLei, 
in   siiea/fis  increased. 


[allies,  del  after  Agnew. 


IN  F  L  a.:m  ]vi  at  I  O  X. 


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'^^i 


Q 


I 

•S 

in  |. 


0 


si. 


•A. 


% 


E 


s 


i.     A 


■J) 


S' 


Jv 


."^. 


^ 


SHOEING. 


By  WILLIAM  DICKSON, 
F'eterinarian  to  the  State  Farmers'  Instilute  of  Minnesota. 


Although  the  subject  discussed  iu  the  present  chapter  may  not, 
strictly  speaking,  be  entitled  to  a  place  in  a  category  of  the  ailments 
to  which  horseflesh  is  heir,  bad  and  indifferent  shoeing  are  such  pro- 
lific sources  of  both  disability  and  disease  in  the  noblest  of  all  our 
dumb  animals,  that  no  excuse  is  necessary  in  claiming  for  it  equal  at- 
tention at  the  hands  of  those  interested. 

It  has  sometimes  been  asserted  that  the  history  of  every  horse  is  a 
record  of  human  endeavor  to  mar  his  utility.  While  the  accuracy  of 
such  a  sweeping  assertion  may  fairly  be  called  iu  question,  there  are 
undoubtedly  res])ects  in  which  the  horse  in  domestication  is  very  often 
the  victim  of  his  owner's  ignorance,  indifference,  or  even  mistaken 
kindness,  and  in  no  particular  is  this  more  strikingly  conspicuous  than 
in  the  ordinary  treatment  of  organs  so  vitally  essential  to  his  useful- 
ness as  his  feet.  IsTo  horseman  questions  the  truth  of  the  aphorism 
"  no  foot,  no  horse,"  and  yet  in  no  portion  of  that  animal's  economy 
has  he  suffered  so  many  wrongs,  or  as  a  natural  consequence  endured 
so  much  uncalled-for  suffering,  as  in  his  feet,  and  to  shoeing  a  very  large 
proportion  of  these  evils  is,  beyond  all  doubt,  directly  or  indirectly 
referable. 

Unfortunately,  under  certain  conditions,  shoeing  is  an  almost  un- 
avoidable consequence  of  the  horse's  domestication,  and,  although  we 
may  have  no  wish  to  uphold  the  traditional  methods,  we  are  driven  to 
the  conclusion  that  an  artificial  protection  of  some  kind  for  the  horse's 
foot  is  very  frequently  one  of  the  penalties  which  civilization  inexorably 
exacts.  That  the  ordinary  iron  shoe  is  the  best  and  least  hurtful  means 
that  could  be  devised,  I  am  reluctant  to  admit ;  but,  so  far,  even  Ameri- 
can ingenuity  has  failed  to  develop  anything  better  suited  to  the  pur- 
pose. That  the  system  of  horseshoeing  as  it  obtains,  even  in  the  most 
skillful  hands,  is  pregnant  with  mischief  to  the  foot,  no  one  who  is  con- 
versant with  the  facts  will  venture  to  deny.  As  a  matter  of  physiolog- 
ical fitness  the  shoe  and  its  mode  of  attachment  are  utterly  indefensible. 
Each  time  a  horse  is  shod — every  nail  driven— means  so  much  injury 
to  the  foot.  The  better  the  job  the  less  that  injury  is;  but  there  is  no 
11035 34  629 


530 

sueli  thing  as  absolute  immunity  from  an  evil  wliich  must  always  exist 
in  inverse  ratio  to  the  skill  displayed  in  tbe  execution  of  the  work.  Wo 
have,  however,  to  deal  with  facts  as  we  find  them,  and  if  we  have,  day 
after  day,  to  impose  upon  our  horses  work  of  a  nature  which  entails 
upon  their  feet  more  waste  of  horn  than  nature  can  replace  during  the 
ordinary  interval  of  rest,  we  are  obliged  to  adopt  a  defense  of  some 
kind.  It  would  be  futile  to  inveigh  against  the  form  of  protection  in 
universal  use,  unless  we  were  prepared  with  a  substitute  not  open  to 
the  same  or  equally  serious  objections. 

There  is,  however,  at  least  one  very  large  and  imi)ortant  class  of 
horses  to  which  shoes  are  by  no  means  an  habitual  necessity,  namely, 
our  agricultural  horses.  The  nature  of  their  work,  the  pace  at  which 
they  are  required  to  perform  it,  and  the  character  of  the  ground  over 
which  they  ordinarily  move,  all  unite  to  render  artificial  protection  for 
their  feet,  save  under  exceptional  circumstances,  alfogether  uncalled 
for.  When  this  is  so,  and  when  it  is  conceded  that  shoeing  is,  even 
under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  an  evil  (albeit  in  some  cases  a 
necessary  one),  a  frequent  cause  of  disease,  and  therefore  a  direct 
source  of  loss,  it  is  a  matter  of  deep  regret  that  such  a  large  majority 
of  our  farm  horses,  the  very  mainspring  of  our  agricultural  existence, 
should  be  needlessly  subjected  to  a  mutilation  which  curtails  the  period 
of  their  natural  efficiency  and  too  often  renders  their  life  thus  short- 
ened one  long-continued  agony.  For  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  our 
ordinary  village  blacksmith,  of  whose  daih^  work  horseshoeing  forms 
but  an  insignificant  and  by  no  means  either  an  easy  or  pleasant  part, 
is  not  always  the  most  competent  of  workmen. 

Without  wishing  to  do  injustice  to  our  rural  knights  of  the  anvil,  it 
is  nevertheless  a  lamentable  truth  that  these  votaries  of  the  buttress  and 
drawing-knife  are,  all  the  world  over,  so  wedded  to  a  number  of  tra- 
ditionary practices,  so  heinous,  so  irrational,  so  prejudicial  to  the  inter- 
ests alike  of  the  horse  and  his  owner,  that  one  might  well  be  excused 
for  wondering  whether  their  mission  were  not  to  mar  instead  of  to 
protect  the  marvelously  perfect  handiwork  of  the  Creator.  Ignorant 
alike  of  the  anatomy,  physiology,  and  economic  relations  of  the  parts, 
they  mutilate,  they  cut  and  carve  as  whim,  prejudice,  or  time-honored 
custom  dictates.  Disaster,  it  may  be  slowly,  but  surely,  follows,  and 
all  too  often  the  poor  dumb  creature's  suffering  foots  the  bill.  Let  us 
glance  in  passing  at  some  of  these  traditional  practices. 

Foremost  among  them  is  the  insane  habit  of  trimming  the  frog  and 
thinning  out  the  sole  till  it  visibly  yield  to  the  pressure  of  the  opera- 
tor's thumbs.  The  frog  is  nature's  cushion  and  hoof-expander,  jdaced 
there  by  an  all-wise  hand ;  by  its  elasticity  it  wards  off  concussion  from 
the  less  elastic  portions  of  the  structure,  and  by  its  resilience  assists  in 
maintaining  the  natural  expansion  of  its  horny  ambit;  that  is  to  say, 
it  does  so  in  its  natural  state,  but  the  drawing  knife's  touch  is  fatal  to 
it.    Once  cut  and  carved  and  deprived  of  pressure,  those  very  acts 


631 

cause  it  to  shrink,  dry,  and  harden,  and  at  once  lose  those  very  attri- 
butes which  constitute  its  usefulness  to  the  foot.  Robbed  of  its  elasticity 
and  resilience,  it  is  incapableof  discharging  its  allottedfuuctious— both 
a3  a  cushion  and  as  an  expander  it  is  a  dead  failure;  indeed  it  is  worse, 
as  in  its  altered  character  if;  is  now  a  menace  instead  of  a  protection, 
a  bane  rather  than  a  boon  to  the  foot  that  wears  it. 

The  destruction  of  this  important  factor  having  been  thus  provided 
for,  the  operator  probably  next  turns  his  attention  to  the  sole,  which, 
by  all  traditions  of  the  craft,  must  bo  pared  down  until  only  a  tnin  film 
of  soft,  partially  formed  horn  is  left  to  protect  the  living  structures 
within  against  injury  from  the  substances  with  which  the  foot  neces- 
sarily comes  in  contact.  Nor  does  the  mischief  stop  here.  The  sole 
itself,  or  what  is  left  of  it,  consists  now  of  soft,  moist,  half-formed  horn, 
which  dries  and  shrinks  on  exposure  to  the  air,  and  thereby  entails  a 
further  and  a  still  more  serious  injury  on  the  foot. 

We  have  seen  in  the  preceding  chapters  how  the  sole  is  secreted  by 
the  velvety  tissue  dependant  from  the  membrane  which  invests  the 
pedal  bone,  the  minute,  hollow,  fibrous  processes  of  which  penetrate  it 
and  minister  to  its  support.  In  the  mutilated,  shrunken  sole  these 
delicate  fibers  are  pinched  in  the  lessened  caliber  of  the  pores;  the 
source  of  supply  is  cut  off,  and  the  process  of  repair  retarded  if  not  ab- 
solutely arrested.  There  seems  to  be  a  fascination  about  this  work  of 
destruction,  and  the  incompetent  workman  next  addresses  himself  to 
the  self-imposed  task  of  improving  upon  nature  by  removing  the  bars 
and  what  he  calls,  on  the  Incus  a  non  lucendo  principle,  "  opening"  the 
heels,  a  process  which,  in  plain  language,  means  opening  a  road  for 
them  to  close  over.  On  this  poor,  maimed  foot  a  shoe,  often  many 
sizes  too  small,  is  tacked,  and  the  rasp  is  most  likely  called  into  requi- 
sition to  reduce  the  foot  to  fit  the  shoe;  for  although  it  is  apparently  of 
little  moment  whether  the  shoe  fits  the  foot,  it  is  indispensabl3^  neces- 
sary that  the  foot  should,  somehow  or  other,  be  got  to  fit  the  shoe,  and 
horseshoeing,  like  other  arts,  must  needs  sacrifice  on  the  altar  of  ap- 
pearances. It  is  sad  that  art  and  nature  should  so  often  be  at  vari- 
ance, and  that  what  satisfies  the  one  should  outrage  the  demands  of 
the  other. 

The  foot  is  now  shod  and  protected  from  undue  wear,  to  be  sui-e,  but  at 
what  a  sacrifice!  Eobbed  of  its  cushion,  its  natural  expander;  its  lat- 
eral braces  removed  ;  its  sole  mangled  and  its  natural  repair  arrested  ; 
the  hairlike  fibers  which  make  up  the  horny  wall  crushed,  deflected,  and 
their  nutritive  function  impeded  by  an  unnecessary  number  of  nails; 
robbed  by  the  rasp  of  its  cortical  layer  of  natural  varnish,  which  retains 
the  moisture  secreted  by  the  economy,  the  strong  walls  become  desic- 
cated and  weakened,  and  the  foot  is  in  a  very  sorry  plight  indeed.  To 
some  this  picture  may  seem  overdrawn,  but  it  is  nevertheless  a  matter 
of  daily  occurrence. 

Of  course,  even  among  agricultural  horses,  there  are  individuals  which 


532 

can  not  work  unshod ;  but  these  are  exceptional  cases.  Then,  again,  in 
winter,  when  the  usual  snowfall  is  wanting,  most  horses'  feet  will  re- 
quire protection  ;  but  nowadays  an  owner  has  himself  to  blame  if  ho 
submits  to  having  the  work  done  in  that  wrong-headed  and  ridiculous 
manner,  which  has  called  into  existence  such  a  long  and  dismal  cate- 
gory of  disease  and  misery'. 

The  horse's  foot  is,  after  all,  a  good  deal  of  what  we  make  it,  and  if  our 
horses,  from  their  colthood  up.  had  their  feet  more  carefully  attended 
to,  and  especially  were  they  invariably  to  stand  while  in  confinement 
on  some  material  less  deleterious  to  the  hoof  than  dry  wooden  flooring, 
from  which  the  foot  suffers  no  attrition  whatsoever,  and  by  which  it  is 
moreover  depleted  of  its  natural  moisture,  their  feet  would,  in  the  period 
of  the  animals'  active  usefulness,  be  found  to  be  better  shaped,  harder, 
less  brittle,  and  in  every  way  better  suited  for  the  work  required  of 
them. 

In  the  East  Indies,  where  pony  racing  is  very  popular  and  the  purses 
exceedingly  valuable,  many  expedients  are  resorted  to  to  smuggle  a  pony 
that  is  over  height  under  the  13.2  standard  (the  maximum  height  for 
ponies)  among  them,  of  course  cutting  down  the  feet  as  far  as  can  be  done 
with  impunity.  I  frequently  observed  that  those  of  the  handsome  little 
Arabs  and  Walers  (Australians),  which  came  up  oftenest  for  measure- 
ment, and  whose  feet  were  in  consequence  most  frequently  pared  down 
(albeit  by  an  artist  at  the  business,  as  these  little  animals  were  too  valu- 
able for  their  owners  to  accept  any  risk  of  injury)  were  those  whose  feet 
subseq  uently  stood  best  the  try  in  g  ordeal  of  trainin  g  and  racing  on  the  ada- 
mantine going  of  the  tropics.  The  moral  of  this  is  obvious.  It  might 
even  be  possible  (I  do  not  mean  necessarily  in  this  particular  way)  in  the 
course  of  generations  to  develop  a  horse  whose  feet  should  be  so  improved 
that  he  could  do  all  sorts  of  work  on  all  sorts  of  going  barefoot  with  im- 
punity ;  but  this  would  imply  an  amount  of  self-sacrifice  in  the  present 
for  the  benefit  of  remote  j)rosperity  which  is  hardly  to  be  looked  for 
in  this  practical  age,  and  the  contention  of  enthusiasts  that  all  horses 
could  and  should,  under  all  circumstances,  go  unshod  is,  I  fear,  Utopian 
and  impractical, 

I  have  endeavored  to  show  that  shoeing,  as  generally,  or  at  all  events 
very  frequently,  practiced  is  a  fruitful  source  of  injury  to  our  horses' 
feet;  but  as  we  can  not  altogether  dispense  with  the  custom,  let  us  turn 
to  a  consideration  of  the  means  which  lie  in  our  power  of  minimizing 
the  attendant  evil  as  much  as  i^ossible. 

There  is  one  instrument  which  I  should  like  to  see,  if  possible,  omitted 
from  the  shoeing  outfit  of  every  larrier,  and  that  is  the  drawing-knife. 
If  our  blacksmiths  would  use  their  knives  less  and  their  heads  more  in 
the  execution  of  their  very  important  and  by  no  means  eas}'  duty,  our 
horses  would  be  the  better  for  it,  and  so  would  their  owners.  There  is 
no  great  mystery  surrounding  the  subject,  and  the  application  of  ordi- 
nary common  sense,  in  lieu  of  the  barbarous  routine  which  has  been  so 


533 

loug  handed  down  from  generation  to  generation  until  it  has  actually 
become  a  i>ortion  of  the  blacksmith's  creed,  would  go  a  long  way  to- 
wards obviating  many,  if  not  most,  of  the  cruel  wrongs  to  which  our 
horses'  feet  are  day  by  day  needlessly  subjected. 

The  outside,  or  horny  wall,  and  that  portion  of  the  sole  which  is  in 
immediate  contact  with  it,  on  which  the  shoe  should  rest,  are  the 
only  portions  of  the  foot  which  require  to  be  interfered  with  in  prepar- 
ing the  foot  for  the  shoe,  and  all  the  trimming  that  is  necessary  can  and 
ought  to  be  effected  by  means  of  the  rasp.  The  frog  and  sole  should 
on  no  pretext  whatever  be  meddled  with,  save  to  the  extent  I  have  in- 
dicated. Their  presence  in  their  entirety,  and  in  their  natural  state, 
is  essentially  necessary  to  the  well-being  of  the  foot,  and  neither  brooks 
the  touch  of  the  steel. 

There  may  be  differences  of  opinion  among  authorities  as  to  minor 
details  in  shoeing,  but  there  is  at  all  events  one  issue  on  which  it  is 
satisfactory  to  know  that  there  is  absolute  unanimity ;  one  practice 
which  all  alike  utterly  condemn  3  and  that  is  the  irrational  treatment 
of  the  frog  and  sole,  to  which  I  have  already  alluded.  There  is,  how- 
ever, no  particular  in  which  the  thinking  horse-owner  finds  himself 
more  frequently  at  variance  with  his  blacksmith,  for  there  is  no  detail 
in  all  the  latter's  misconceived  procedure  to  which  he  clings  with  such 
colossal  obstinac}',  which  is  not  open  to  argument,  and  which  sets 
common  sense  at  defiance. 

It  is  a  strange  fact,  but  none  the  less  true,  that  all  the  world  over  the 
farrier  is  the  one  among  all  our  artisans  who  is  least  amenable  to  sug- 
gestions from  his  employer.  Other  mechanics  permit  their  patrons  at 
least  some  discretion  as  to  the  size,  shape,  and  structure  of  the  article 
desired,  but  when  the  ordinary  horse  owner  takes  his  animal  to  the 
shoeing  forge  he  has  usually  to  place  himself  absolutely  in  the  black- 
smith's hands,  and  give  him  carte  blanche  to  cut  and  carve  at  his  un- 
holy will,  or  else  take  his  horse  elsewhere,  and  there  probably  find  him- 
self no  better  off'.  The  result  is  that  his  horse's  feet  are  mercilessly 
mutilated  instead  of  being  left  as  nearly  as  possible  as  nature  in  her  in- 
effable wisdom  made  them. 

Plate  xxxxii,  Fig.  1,  shows  the  only  parts  which  should  be  re- 
duced -when  a  foot  is  properly  prepared  for  the  shoe.  Sufficient  care  is 
not  always  given  to  shortening  the  hoof  so  that  its  angle  should  con- 
form exactly  to  the  inclination  of  the  limb.  It  would  be  misleading  to 
la,y  down  any  arbitrary  degree  of  obliquity.  The  angle  differs  in  differ- 
ent cases,  and  the  natural  bias  of  the  superimposed  structures  is  the 
only  safe  guide  to  follow.  More  than  one  instrument  has  been  devised 
for  ascertaining  the  correct  degree  of  obliquity,  some  of  them  simple  and 
efficacious;  but  an  inspection  of  the  foot  in  profile  is  usually  the  best 
way  of  deciding.  Too  much  importance  can  not  possibly  be  attached 
by  the  workman  to  this  and  the  succeeding  step,  namely,  leveling  the 
ground  surface  of  the  foot,  as  the  slightest  departure  from  absolute 


534 

exactitude  liere  renders  whatever  amount  of  care  he  may  devote  to  the 
completion  of  his  work  worse  than  useless.  The  very  smallest  devia- 
tion from  the  perpendicular  entails  disastrous  consequences  not  only 
on  the  foot  but  on  the  entire  limb.  In  the  foot  itself,  when  the  weight 
is  borne  unevenly,  the  lowest  parts  receive  an  undue  share  ;  the  pressure 
retards  the  growth  of  new  horn,  and  the  foot  in  consequence  becomes 
weakened,  distorted,  and  deformed.  In  the  limb,  deflected  as  it  is  by 
an  uneven  basis,  from  the  ground  surface  to  its  union  with  the  trunk, 
the  angle  of  incidence  of  the  weight  is  imposed  unequally,  and  bone 
and  tendon  mutually  suffer  from  the  strain. 

THE    SHOE. 

The  shoe  should  be  as  light  as  the  weight  of  the  animal  and  the  na- 
ture of  the  work  he  is  expected  to  perform  will  admit  of.  I  am  not  now 
writing  for  the  trotting  horseman,  who  knows  his  own  business  better 
than  I  can  teach  him.  In  referring  to  shoeing  smiths  it  is  possible  that 
I  should  have  made  an  exception  in  favor  of  the  finished  artist  who 
arms  the  feet  of  the  trotter  with  those  masterpieces  of  skill  and  inge- 
nuity which  balance  his  gait,  level  his  action  and  perfect  the  rhythm  of 
the  motion  with  which  he  spurns  the  flying  track  behind  him,  when 
thousands  of  anxious  eyes  watch  his  every  footstep,  and  fortunes  de- 
pend on  the  length  and  tirelessness  of  his  stride.  That  is  a  branch  of 
the  business  which  has  received  an  amount  of  attention  and  achieved 
triumphs  unrivaled  or  unapproached  in  other  lands.  Yet  have  I  seen 
that  artist  (for  ho  is  nothing  less),  after  fitting  and  setting  a  shoe,  per- 
fect in  workmanship  as  a  piece  of  jewelry,  reach  out  for  his  tool  box 
and  rasp  the  foot  from  the  coronary  band  to  the  plantar  border,  and 
thus  wantonly  court  disaster,  for  what  reason  let  him  tell  us  if  he  can. 

Heavy  shoes  not  only  burden  the  animal  which  is  condemned  to  wear 
them,  for  there  is  truth  in  the  old  adage,  "  an  ounce  at  the  toe  means  a 
pound  at  the  withers ;  "  but  they  also  increase  the  concussion  insepara- 
ble from  progression,  and  even  in  the  trotter,  whose  work  is  meted  out 
to  him  with  judicious  care,  although  the  weight  doubtless  accomplishes 
the  work  for  which  it  was  intended,  it  is  a  draft  at  usury  on  the 
horse's  future  soundness,  which  that  animal  is  bound  to  take  up  at  ma- 
turity. 

The  legitimate  mission  of  the  shoo  is  to  prevent  undue  wear  of  the 
walls,  and  a  light  shoe  will  do  this  quite  as  well  as  a  heavy  one  5  it  is 
moreover  entirely  erroneous  to  suppose  that  a  heavy  shoo  necessarily 
wears  longer  than  a  light  one,  as  experience  proves  the  contrary,  in  many 
instances,  to  be  the  case.  Even  among  our  mammoth  draft  horses, 
whose  shoes  must  of  course  be  made  with  reference  to  the  weight  they 
have  to  bear  and  the  inordinate  strain  to  which  they  are  subjected  when 
the  animal  which  wears  them  is  at  work,  I  am  not  prepared  to  admit 
that  it  is  by  any  means  necessary  to  add  to  the  concussion  to  which  his 
feet  are  unavoidably  subjected,  by  several  pounds  of  unyielding  iron 


535. 

on  oacb  foot,  wlien  shoes  weigbiiig  lialf  as  much  would  serve  the  pur- 
pose equally  well.  The  lamentably  short  career  of  our  city  draft  horse, 
which  is  usually  determined  by  foot  lameness  of  one  kind  or  another,  is 
hirgely  attributable  to  the  aggravated  amount  of  battering  on  hard 
pavements  which  his  ueedless  weight  of  armament  entails. 

The  upper  surface  of  the  shoe  should  be  perfectly  level.  If  the  plane 
of  the  web  inclines  from  outside  inward,  it  greatly  adds  to  the  unavoid- 
able tendency  to  contraction  which  shoeing  invariably  entails,  and  there 
is  a  wealth  of  unwisdom  in  most  of  the  clumsy  attempts  at  mechanically 
spreading  the  heels  by  making  the  inclination  in  the  contrary  direction^ 
It  is  true  that  in  cases  of  malformation,  or  grave  alteration  of  the  con- 
tour of  the  foot,  good  results  are  obtainable  by  this  or  other  mechanical 
means,  but  all  such  heroic  remedies  should  be  undertaken  only  at  the 
instance  and  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  veterinary  prac- 
titioner 5  otherwise  they  are  liable  to  do  harm  instead  of  good. 

In  France  dilatation  of  the  hoof  by  mechanical  means  is  advocated  and 
practiced  more  than  elsewhere,  but  the  operation  is  performed  with  the 
utmost  exactitude,  scrupulous  care  and  delicacy,  and  under  the  closest 
professional  supervision.  Even  under  these  favorable  conditions  the 
slightest  accidental  deviation  not  only  defeats  the  object  in  view,  but 
occasionally  leads  to  untoward  results.  When  contracted  feet  have  to 
be  expanded  there  is  a  far  more  simple,  safe  and  at  the  same  time  effec- 
tive means  of  attaining  that  end  to  be  found  within  the  foot  itself.  By 
lowering  the  walls  at  the  heels,  so  as  to  restore  frog  pressure,  the  latter 
speedily  recovers  its  lost  characteristics,  and  in  a  healthy  condition 
gradually  and  naturally  accomplishes  one  of  the  very  purposes  for 
which  the  Great  Architect  placed  it  there. 

It  would  seem  to  be  unnecessary  to  say  that  the  shoe  should  be  so 
shaped  as  to  conform  exactly  to  the  natural  tread  of  the  foot,  yet  a  very 
common  practice  obtains  of  using  a  shoe  of  a  uniform  shape,  often  less 
in  circumference,  if  such  a  term  is  i^ermissible,  than  the  foot  on  which 
it  is  to  bo  nailed,  and  then  rasping  down  the  foot  to  fit  it.  It  is  ob- 
viously easier  to  make  the  foot  to  fit  the  shoe  than  it  is  to  make  the- 
shoe  to  fit  the  foot ;  a  stroke  or  two  of  the  rasp  effects  the  former,  but  it 
is  a  far  more  arduous  undertaking  to  modify  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
shoe.  The  outcome  of  this  pernicious  practice  is  disastrous  in  the  last 
degree,  more  especially  so  in  a  dry  climate  like  ours,  as  the  walls  thus 
robbed  of  their  natural  covering  permit  the  moisture  of  the  foot  rapidly 
to  evaporate,  and  the  horn  fibers,  which  make  up  the  outside  walls, 
instead  of  being  compactly  knit  together,  readily  disintegrate,  and  in 
the  course  of  a  shoeing  or  two  those  very  jiortions  in  which  the  nails 
should  obtain  firm  hold  possess  little  more  adhesion  than  a  bundle  of 
broom  corn.  If  the  shoe  fitted  as  it  ought  to  do,  a  touch  of  tlie  rasp 
under  each  clinch  would  be  all  that  was  necessary,  and  even  this  much 
might  advantageously  be  dispensed  with.  Plate  xxxxiv  illustrates 
correct  and  incorrect  fitting,  figure  1  being  the  right  and  figure  2  the 
wrong  way. 


536 

FITTING. 

In  many  countries  what  is  called  hot-fitting— that  Is  to  say,  after  the 
foot  has  been  triiumed  and  leveled,  momentarily  applying  the  shoe  at 
a  red  heat  to  the  foot — is  generally  practiced  to  the  almost  entire  exclu- 
sion of  any  other  method,  and  the  system  is  not  only  found  to  answer, 
but  receives  the  indorsement  of  the  most  competent  authorities.  The 
climatic  conditions  which  render  the  practice  open  to  objection  in  this 
hemisphere  fortunately  enable  us  to  dispense  with  a  procedure  against 
which  there  exists  in  the  minds  of  mauy  horse-owners  a  not  unreasona- 
ble prejudice,  which,  however,  is  directed  at  the  abuse  rather  than  the 
intelligent  application  of  a  proceeding  not  necessarily  hurtful  in  itself. 
The  advantage  conferred  by  hot-fitting  consists  in  the  fact  that  a  more 
accurate  accommodation  is  by  this  means  more  readily  obtained  than 
by  any  other  method,  and  the  contact  between  hoof  and  shoe  can  thus 
be  made  more  intimate  and  enduring.  In  moist  climates  it  is  only  by 
means  of  hot-fitting  that  a  set  of  shoes  can  be  got  to  remain  on  for  a 
reasonable  length  of  time;  but  in  no  part  of  this  country  have  I  found 
any  difiBculty  of  this  nature;  indeed,  on  the  contrary,  shoes  are  usually 
allowed  to  remain  on  too  long,  especially  in  the  agricultural  districts. 
It  has  frequently  occurred  to  me,  when  in  the  discharge  of  my  duties 
as  veterinarian  to  the  Farmers'  Institute  of  Minnesota,  I  have  remon- 
strated with  some  local  blacksmith  at  the  number  of  gigantic  nails  he 
employed  in  affixing  a  shoe,  that  I  have  been  assured  that  did  the  shoe 
not  remain  on  for  several  months  his  employer  would  be  dissatisfied 
and  would  transfer  his  custom  elsewhere.  Nothing  could  be  more 
short-sighted  nor  more  unreasonable  than  such  conduct. 

The  hoof  of  the  horse  is  in  shape  a  truncated  cone  with  the  base 
downwards;  as  it  grows  the  circumference  of  the  base  consequently  in- 
creases, and  the  shoe  fitted  when  it  was  newly  put  on  after  a  time  be- 
comes too  small.  It  would  be  just  as  reasonable  for  a  horse-owner  to 
buy  his  little  boy  a  pair  of  shoes  which  just  fitted  him  when  he  was  six 
years  old,  and  then  expect  him  to  wear  them  until  he  was  twelve,  as  it 
is  for  him  to  require  his  dumb  servant,  who  can  not  protest  against  the 
infliction,  to  wear  his  shoes  for  months  in  succession  without  resetting. 
A  badly  fitting  shoe  is  to  a  horse  as  painful  as  a  tight  boot  is  to  his 
owner,  and  under  no  circumstances  should  shoes  be  permitted  to  remain 
on  more  than  a  month  or  five  weeks  at  the  outside;  mauy  animals  re- 
quire to  be  reshod  even  more  frequently.  It  is  only  when  an  owner  lets 
his  parsimony  overcome  his  reason  that  he  subscribes  himself  to  a  penny- 
wise  and  pound-foolish  policy,  which  can  only  result,  as  such  policies 
invariably  do,  in  a  loss  to  their  exponent. 

NAILS. 

The  fewest  nails,  and  these  of  the  smallest  size,  that  will  ensure  the  shoe 
remaining  on  for  the  proper  length  of  time,  is  a  rule  that  should  never 


537 

be  departed  from.  The  nail  >ioles  should  not  be  punched  too  fine — that 
is,  too  uear  the  outside  edge  of  the  web  of  the  shoe  (this  is  a  very  com- 
mon failing  of  ''  keg  shoes");  if  punched  coarser  the  nails  will  take  a 
thicker  and  lowrr  hold  of  the  walls,  and  in  this  way  obviate  their  having 
to  be  driven  so  high  up  as  to  approach  dangerously  near  the  seusitiv^e 
structures.  Two  of  the  commonest  errors  in  shoeing  are  using  too  many 
nails  and  these  of  an  altogether  unnecessary  size,  and  then  driving  them 
too  high  up  into  the  walls.  If  a  perfectly  level  bearing  has  been  ob- 
tained—as ought  to  be  the  case — it  is  astonishing  how  few  and  how 
small  nails  will  hold  the  shoe  firmly  in  its  place;  but  let  the  fitting  be 
carelessly  done,  then,  no  matter  how  the  shoe  may  be  naiied  on,  but  a 
short  time  elapses  ere  the  clinches  open  and  the  shoe  works  loose. 
When  we  bear  in  mind  that  the  wall  of  the  hoof  consists  of  a  number  of 
hair-like  tubes  cemented  together,  and  that  each  tube  is  one  of  an  infinite 
number  of  minute  canals,  which  diffuse  throughout  the  horn  a  fluid  that 
nourishes  and  preserves  it,  it  will  be  readily  understood  that  each  nail 
driven  into  the  wall  deflects  those  little  tubules,  probably  absolutely 
closing  those  with  which  it  comes  into  actual  contact  and  hurtfully  com- 
pressing those  lying  half  way  between  the  nails,  thus  impairing  if  not 
destroying  their  utility  and  cutting  off  the  supplyof  a  material  necessary 
to  the  foot's  existence.  If  we  could  dispense  with  nails  altogether  our 
horses'  feet  would  be  immeasurably  better  off.  This,  unfortunately  we 
apparently  can  not  do,  but  we  have  it  iu  our  power  to  minimize  an  evil 
which,  at  present,  at  all  events,  we  can  not  entirely  avoid.  There  has 
recently  been  patented  in  England  a  nailless  horseshoe,  for  which  the 
patentees  claim  extraordinary  excellence.  I  have  not  yet  been  able  to 
see  one  of  these  shoes,  but  if  they  will  enable  us  to  dispense  with  the  use 
of  nails  they  will  confer  a  priceless  boon  on  horseflesh  generally.  From 
the  description  given  by  the  patentees  I  fail  to  see,  however,  how  the 
shoes  can  be  kept  sufficiently  firmly  iu  place,  nor  can  I  glean  from  the 
same  source,  that  the  new  method  of  attachment  (by  means  of  a  metal 
baud  and  studs)  is  equally  efficacious  with  the  old,  or  less  injurious. 

There  is,  however,  one  shoe,  without  some  allusion  to  which  any  essay 
of  this  kind  would  be  incomplete,  namely,  the  "  Charlier  shoe,"  in- 
vented some  years  ago  by  M.  Oharlier,  a  wellkuown  veterinary  sur- 
geon of  Paris,  France,  which  has  never,  in  my  opinion,  received  either 
the  attention  or  trial  its  merits  deserve.  Common  sense  and  science 
alike  indorse  it,  and  were  the  system  to  become  more  generally  known 
in  this  country  I  venture  to  assert  that  there  is  an  extremely  large  num- 
ber of  cases  iu  which  it  would  be  found  both  appropriate  and  benefi- 
cial. For  this  reason  I  will  briefly  describe  it.  The  shoes  used  are 
about  one-third  the  weight  of  an  ordinary  shoe,  and  less  than  one-half 
the  width.  In  preparing  the  foot  for  the  shoe  and  sole,  frog  and  bars 
are  left,  as  they  ought  to  be,  absolutely  untouched,  and  a  groove  is  cut, 
by  means  of  a  knife  specially  designed  for  the  purpose,  in  the  wall,  not 
high  enough  to  reach  above  the  sole  level,  and  less  than  the  thickness 


538 

of  the  wall  in  depth.  Into  this  groove  a  narrow  but  thick  band  of  iron 
is  sunk  and  nailed  to  the  foot  by  means  of  four  to  six  conical-headed 
nails,  the  heads  being  countersunk  in  the  shoe.  The  advantage  of  this 
method  of  shoeing  is  that  the  frog,  bars,  and  a  portion  of  the  sole 
come  to  the  ground  exactly  as  if  the  foot  were  unshod,  and  one  and  all 
participate  in  weight-bearing  as  it  was  obviously  intended  they  should, 
while  the  wall  is  protected  from  wear  by  the  small  rim  of  iron  let  into  its 
ground  surface. 

A  modification  of  the  system  has  been  suggested  by  an  enthusiast 
who  writes  under  the  name  of  "Free  Lance,"  which  possesses  even  supe- 
rior advantages.  Under  this  system  only  tips  or  toe-pieces  of  the  Char- 
lier  pattern  are  used,  the  foot  being  prepared  for  their  reception,  as 
shown  in  Plate  xxxxiv.  Fig.  3.  The  tips  are  made  with  their  ground 
surface  broader  than  their  upper  face,  and  the  outside  edge  of  the  web, 
beveled  off  so  as  to  follow  the  angle  of  the  profiles  of  the  foot.  Plate 
xxxxiv,  Fig.  4. 

I  have  used  both  the  Charlier  shoe  and  the  tip  in  this  country  as  well 
as  in  the  East  Indies,  and  I  am  perfectly  satisfied  that  in  many  respects 
they  are  superior  to  any  other  model.  They  are  infinitely  lighter,  the 
nails  are  smaller  and  fewer  in  number  ;  all  steps  in  the  right  direction  ; 
but  the  dominant  superiority  of  the  device  consists  in  the  fact  that  the 
frog  obtains  pressure  to  the  extent  contemplated  by  nature,  and  in  the 
case  of  the  Charlier  tip  particularly  the  exercise  of  its  double  function 
as  a  buffer  and  dilator  is  absolutely  uutrammeled  in  anyway  by  the 
shoe. 

FINISHING   TOUCHES. 

When  the  shoe  has  been  fitted,  the  nails  driven,  drawn  up,  and 
clinched,  there  should  be  nothing  left  to  be  done.  Very  frequently, 
however,  it  is  just  at  this  stage  that  the  incompetent  workman,  in  the 
most  uncalled  for  manner,  inflicts  serious  and  lasting  injury  on  the  foot. 
If  the  wall  has  not  been  sufiBcieutly  reduced  in  leveling  the  foot,  or  if 
the  shoe  used  is  too  small,  the  rasp  is  required  to  reduce  the  projecting 
parts.  (Plate  xxxxiv,  Fig.  2.)  Often,  indeed,  when  there  is  not  even 
this  pretext,  the  whole  surface  of  the  foot  is  subjected  to  its  relentless 
touch.  No  procedure  could  well  be  devised  which  would  be  more  hurt- 
ful to  the  foot.  In  its  natural  state  the  entire  hoof,  from  the  coronet  to 
the  sole  level,  is  covered  by  a  fine  coating  of  natural  varnish,  thickest  at 
the  upper  margin  and  gradually  becoming  thinner  as  it  descends.  Under 
cover  of  this  beneficent  curtain  the  new  horn  is  secreted  and  protected 
until  it  has  attained  maturity.  The  moisture  secreted  by  the  animal 
economy,  necessary  to  the  perfection  of  the  horn,  is  retained  within  it, 
and  the  prejudicial  influences  of  alternating  drought  and  moisture  are 
set  at  defiance.  In  a  very  dry  atmosphere  like  ours  it  is  of  paramount 
importance  that  this  beautiful  shield  should  be  preserved  and  fostered, 
and  no  name  is  bad  enough  for  a  senseless  custom  which,  to  serve  no 


539 

good  purpose,  robs  the  foot  of  a  necessary  protection  which  it  is  beyond 
the  power  of  art  to  imitate  or  rephice. 

WINTER    SHOEING. 

The  subject  of  winter  shoeing  presents,  iu  many  sections  of  thecouu- 
try,  fresh  difficulties,  for  now  the  shoe  is  required,  iu  the  case  of  all 
classes  of  horses,  to  discharge  a  double  duty  ;  to  afford  foothold  as  well 
as  guard  against  uudue  wear.  Various  patterns  of  shoes  have  from 
time  to  time  beeu  invented  to  meet  this  dual  requirement,  but  the  com- 
monest of  all,  fashioned  with  shoe  and  heel  calks  or  calkins,  is,  laulty 
though  it  be,  probably,  all  things  considered,  the  one  which  best  suits 
the  requirements  of  the  case.  It  should,  however,  never  be  lost  sight 
of  that  the  shorter,  the  sharper,  and  the  smaller  the  calkins  are, 
so  long  as  they  answer  the  inirpose  which  called  them  into  existence, 
so  much  the  better  for  the  foot  that  wears  them.  High  calkins,  while 
they  confer  no  firmer  foothold,  are  potent  means  of  inflicting  injury 
both  on  the  foot  itself  and  the  superincumbent  limb  at  large.  It  is  only 
from  that  portion  of  the  catch  which  enters  the  ground  surfiice  that  the 
horse  derives  any  benefit  in  the  shape  of  foothold,  and  it  must  be  ap- 
parent to  the  meanest  capacity  that  long  calkins,  which  do  not  pene- 
trate the  hard,  uneven  ground,  are  so  many  levers  put  into  the  animal's 
possession  to  enable  if  not  compel  him  to  wring  his  feet,  rack  his  limbs, 
and  inflict  untold  tortures  on  himself.  I  have  laid  particular  stress  on 
this  subject,  as  I  am  of  opinion  that  the  presence  of  navicular  disease, 
a  dire  malady  from  which  horses  used  for  agricultural  labor  should 
enjoy  a  practical  immunity,  is  traceable  largely  to  the  habitual  use, 
during  our  long  winter  months,  of  needlessly  large  calkins,  only  frac- 
tional parts  of  which  find  lodgment  in  the  earth  or  ice  during  progres- 
sion. I  will  explain  what  I  mean.  When  a  horse  is  shod  with  the  exag- 
gerated calkins  to  which  I  have  alluded,  the  toe  and  heel  calks  are,  or 
ought  to  be,  the  same  height,  to  start  with,  at  all  events.  Very  often, 
however,  they  are  not,  and  even  when  they  are,  the  toe  calk  wears 
down  on  animals  used  for  draft  purposes  far  more  rapidly  than  its 
fellows  at  the  heel.  The  result  is  that  the  toe  is  depressed  while  the 
heel  in  unnaturally  raised.  The  relative  position  of  the  bony  structures 
within  the  foot  is  altered,  and  the  navicular  bone,  which  is  not  one  of 
the  weight-bearing  bones,  is  brought  within  the  angle  of  incidence  of 
both  weight  and  concussion,  influences  which  it  was  never  contem- 
plated it  should  withstand,  and  which  its  structure  precludes  its  sus- 
taining without  injury.  The  bone  becomes  first  bruised  and  then  dis- 
eased; the  tendon,  to  which  it  was  intended  it  should  act  as  a  pulley, 
which  passes  over  and  is  in  constant  contact  with  it,  before  long  also 
becomes  implicated,  and  what  is  technically  known  as  navicular  arthri- 
tis is  thus  engendered  and  developed. 


540 

SHOEING  FOR  A   SPECIFIC   PURPOSE. 

Thanks  to  tbe  amount  of  attention  which  every  detail  that  could 
possibly  tend  to  the  more  perfect  development  of  that  paragon  of  horse- 
flesh, the  American  trotter,  has  received  at  the  hands  of  all  classes  of 
men,  the  matter  of  shoeing  for  specific  i)uri)0ses  has  made  greater 
progress  in  America  than  in  any  other  country  on  the  face  of  the  globe, 
and  that  is  a  department  of  the  farrier's  art  which  is  justly  entitled  to 
the  highest  eulogium  that  can  be  bestowed  upon  it. 

The  different  styles  of  shoes  which  have  been  devised  are  marvels  of 
ingenuity,  and  many  of  them  are  admirably  effective  as  remedial  agents 
for  faulty  gaits  and  uneven  action.  Their  number  is  infinite,  but  as 
many  are  applicable  only,  or  in  a  large  measure,  to  horses  used  solely 
for  speed  purposes,  any  attempt  at  classification  or  detailed  description 
would  be  out  of  place  in  a  work  of  this  kind.  When  intelligently  ap- 
lilied  a  considerable  number  are,  however,  liotentauxiliaries  in  mitigating 
in  some  cases  the  results  of  natural  defects  of  conformation  amongst 
animals  whose  lot  ii  cast  in  the  humbler  if  more  useful  fields  of  horse 
enterprise.  Among  these  are  the  scoop-toed  or  roller-motion  shoe  for 
the  fore  feet  (Plate  xxxxii.  Fig.  2)  and  the  shoe  (Plate  xxxxii,  Fig. 
3)  for  the  hind  feet,  which,  while  they  obviate  "forging"  or  "clicking," 
a  habit  hurtful  to  the  horse  and  singularly  annoying  to  his  driver,  do 
not  in  any  waj'  tend  to  inflict  injury  on  the  feet  or  limbs.  The  scooped  or 
rolled  toe  confers  a  mechanical  advantage,  enabling  the  animal  to  get 
over  his  toes  more  promptly  and  thus  remove  the  front  foot  from  the 
stroke  of  the  hind  extremity,  while  the  lengthening  of  the  branches  of 
the  hind  shoes,  by  increasing  the  ground  surface,  retards  the  flexion 
and  extension  of  the  hint!  limbs. 

The  common  practice  of  increasing  the  weight  of  the  outside  web  of 
the  hind  shoes,  to  open  the  action  (Plate  xxxxii.  Fig.  4),  is  equally 
harmless  and  efficacious  when  not  carried  to  extremes. 

Plate  xxxxiii,  Fig.  1,  is  the  most  effective  model  of  shoe  to  square 
and  balance  the  gait  of  unmade  horses,  but  the  period  of  its  use  should 
be  strictly  limited  and  the  weight  of  the  toe  gradually  reduced  as  the 
desired  gait  becomes  established.  An  ingenious  shoe  to  prevent  "dish- 
ing" or  "paddling"  is  shown  in  Plate  xxxxtii,  Fig.  2,  but  I  can  not 
acknowledge  so  implicit  confidence  in  its  efticacy,  as  the  vice  is  the  re- 
sult of  a  physical  malformation,  which  mechanical  means  can  go  but  a 
small  way  to  remove  or  palliate. 

There  are  many  other  styles  of  shoe,  the  product  of  American  inge- 
nuity, for  which  probably  equal  merit  might  be  claimed,  but  there  are 
others,  which,  while  they  may  cure  or  mitigate  the  special  defect  against 
which  they  are  directed,  only  do  so  at  the  expense  of  some  other  por- 
tion of  the  structure.  It  has  many  a  time  furnished  food  for  thought 
to  the  writer,  that,  in  this'  great  commonwealth,  while  there  are  such  a 
large  number  of  artificers  who  make  horse-shoeing  a  profession,  who 


541 

offer  snch  convincing  testimony  of  a  vast  amount  of  careful  thouglit 
and  patient  study  of  at  least  some  of  the  principles  of  their  very  im- 
portant profession  as  many  of  these  devices  afford,  tiie  bulk  of  such 
work  should  be  permitted  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  a  set  of  incompetent, 
ignorant,  and  ofttimes  unprincipled  bunglers,  who  prey  upon  the  cre- 
dulity of  their  employers  and  inflict  upon  the  most  generous  of  all  our 
dumb  servants  an  amount  of  injury  which  curtails  the  period  of  his  use- 
fulness and  results  in  his  premature  decadence  at  an  age  when  he  ouuht 
still  to  be  in  his  prime.  It  is  possible,  if  not  probable,  that  in  the  fu- 
ture it  may  become  a  less  invidious  task  to  discuss  this  much  vexed 
problem.  In  this  age  of  marvelous  ingenuity,  is  it  visionary  to  hope 
that  it  is  within  the  power  of  chemistry  to  develop  some  preparation 
which,  applied  to  our  horses'  hoofs  in  a  liquid  or  pultaceous  form,  will 
quickly  harden  into  a  substance  closely  resembling  the  natural  horn, 
which  will  enable  us  to  dispense  altogether  with  the  heavy,  unyielding 
iron,  and  while  it  affords  the  necessary  protection  to  the  foot  will  per- 
mit it  to  retain  to  the  full  its  wondrous  combination  of  lightness, 
strength  and  elasticity,  and  enable  it  to  perform  its  varied  functions 
under  the  most  exacting  conditions  which  advanced  civilization  can 
impose,  with  that  marvelous  trinity  of  apparently  incompatible  charac- 
teristics unhampered  as  they  left  the  workshop  of  the  Creator,  all  act- 
ing together  in  perfect  harmony  and  absolute  efficiency  ? 

In  the  meantime  it  behooves  us  to  make  the  most  of  the  means  Mithin 
our  power.  Our  horses  are  national  property.  Surely,  therefore,  it  is 
time  that  the  possibility  of  a  great  national  economy  was  recognized, 
and  some  legislation  formulated  which  would  require  an  established 
standard  of  attainment  in  a  class  of  workmen  to  whose  care  property 
of  such  value  is  habitually  intrusted,  and  upon  whose  proficiency,  or 
the  reverse,  so  much  of  its  utility  or  comparative  worthlessness  depends, 
while  it,  at  the  same  time,  provided  for  some  means  of  practical  instruc- 
tion which  contemplated  raising  the  science  of  horseshoeing  above  the 
baneful  influences  of  ignorance  and  traditional  routine,  to  that  position 
to  which  its  importance  to  us  as  a  people  justly  entitles  it. 


PLAICE    XXXXII. 


Tht'  /hot  fciidi  /or  //ics/ioc.shou  I'ftc/ 
frog  iiiid  Ixirs  as  thev  should  hr  Ic/'t . 


Front  view  o/\s<aop  toe  /■olliiu/  inotion  sitae 


Hind  /but  s/ioe  tobolanct;  tlic  action 


Side  weujht  slioc  /or  Iiitid  /bol  . 


Kigs2,3and  4  ii-oiu'Russell's  SciiMiLifu- florso  slu)i-iM<: 


pi.ATK  xxxxnr. 


Toe  yvci(/M  shoe. 


Xoft  paddli/uf  -s/ioc 


Frcr!n"Rnsseirs  Scieiitilic  Horse  shoeino" 


PLAT  E  XXXXIV. 


Foot  p/'epa/e<J /hr  (VizirUer  tip. 


Fooishod  with  Char-lier tip. 


Plantar  surface  ot'fiwt 
with  Ch/irlier  tip. 


Biffhl  fitting. 


Wrong  tittinef. 


Haines.del. 


INDEX 


Page. 

Abdomen,  dropsy  of 54 

of  foal,  dropsy  of 164 

swelling  of 142 

Abortion 153 

Abrasions  by  collar  and  saddle 454 

Abscesses,  acute 455 

cold  or  chronic 456 

intercostal 1-28 

of  the  brain „ 186 

heart 229 

pharynx 27 

Acariasis 438 

Amaurosis 203,  267 

Amnios,  dropsy  of 151 

Ana-mia,  cei-ebral 104 

spinal 206 

Anasarca 437,  490 

Anchylosis  from  injury  of  joints 325 

Aneurism 238 

Ankles,  cocked 362 

diseases  of 357 

Antlirax 510 

Ai^oplexy,  cerebral 192 

of  the  lungs 116 

Arsenical  poisoning 34 

Arteries,  aneurism  of 238 

constriction  of 238 

diseases  of 236 

inflammation  of 236 

nature  and  functions  of 221 

rupture  of 239 

thrombi  and  embolisms  in 2-10,  353 

Arthritis 323 

Ascites 54,164 

Ast  hma 129 

Atheroma   237 

Atrophy  of  the  brain I95 

heart 235 

Auscultatioa 107 

Azotaraia 66 

Azoluria 66 

Balls,  how  to  administer 9 

Beo  stings 441 

543 


544 

Page.' 

Beets  as  feed '-^1 

Belly-ache  (See  al-o  Colic) 39 

Big  leg  (lynipbaugitis) 246 

Black  pigiiieut  tumors 2o6,  4'.]6 

Black-water  (azoturia) C6 

Bladder,  diseased  growths  in *5 

eversion  of 76 

inflammation  of 73 

irritable 74 

7ft 


paralysis  of. 


spasm  of  neck  of 71 

stone  in 83, 161 

worms 70 

Bleeding  after  castration 142 

from  1  lings -   12S 

ruptured  artery 239 

womb 175 

skin  eruption 429 

Blind  staggers 210 

Bloat  (tympanites) 31,41 

Blood  spavin 322 

vessels,  diseases  of 219, 223 

Bloody  flux  (dysentery) '17 

urine "-^ 

Bog  spavin  (blood  spavin) 322 

Boils,  nature  and  treatment  of "127,  430 

on  the  eyelid 255 

Bone  spavin 287 

Bones,  anatomy  of 271 

diseases  of 2/9 

fractures  of 291 

Bets '^^ 

Bowels.     (See  Intestines.) 

Brain,  abscess  of 1^6 

aftections,  acute 1^7 

anaemia  of 19-1 

anatomy  and  physiology  of 181 

atrophy  of 1^5 

complication  from  influenza 482 

compression  of -- I'-^'S 

concussion  of 1"3 

congestion  of 189 

dropsy  of 1^5 

envelopes,  inflammation  of 1 85 

hemorrhage  of 1''- 

inflammation  of 183 

paralysis  of 187 

soften ing  of 186 

substance,  inflammation  of 186 

Bran  as  feed 21 

Broken  bones.     {See  Fractures.) 

knees 3-3 

wind 129 

Bronchitis 108 

Broncho-ifleuro  pneumonia 127 


545 

Page. 

Broucho-pnenmonia 128 

Bruises 325,449 

Burns  and  scalds 442,454 

Bursae.     (.Sec  Synovial  sacs. ) 

Calculi,  biliary '. .-.• 58 

gastric 43 

intestinal - -■ 44 

preputial 86 

renal 81 

urethral 85 

uretral  82 

urinary,  classes  of 77 

vesical 83, 161 

Ciilk  wounds 306 

Callosities —  - 435 

Cancer,  eucephaloid  (soft)  257,268 

epithelial 436 

spinal 208 

Canker  in  foot 380,431 

Capped  elbow 342 

hock 348 

knee 345 

Carpitis 323,3,.'5 

Carrots  as  fead 21 

Castration,  conditions  favorable  to 141 

covered  method  of 143 

of  cryptorchids  (ridgliugs) 141 

mares 143 

stallions   140 

treatment  of  complications  of 141, 142 

Cataract . .  267 

Catarrh,  acute  nasal 90 

chronic 92 

Catarrhal  fever 493 

Cerebri  tis 186 

Cerebro-spioal  meningitis 209 

Chaff  as  feed 20 

Chafing  by  harness 454 

Chapped  hock 430 

knee 430 

Charbon  (anthrax) 510 

Charlier  shoe 537 

Chest  cough 107 

diseases,  methods  of  esamiuation  for 105 

percussion -..  108 

pulse 105 

respiration 106 

secretions -- 107 

temperature 106 

wounds    133 

Chigoe,  treatment  for 442 

Choking,  causes  of 27 

cervical 29 

thoracic 28 

Chorea 108 

11035- 35 


546 

page. 

Choroiditis 260 

Clubfoot 360 

Coma  (sleepy  staggt-rs ) 199 

Cocked  ankles  (k-juckliiig) 362 

Cold  ill  the  head -' 90 

Colic,  cramp  or  spasmodic 39 

flatulent  or  wind 41 

from  aneurism 239 

Collar  galls 454 

Colt-ill 493 

Concretions,  gastric - 43 

intestinal 43 

Congestion,  causes  of - 464 

of  the  brain 189 

lungs 114 

skin 422 

passive 465 

spinal 206 

Conjunctivitis 258 

Constipation 43 

Corn  as  feed 21 

Cornea,  ulcers  of 260 

Corns "382 

Costiveness 43 

Cough,  chronic 132 

dry  and  moist 107 

Cracked  heels 430 

Cramp  of  hind  limb 197 

Cramp-colic 39 

Cramps 196 

during  parturition 152 

Cranium,  tumors  iu 196 

Crick  in  the  back 355 

Croup 101 

Curb 337 

Cuts - 447 

Cyanosis 236 

Dentition 23 

Dermatorrhagica  parasitica 429 

Diabetes  insipidus 62 

mellitus  (saccharine) 63 

Diaphragm,  rupture  of 134 

spasms  of 134 

Diarrhea, 46 

Digestive  organs,  diseases  of 15 

Diphtheria 101 

Dislocations,  indications  of 326 

of  the  hip  joint 328 

patella 323 

shoulder  joint 3"^7 

reduction  of 326 

Distemper '■ 493 

Diuresis ^'^ 

Douche,  nasal 1-^ 

Dourino .<:....,  o 1«'^ 


547 

Pago. 

Drenches,  how  to  atlmiuister 10 

Dropsy  of  fibdoiiien 54, 151 

amnios 151 

brain 195 

foetus 164 

limbs  and  periuseara 151 

scrotum 137 

synovial  sacs 321 

womb 150 

Dysentery 47 

Ectropion 255 

Eczema 424 

Edema  (oedema) 489 

Elbow,  capped 342 

sprain  of  muscles  of 332 

Electric  shock 216 

Electuaries 10 

Elephantiasis 246 

Embolisms 240,353 

Embryotomj" 173 

Emphysema  of  foetus 164 

Encephalitis lt:'4 

Endarteritis 236 

Endocarditis 224 

Enemas 12,  40 

Enteritis 49 

Entroiiion 255 

Epilepsy 199 

Enithelioma 133,  426 

Epizooty  {See  also  lutlueuza) 476 

Eruptions,  bleeding  skiu 429 

Erythem.a 422 

Erysipelas ^ 433 

Exostosis 279 

Eye,  affection  of  cornea  of 260 

diseases  of 247 

examination  of 250 

lachrymal  apparatus  of 250 

muscles  of 249 

parasites  in 268 

watering  of 257 

Eyeball,  anatomy  of •. 247 

tumors  of 268 

Eyelids,  boils  on 255 

diseases  of 1 251 

drooping 252 

inflammaticu  of 252 

inversion  and  cversiou  of 255 

spasm  of 231 

tumors  of 255,256 

warts  on 255 

wounds  of 256 

Fainting 233 

Falliu-lits 199 


548 

Page. 

Farcy  buds ., 426,  520 

chrouic  (See  also  Glanders) 520 

Favus 437 

Feeding 17 

Fetlock,  diseases  of 357 

sprain  of „ 364 

Fevers,  kinds  of 473 

rheumatic 476 

spleaic 510 

treatment  of : 475 

Fistulffi 457 

of  the  foot  (quittor) 3G8,  4G0 

Flat  foot 3G0 

Flatulent  colic  (tympanitis) 31,  4l_ 

Flaxseed  as  feed 21 

Fleas 441 

Flexor  metatarsi,  rupture  of 340 

Flies,  protection  from 441 

Flooding 175 

Flux,  bloody  (dysentery) 47 

Fly-blow „ 440 

Foaling  (See  aZso  Parturition) 156,167 

Fojtus,  adherent  to  walls  of  womb 102 

constriction  of  member  by  navel  cord 163 

dissection   of 173 

dropsy   of 164 

emphysema  of 164 

excessive  size  of l!'3 

extra-uterine  development  of 149 

prolonged  retention  of 152 

tumors  of 105 

Foods  and   feeding 17 

effects  of  changes  of 19 

preparation  of 22 

Foot,  anatomy  of 357 

complication  from  influenza 483 

diseases  of 357 

faults  of  conformation 360 

mange 439 

wounds  of 387 

Founder  {See  also  Lamiuitis) 401 

Fractures,  causes  of 292 

nature  of 291 

of  bones  of  face 304 

cannon  bones 317 

coronet ., „„ 318 

cranial  bones 304 

femur 314 

first  phalanx 317 

forearm 313 

hip  bone,  effect  in  parturition 158 

hock 317 

humerus 313 

knee 314 

lower  jaw 305 


549 

Page. 

Fractures  of  os  innominata 309 

pedis - 318 

patella '-HQ 

premaxillary  bone 305 

ribs 308 

sacrum 159,  309 

scapula --. 312 

eesamoid  bones 319 

tibia 316 

vertebrae - 306 

prognosis  of 297 

reduction  of - 300 

retention  of 302 

Frog,  bruise  of 386 

Frostbites 367 

Furuncles  (See  also  Boils) 427 

Gall-stones - 58 

Galls,  collar  and  saddle 454 

Gangrene --- .- 128,412 

Gastritis 33 

Generative  organs,  diseases  of -  -  -  -  135 

Gestation,  extra  uterine 149 

prolonged 152 

Glanders •  -- 514 

acute 523 

cause  of 516 

chronic 522 

pustules  of 426 

treatment  of = 525 

Gleet,  nasal 92 

urethral 76 

Glossitis , ---  25 

Glycosuria - 63 

Grains,  feeding  value  of 20 

Grasses,  feeding  value  of 22 

Gravel - 77 

Grease - -  -  -  • 431 

Grubs  on  and  under  the  skin 440 

Grunting 103 

Gullet,  diseases  of  (-See  also  Esophagus) 27 

G  unshot  wounds 453 

Gut  tie 46 

Guttural  pouches 104 

Harness  galls >.. - 454 

Ha^iiiatiiiia - - - 65 

Hiemoglobinuria 66 

Haemorrhoids 48 

Haw,  tumor  of... 256 

Hay  as  feed 19 

Heart,  adventitious  growths  in... - 231 

anatomy  and  Y>hy8iology  of 219 

atrophy  of 235 

congestion  of... 236 

dilatation  of 234 

diseaaea  of 219,223 


550 

Heart,  enlargement  of» 233 

latty  (legeueration  of 235 

functional  iind  organic  diseases  of 232 

bypertropby  of 233 

palpitation  of 232 

1  npture  of 236 

sounds  of 222 

valvular  disease  of 230 

vrcakness  of 236 

Heaves 129 

Heels,  contracted 300 

cracked 430 

inflamed 431 

Hemiplegia 200 

Hemorrhage,  cerebral 192 

Hepatitis ^5 

Hernia,  diphragmatlc 53 

inguinal 51 

kinds  of 51 

scrotal 51 

umbilical 5'^ 

uterine : 159 

ventral 52 

Herpes  (shingles) 429 

pblyctenoid , 506 

High  blowing 103 

Hip  bones,  fractured,  efiect  in  parturition 158 

joint,  dislocation  of 3^8 

lameness 333 

Hip-joint  disease 3)4 

Hock,  capped 3i€ 

chapped 430 

Hoof,  contracted 390 

cracked 392 

Hoof-bonnd 390 

Horny  sloughs 435 

Horsepox 506 

Hydrocele 137 

Hydrocephalus 163, 195 

Hydrophobia 215,  526 

Hydro- thorax 127 

Hypertrophy  of  the  heart 233 

Indigestion 36 

Inflammation,  character  of ' ..   401,466 

of  the  bladder , . 73 

bowels 49 

brain  and  its  membranes 183 

eyelids 252 

heart 224 

heart-case 229 

kidneys 68 

knee  joint 323, 324 

lymnhatic  glands 245 

Eiouth  (stomatitis) .....„....o....  25 


Page, 

Inflammation  of  the  nerves S^OS 

periosteum 279 

skin 424,426 

testicles 135 

tonguo 25 

\vomb  and  peritoneum 178 

Influenza,  alterations  of 485 

compl'catious  of 480 

detiuition  of 476 

diagnosis  of - 484 

etiology  of 477 

prognosis  of 4c5 

sequelce  of 487,  491 

symptoms  of 473 

terminations  of 480,489 

treatment  of ■- 486 

Injections 12, 13,  40 

Inosuria - 63 

Insufilatiou  of  medicines 11 

Interfering 350,361 

Intestines,  complication  from  influenza 480 

diseases  of , 39 

inflammation  of 49 

intussusception  or  invaginatiou  of 45 

large,  impaction  of 42 

stones  (calculi)  in 44 

twisting   of 46 

vrorras  in 37 

Icterus 57 

Iritis 260 

Itching  from  mange 438 

Jaundice 57 

Jerks  (chorea) ,    1-8 

Joint  water  (synovia),  escape  of 323 

Joints,  diseases  of 320 

dislocated 326 

open 323 

stifiencd  by  injury  (anchylosis) 325 

Kidneys,  acute  inflammation  of G^ 

chronic  inflammation  of 69 

tumors  of "0 

Knees,  broken 323 

capped  — 345 

chapped ^^30 

effects  of  injuries  to 323 

sprung 336 

Knuckling - 362 

Labor  pains,  premature 158 

suppression  from  bladder  disorder 161 

Lameness,  causes  and  treatment  of 269 

defluition  of 274 

location  of 278 

of  the  hip  ..    333 

Ghoulder 330 

Lamiuitis  (founder) '^01 


552 

Paget 

Laminitis,  complicationc  of 410 

curative  measures  for 417 

exciting  causes  of 402 

following  parturition 179 

prevention  of 415 

symptoms  of 405 

treatment  of 414 

Lampas 25 

Larvae  ou  and  under  the  skin 440 

Laryngitis 96 

•Laryngismus  paralyticus 101,  202 

LarynX;  sjiasm  of 100 

Lead  poisoning 33,215 

Leucorrhcea 179 

Lice 439,442 

Ligament,  suspensory,  rupture  of 365 

L'useed  as  feed 21 

Liver,  diseases  of 55 

inflammation  of 55 

rupture  of 57 

stone  in  ducts  of 58 

Lock-jaw 212 

Locomotor  ataxia 202 

Loins,  sprains  of 355 

Lung  fever 116 

Lungs,  abscess  and  suppuration  in 128 

anatomy  of 112 

apoplexy  of 116 

bleeding  from 128 

complication  from  influenza 481 

congestion  of 114 

consumption  of 129 

dropsy  of 129 

mortification  of 128 

Luxations  (<See  also  Dislocations) 326 

Lymphangitis 246,488 

Lymphatic  glands,  abscess  and  inflammation  of 245 

hypertrophied 245 

system,  diseases  of 244 

Mad  staggers 185 

Madness  (rabies) 215 

Maize  as  feed 21 

Malignant  pustule  (anthrax) 510 

Mai  du  coit 139 

Mange 419,438 

Masturbation 138 

Medicines,  how  to  administer 9 

inhalation  of 11 

injection  of 12,  13 

insufflation  of 11 

Megrims 189 

Melanosis 256,  436 

Meningitis,  cerebro-spinal 185,  209 

spinal 204 

Metastasis 489 


553 

Page. 

Moles 150 

Monstrosities - 150, 1G5 

Moon-blindness 263 

Morbus  coxarius 334 

Mortification 123 

Mouth,  diseases  of 25 

Muscles,  anatomy  of 271 

diseases  of 329 

of  foal,  contraction  of 165 

Myelitis 205 

Myocarditis 224 

Nail  pricks 389 

Nails  for  shoeing 536 

Nasal  catairh 90 

douche •  12 

gleet - 92 

Navel,  discharge  of  urine  by  75 

Navicular  disease 395 

Nephritis,  acute 68 

Nerve,  inflammation  of 203 

iuj  ury  to 209 

tumor  of 209 

Nervous  system,  diseases  of 181 

Nettlerash 427 

Neuroma 209 

Neuritis 203 

Nose,  bleeding  from 95 

Nostrils,  tumors  in o 90 

■wounds  near 89 

Oats  as  feed 20 

Oedema,  enteric 489 

pulmonary , = 489 

(Esophagus,  diseases  of 27 

sacular  dilatation  of 29 

stricture  of - 29 

Open  joints 323 

Ophthalmia,  external.. , 253 

internal , 200 

recurrent  or  periodic - 267 

Optic  nerve,  paralysis  of 203,283 

Orchitis 135 

Ostitis 279 

Overreach 366 

Palpitation  of  the  heart 232 

Palsy  {See  also  Paralysis) - 200 

Papilloma --• 138 

Paralysis  (palsy) - 200 

during  pregnancy 152 

facial - 202 

intestinal 202 

local 202 

of  bladder 203 

hind  extremities 152,  201 

muscles  of  limbs 202 

ontic  nerve 152, 203, 267 


554 

"Page. 

Paralysis  of  penis 138 

rectum  aucl  tail 202 

side  of  body 200 

Parapliyniosis 1'13 

Paraplegia ----  • 201 

Parasites,  animal,  of  the  eye 2(58 

kidueys 70 

bkiu 438 

vegetable,  of  tbe  skiu 43G 

Parasitic  pityriasis 438 

Parrot-mouth 24 

Parturitiou,di£ticult l-';(>,  158,163 

natural 156 

of  twins 167 

symptoms  of 156 

PasterD,  injured  by  knuckling ". 362 

Patella,  pseuuo  luxation  of 328 

Pediculi 442 

Peditis 412 

Pelvis,  tumors  in 159 

Penis,  growths  on 138 

paralysis  of 138 

ruptured  blood  vessels  of 138 

swelled 142 

warts  on 138 

Pericarditis 229 

with  influenza 483 

PerinsBUUi,  dropsy  of 151 

Periostitis 2T9,  412 

Peritonitis ^^4 

Pharnygitis 26 

Pharynx,  abscesses  in 27 

inflammation  of 96 

paralysis  of 26 

Phlebitis 241 

Phyniosis 143 

Pigeou-tced  foot 360,361 

Piles 48 

Pimples  with  congestion 424 

Pink-eye  {See  also  Influenza) 476 

Pin- worm 38 

Pityriasis 428 

Pleurisy 1"^3 

symptoms  and  prognosis —  124 

treatment  of 126 

with  influenza 4S3 

Pleuiodynia 132 

Pleuro-pneumonia 127 

Plica  polonica 437 

Plnmbisni 33,215 

Pneumonia  (lung  fever) 116 

metastatic 4 10 

03(lematous 500 

■with  bronchitis 128 

and  pleurisy 127 


555 

Page. 

Pneumonia  Yritli  pienrisy    ....= 127 

Poisoning,  arsenical 34 

lead 33,215 

Poll  evil 457 

Polypus,  nasal ^4 

pharyngeal &5 

Polyuria 62 

Potatoes  as  feed 21 

Powders,  Low  to  administer 9 

Presentations,  natural 156 

wrong 167 

Pregnancy,  care  of  mare  during 148 

constipation  during 152 

duration  of 148 

indications  of 146 

ovarian,  tubal,  and  abdominal 119 

paralysis  during 152 

Proud  flejh 448 

Pruritus 428 

Psoroptic  acariasis 439 

Ptosis 252 

Ptyaliem 25 

Pulse 105,2^2 

Pumiced  sole 412 

Purpura  hcniorrliagica  (anasarca) 243,  4-7 

Pustules  witli  iuliaramation 426 

Pyrsmia 410 

Quarter-cracks 392 

Quidding 24 

Quitter  368,460 

cartilaginous 377 

cntancoud 303 

Bubborny 375 

tendinous 372 

Rabies 21 5, 526 

Kectum,  impaction  of 101 

paralysis  of 202 

Respiration 106 

Respiratory  orgaus,  diseases  of 87 

Retinitis 260 

Rheumatic  fever,  remedies  for 470 

Ringbone 283,399 

Ringworm,  circiuato 436 

honeycomb ,,  437 

Roaring 101,202 

Rodent  ulcer 436 

Roots  as  feed 21 

Rupture  {Sec  also  Hernia) 51 

of  arteries 239 

the  diaphragm 134 

heart 236 

liver 57 

ebank  muscle  (flexor  metatarsi) 340 

stomach .' 32 

suspensory  ligament 365 


56 


Page. 


Knpture  of  the  womb 159 

Eye  as  feed 21 

Saddle  galls 454 

Saliva,  excessive  flow  of 25 

Sand-cracks 392 

Sarcocele 136 

Sarcoptic  acariasls 43S 

Scalds 442,454 

Scalma 49G 

Scaly  skin  diseases 428 

Scapula,  fracture  of.. 312 

Scarlatiua  (anasarca) 487 

Sclerosis,  cerebral , 187 

spinal 205 

Scorpion,  sting  of 442 

Scour 46 

Scratches 430 

Sciotum,  dropsy  of 137 

Secretions 107 

Self-abuse 138 

Septicaiinia 410,489,491 

Sheath,  calculi  in 86 

swelling  of 142 

Shingles  (herpes) 429 

Shivering  (chorea) • 198 

Shoe  boil 342 

Shoeing,  article  on 529 

bad  methods  of -  530 

finishing  touches  in 538 

for  specific  purposes 540 

winter 539 

nail  prick  in 389 

preparing  the  foot  for '---  533 

use  of  nails  in 536 

Shoes,  best  form  of 534 

Charlier  pattern  of. 537 

fitting  of 536 

various  styles  of  . 540 

Shoulder,  dislocation  of  joint  of 327 

lameness  of 330 

Shoulder-blade  (scapula),  fracture  of 312 

Sidebones 286,398,410 

Sitfasts 435 

Skin,  bleeding  eruptions  of 429 

disease,  scaly 428 

diseases  of 419,422 

nervous  irritation  of 428 

structure  of 420 

thread  worms  in 430 

Sleepy  staggers 199 

Slobbering  (ptyalism) 25 

Snake  bites 442 

Softening  of  the  brain 1^6 

Sole,  pumiced ■ 412 

Soro  mouth 25 


557 

Paga 

Sore  throat 9^ 

Sores,  summer,  from  thread  worm 430 

Spasms,  causes  of - .     196 

of  diaphragm 19^ 

glottis 196 

intestines 39 

larynx 100 

neck  cf  bladder 196 

womb 161 

thigh  or  hind  limb 197 

Spavin,  blood  or  bog 322 

bone 287 

occult - 287 

Spaying 143 

Speedy- cuts '■^^^t  36j. 

Spermatic  cord,  strangulated l'*^ 

tumors  on,  from  castration 143 

Spinal  anaemia 206 

compression 2v7 

concussion 203 

congestion  and  hyperemia 206 

cord 1^3 

hemorrhage 207 

nerves 183 

sclerosis 205 

tumors 208 

Splenic  fever 510 

Splints  .., 280 

Sprains,  causes  and  treatment  of 329 

of  the  elbow  muscles 332 

hips 333 

ligaments  and  tendons 365 

loins 355 

shoulder 330 

Springhalt  (stringhalt) 198,352 

Sprung  knees 336 

Staggers,  mad  or  blind 1^55!  210 

sleepy 199 

stomach 30 

Stallions,  castration  of 140 

Staphyloma 208 

Sterility 144 

Stethoscope,  use  of 1*^8 

Stitfness  of  joints  (anchylosis)  from  injuries 325 

Slifle-boue  (patella),  false  dislocation  of 328 

Slings 441 

Stocking 431 

Stomach,  diseases  of 30 

gorged 30 

inflammation  of 33 

ruptu I e  of 32 

staggers 30 

tympanites  of  (bloat) ...-. 31,  41 

Stomatitis 25 

Stone  in  the  bladder , 83, 161 


558 

Page. 

Stone  i  n  the  gall  bladder =  =  = 58 

intestines .„... 44 

kidney 81 

sheath 86 

stomach 43 

ureter 82 

urethra 85 

Strangles 493 

Straw  as  feed 20 

Striughalt 198,352 

Stye 255 

Summer  sores 430 

Sunstroke = 191 

Surfeit 427 

Superpurgation 47 

Suspensory  ligament,  rupture  of 365 

Sweeny 331 

Syncope 233 

Synovial  fluid,  escape  of 323 

sacs,  diseases  of 321 

Synovitis , 321,  323 

Tail,  paralysis  of 202 

Tape-worms 38 

Tarantula,  bite  of 442 

Tear  ducts,  inflamed 257 

Teats,  diseases  of 179, 180 

Teeth,  aching „ 24 

diseases  of 23 

irregularities  of 23 

Teething 23 

Temperature 106 

Tendons,  diseases  of 329 

lacerated 338 

Testicles,  abnormal  number  of. 137 

congestion  and  inflammation  of 135 

degeneration  of 137 

enlarged  and  hardened  (sarcocele) 136 

thickening  of  cord  of  (varicocele) 137 

Tetanus 212 

Thick  wind 103 

Thoroughpin 322 

Thread  worm 429 

Throat,  soreness  of 96 

Thrush 379 

Thumps 134,197 

Ticks , 440 

Tinea  tonsurans 436 

Ti)»  (shoe),  form  of 391 

Tissues,  animal 461 

Toe,  turning  up  of 414 

Toe-cracks 392 

Tongue,  inflammation  of 25 

Toothache 24 

Tracheotomy,  operation  of 98 

Trichiasis 255 


659 

Pago. 

Tuberculosis  (consumptiou) 1-9 

Tumors,  black  pigment 256,  436 

in  vagina  and  pelv  is -• 159 

of  a  nerve • 209 

the  cranium 195 

eyeball 268 

f  CEtus 165 

haw 256 

kidneys ''^ 

nostrils 90 

spermatic  cord 1^3 

spmo 208 

udder 180 

T vrius,  delivery  of 167 

Tympanites '^1 

Ty])hoid  fever  {See  also  Influenza) 476 

Udder,  diseases  of - - 179 

tumors  of ■ 180 

Ulcers  of  cornea --. • 260 

Urachns,  persistent «  = 75 

Uraemia 216 

Urethra,  inflammation  of 76 

stone  in 85 

stricture  of 77 

Urinary  organs,  diseases  of 59 

Urine,  bloody .- 65 

brownish  or  black 66 

discharge  of,  by  navel 75 

examination  of 61 

excessive  secretion  of 62 

sweet  (glycosuria) 64 

Urticaria 427 

Uterus.     (See  Womb.) 

Vachette  clasp  for  toe-  crack 394 

Vagina,  constriction  of 162 

effusion  of  blood  in  wails  of 161 

ruptnrc  of 162 

tumors  in 159 

Vaiicocele 137 

Variola 506 

Vavix  242 

Veins,  dilated  or  varicose 242 

diseases  of 241 

entrance  of  air  into 243 

Vertigo  (megrims) 189 

Volvulus 46 

Warts - 436 

on  the  penis 138 

teats 180 

Water,  amount  required  for  drink 15 

impurities  of 16 

time  for  giving 16 

Wheat  as  feed 21 

Whistling 103 

Wind  colic  (tympanites)  - 31,41 


560 

Page. 
Wind-broken - 129 

Wiudgalls 321,363 

Windpipe • 104 

Withers,  fistulous 457 

Wood-ticks 440 

Womb,  constriction  of  neck  of 1G2 

cystic  disease  of  walls  of , 150 

dropsy  of IfiO 

eversion  of 176 

rupture  or  laceration  of 177 

spasm  of  neck  of 161 

twisting  of  neck  of IGO 

Worms,  intestinal 37 

Wounds  and  their  treatment 447 

by  shoe-calks 366 

gunshot 453 

incised  or  cut 443, 447 

lacerated  and  contused 443,448 

near  the  nostrils 89 

of  the  ekiu 443 

tendons 453 

punctured 443,  450 

Yellows = =  .......  57 

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